Running head: LEARNING THEORIES AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 308003276

How Learning Theories influence Instructional Design

by

Nickesha Senior

A Paper Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements of

EDID 6501 Learning Theories and Instructional Design

Trimester I, 2015-2016

Email: nickesha.seniorwhynn@open.uwi.edu

University: University of the West Indies Open Campus

eTutor: Dr. June Caddle

Course Coordinator: Dr. Deane Ford

Assignment : #3

Due date: April 24th, 2015

LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 2

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to give my understanding of learning theories and instructional

design. The paper gives definitions of terms such as learning, theory, instruction, learning theory

and instructional design. It will highlight what is a learning theory and delve into two main types,

behaviourism and constructivism. It will give the implications of both theories for instruction and

also give examples of such theories in action. It will also highlight what is instructional design

and how each of the named theories is used in an instructional design. It will view learning

theory as the foundation for instructional design. The main purpose of this paper, therefore, is to

address the question, how does learning theory influence instructional design?

Keywords: Learning, theory, instruction, instructional design, behaviourism, constructivism

LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 3

Learning, Theory and Learning Theory

To understand the definition for learning theory let us analyze the two key terms

involved: learning and theory. According to Driscoll (2005) learning is "a persisting change in

human performance or performance potential that results from experience and interaction with

the world". Also De Houwer, Barnes-Holmes & Moors (2013) states that “Learning has been

defined functionally as changes in behavior that result from experience or mechanistically as

changes in the organism that result from experience”. Both definitions refer to learning as

involving a change in behaviour. Not always observable behaviour but changes in the mental

capacity, experience and interaction with the world. Schunk (2012) sees learning as “acquiring

and modifying knowledge, skills, strategies, beliefs, attitudes and behaviour”. Learning can be

seen as a process as well as a product. It can also be deep or on the surface. In the process of

learning each person will have their own individual learning styles which can be Visual, Tactile

or Auditory.

A theory encompasses the ideas of how things are expected to function in varying

situations and contexts. Wacker (1998) in reference to (Sutherland, 1976, p. 9) states that a

theory is “an ordered set of assertions about a generic behavior or structure assumed to hold

throughout a significantly broad range of specific instances”. Therefore, in developing a theory a

theorist makes assumptions and test to see how these hold in varying situations. If they do then

that theory is developed and established. Theories come in many forms and types. They can be

prescriptive, descriptive, predictive or explanatory. Theories involve research, observation and

experience. They serve as guides to researchers and are influential in designing instructional

systems.
LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 4

Reigeluth & CarrChellman (2009) see learning theories as being descriptive which

involves giving a description as to the processes of learning as well as how and under which

conditions learning occurs best. A theory of learning, therefore, provides a format by which

instructional designers create instruction while integrating motivation and socialization. Learning

theories are influenced by rationalism and empiricism which gives the perspectives on how

knowledge originated and how it relates to the environment, Schunk (2012). “Rationalism refers

to the ideas that knowledge derives from reason without recourse to the senses”, whereas

“Empiricism refers to the idea that experience is the only source of knowledge”, Schunk (2012).

On these ideas, the cognitivist, behaviourist and constructivist theories as well as many other

learning theories were formed. Many learning theories date back hundreds of years. The aim of

this paper, however, is to look at some of the theories that directly influence instructional design.

The two theories that will be discussed are the behaviourist theory and the constructivist theory.

Behaviourism

The behaviourist theory encompasses the ideas that learning is seen in observable

behaviour. Therefore, a desired behaviour is repeated until it becomes automatic, Mergel (1998).

Behaviourists see learning as the attainment of new behaviour. This theory has been dated back

as far as Aristotle; however, its tenets are attributed to theorists such as Pavlov, Watson,

Thorndike and Skinner. The main ideas of behaviourists are that the learner is passive and

responds to external stimuli, the learner’s mind is metaphorically referred to as a clean slate and

reinforcement can aid in altering and producing desired behaviour. A great emphasis is placed on

reinforcement and punishment which can be positive or negative in both areas. Unknown (2015)
LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 5

describes Behaviourism as “a worldwide view that operates on a principle of stimuli-response”

as well as “all behaviour caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning)”.

Behaviourists have developed their theory by firstly experimenting on animals which

were further generalized to be applied to humans. This was first done by Ivan Pavlov (1897)

when he presented his findings on conditioning from his experiments on salivating dogs which

lead to the formation of the concept of classical conditioning. Classical conditioning according to

McLeod (2007) claims that “everything from speech to emotional responses were simply

patterns of stimulus and response”. He went on to say that “classical conditioning theory

involves learning a new behavior via the process of association”. This referred to the

combination of stimuli to produce new and learned responses. Classical conditioning was

developed by J.B. Watson (1913) in response to Pavlov’s initial findings.

Watson did his own experiments on classical conditioning through the use of the Little

Albert experiment. In this experiment, he combined a noise with the presence of a white rat until

Albert became afraid of the white rat as a result of his fear of the noise. Eventually once he saw

the white rat he still had the fear as it was conditioned. He was famous for forming the term

behaviourism. Thorndike performed his own experiments and came up with the laws of effects,

laws of exercises and laws of readiness. Thorndike’s theory was dubbed connectivism. In an

article by Mergel (1998) she stated “his theory, connectivism, stated that learning was the

formation of a connection between stimulus and response”. Thorndike believed that when

responses are positive that a sensory link is formed between stimulus and response.

Skinner shared the view of the stimulus-response theory. He then did his own research

and theory on operant conditioning. Operant conditioning according to Mergel (1998) is

LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 6

“voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment”. His theory, however, differed from

the others in that in operant conditioning reflexes are eliminated and the learner operates on the

environment and is rewarded for desired behaviour. His main ideas referenced the terms

reinforcement, extinction and punishment. Skinner was responsible for renaming the theory

Radical Behaviourism which entailed the “experimental analysis of behaviour”, Driscoll (2005).

Spillane (2002) in the Driscoll (2005) states that “the behaviourist perspective, associated with

B. F. Skinner, holds that the mind at work cannot be observed, tested, or understood; thus,

behaviourists are concerned with actions (behaviour) as the sites of knowing, teaching, and

learning” (p. 380). Therefore, it is through observation that a teacher can know if learning has

taken place.

According to Skinner behaviours can be respondent or operant. A respondent behaviour

is seen as being involuntary while operant behaviour is emitted, Driscoll (2005). He had come to

the conclusion that in order to manage behaviour, reinforcement could be used. Positive and

negative reinforcement would be used to strengthen desired behaviour while punishment,

extinction, response cost and timeout used to weaken negative behaviour and shaping, chaining

and fading used to teach new behaviours.

Constructivism

What is known as constructivism today was first established by Bartlet in 1932. Jonasson

(1991) states that constructivists hold the beliefs that “learners construct their own reality or at

least interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is a

function of one's prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret

objects and events”. Constructivists believe that social experiences are bases for ones knowledge.
LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 7

Mergel (1998) on constructivism stated that “learning, therefore, is simply the process of

adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences”. Experiences therefore, play a

very pivotal role in constructivism and learning which requires the learner to make meaning of

information. Unknown (2015) states that in constructivism, “learning is an active, constructive

process”, also that “new information is linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations

are subjective”. Unlike behaviourism, constructivists believe that learners come to the table with

a wealth of knowledge as opposed to being a clean slate. A collection of various contributions

make up the constructivist theory. Some of the persons who contributed to constructivism are

Piaget, Spiro, Bruner and Vygotsky.

Spiro contributed to the constructivist theory with the use of his Cognitive Flexibility

Theory. Driscoll (2005) states that Spiro’s theory “focuses on the nature of learning in complex

and ill-structured domains”. In this theory the emphasis is on one’s ability to adapt in varying

situations, both in accepting the information and processing it. As a result of changing situations

and the demands they present one has to have the ability to on impulse change knowledge as the

need arises. This speaks to the representation of knowledge on various levels and the mental

restructuring process, Spiro & Jehng (1990, p. 165). The transfer of knowledge and skills is of

great focus beyond the available learning situations. Therefore the main idea is to present

information from varying perspectives with the use of a wide range of examples. Therefore, for

learning to be effective, lessons need to be specific and highly dependent on context used. In

keeping with the constructivist view Cognitive Flexibility Theory agrees that learners should be

allowed to construct their own representation of information for effective learning, Culatta

(2013).
LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 8

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory has also contributed to constructivism as he

believes that children’s minds are not empty slates but they are actively processing and accessing

information through assimilation and accommodation. He believes that children are born with a

basic mental structure whether genetic or through evolution and it is on these structures that

further learning takes place, McLeod (2009). Also, according to McLeod (2009), “there are three

basic components to Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory: Schemas which are building

blocks of knowledge, adaptation processes that enables the transition from one stage to another

through equilibrium, assimilation and accommodation and finally the stages of development that

is, sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational.” These three

components are blended in allowing children to move from one stage of development to another.

He believed that development comes before learning.

Another contribution to constructivism is the Bruner and Vygotsky’s interaction and

cultural emphasis component. Driscoll (2005) states that this theory “pointed out the importance

of the contextual nature of learning and the need for learning by discovery and social

negotiations of meaning.” Vygotsky believed that interaction with the community is essential in

development and making meaning. The name of Vygotsky’s theory is the Social Development

Theory. He believed that learning comes before development. His theory is seen as a

sociocultural approach to learning. He therefore generally believes that culture and interaction in

the community are vital to higher order mental processes. In his theory there are four elementary

mental functions namely, attention, sensation, perception and memory.

McLeod (2008) in reference to (Bruner, 1957, p. 234) states that “generic coding systems

that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions” is what the

intelligent mind creates from experience. Bruner’s ideas cognitive development involves three
LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 9

modes of representation: enactive, ionic and symbolic. These modes state how information is

processed and converted to memory. Enactive involves movement, iconic involves visualization

and symbolic involves the use of codes or symbols. In his constructivist view he believed that

effective learning is based on using a progression of the three modes. He believes once

information is properly organized it makes any learning material capable of being learnt by

anyone.

Bruner and Vygotsky agree that the community and adults are essential in a child’s

learning. These persons will do this through scaffolding which is according to (Bruner, 1978)

“steps taken to reduce the degrees of freedom in carrying out some task so that the child can

concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the process of acquiring.”(p.19) This is similar to what

Vygotsky deems as the Zone of Proximal Development which is “the distance between the actual

developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential

development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration

with more capable peers", (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).

Instruction and Instructional Design

Driscoll (2005) describes instruction as “any deliberate arrangement of events to

facilitate a learner’s acquisition of some goal.” Therefore instruction is the process by which

material is presented in order to facilitate learning which differs from learning which can be seen

as a change in performance. In other words, it is through instruction that people learn.

Considering the importance of instruction careful planning and implementation has to take place.

Also, this makes it very important for designers of instruction to make instructional material and
LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 10

information clear and precise. In order for instruction to be seen as being good it should be

valuable to the learner, effective, efficient, understandable and address the matters at hand,

motivating and encouraging as well as involve cooperation of learners. Considering all these

factors it therefore means that instruction and learning play vital roles in instructional design.

Instructional design according to Smith & Ragan (1999) refers to “the systematic and

reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional

materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation.” Therefore instructional design is the

process of creating any form of instructional material especially those involving the use of

technology. Moore et al states that Instructional design consists of “solving instructional

problems by systematically analyzing the conditions of learning and designing a satisfying

learning experience based on this analysis.” Driscoll (2005) states that “the goal of good

instructional designers is to make learning easier, quicker, and more enjoyable.” Instructional

design entails three important areas namely the goal of the instruction, the strategies to be used

and evaluation to continuously improve the product. Morrison, Ross & Kemp (2004) states that

“the goal of instructional design is to make learning more efficient and effective and to make

learning less difficult.”

How Behaviourism is used in instructional design with Examples and Implications for

Instruction

Behaviourists place a lot of emphasis on the environment. To design instruction a

behaviourist will assess the learners to determine the best level to begin instruction as well as the

type of reinforcement that would benefit that particular learner. According to Ertmer & Newby
LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 11

(1993) “The most critical factor, however, is the arrangement of stimuli and consequences within

the environment.” Therefore behaviourist principles help designers in knowing the best type of

stimuli and reinforcement to use when designing instruction. Many current instructional designs

include behaviourist characteristics. Behaviourism has been used for instructional designs since

the 1960’s where it was applied to early audio-visual materials. Recently it has been used in

computer-aided instructions and mastery learning, Ertmer & Newby (1993).

Many of the objectives used in creating instructional material come from behaviourism as

it is created on the basis of showing what behaviour is to be acquired, the conditions to facilitate

it and the conditions showing how well that behaviour is performed, Robert Mager (1962).

Ertmer & Newby (1993) gives various behaviourist principles that are directly relevant to

instructional design. These include “learner analysis, sequencing of instructional presentation

and mastery learning, tangible rewards and informative feedback and simple to complete

sequencing of practice and use of prompts.” Ertmer & Newby (1993) referred to (Schunk, 1991)

in stating that “it is generally agreed that behavioral principles cannot adequately explain the

acquisition of higher level skills or those that require a greater depth of processing (e.g.,

language development, problem solving, inference generating, critical thinking).” Therefore this

is not the only theory used in instructional design.

Classroom behaviour management is one of the many ways that the behaviourist theory is

applied. Examples of Behaviorism (n.d.) give a scenario of a second grade teacher Mrs. Smith,

who is having trouble with poor behaviour in her class. She therefore decided to use a behaviour

management system where at the end of each hour if students followed the rules they got a tally

mark. If these students then achieved five tally marks at the end of the day then Mrs. Smith

draws a star on the board. When it gets to ten stars then the class gets a pizza party.
LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 12

Behaviourism for many years has also been used for military and industrial training. Today these

principles are used in simulations where learners perform tasks and are rewarded with things

such as money for collecting rent and owning businesses and use this money to invest and shop,

in a virtual space.

Skinner himself in 1954 developed and demonstrated a teaching machine through the use

of operant conditioning, where children could answer a question and be given feedback on

whether or not they are correct, (Saettler, 1990). Most modern instructional tools and educational

websites today use this technology. One example of this is with the use of Khan Academy. Khan

academy allows students to explore various topics in varying subject areas and situations.

Students are presented with videos and practice exercises. This site uses a method of

reinforcement and punishment to reward students for work done. If the students got the question

correct they would be given a smiley face and a positive comment. If they got the questions

incorrect then they are given five additional questions. Until they get five in a row correct this

cycle will continue, (Khan Academy, 2015). Many learning tools for children such as those used

by leap frog, use behaviourist principles in creating their software, where learners are praised for

doing well on such activities. These tools include leap readers.

How Constructivism is used in instructional design with Examples and Implications for

Instruction

Constructivists emphasize problem solving in a learning environment based on that

theory. To design instruction a constructivist will firstly assess the learning goals and objectives

of the desired instructional material. Since constructivists believe that students should be actively
LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 13

involved in lessons the designer using this theory will choose methods and strategies that will

assist learners with becoming involved in the lesson. These methods allow the learner to feel like

an expert in the content area. For this theory knowledge, context and experiences are intertwined

thus allowing the learner to construct their own meaning and thus make validations through

social interactions. Constructivists make use of real-life situations, modeling and coaching,

multiple perspectives of data and social negotiation, Ertmer & Newby (1993).

Constructivist methods of instruction include goal-based learning, microworlds and

problem-based learning. Schank (1992) states that “goal-based scenarios are structured learning

programs that can be successful in both the physical and virtual environments.” These are

created to allow learners to develop skills and not to do mere memorization. (diSessa, 2000,

p.47) defines and describes microworlds in saying that “a microworld is a type of computational

document aimed at embedding important ideas in a form that students can readily explore. The

best microworlds have an easy-to-understand set of operations that students can use to engage

tasks of value to them, and in doing so, they come to understanding powerful underlying

principles. You might come to understand ecology, for example, by building your own little

creatures that compete with and are dependent on each other.” Problem-based learning is

according to Savery (2006) “an instructional (and curricular) learner-centered approach that

empowers learners to conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and

skills to develop a viable solution to a defined problem.” In this type of learning the teacher is a

guide to the learning process and there should be questioning on the learning experience at the

end of the lesson.

Some of the benefits of using constructivism in instructional design is that it allows for

student-centered lessons, differentiated instruction, encourages diversity of thought, development

LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 14

of problem solving skills and the use of authentic tasks, Benefits and Criticisms - constructivism

(n.d.). Ertmer & Newby (1993) gives various constructivist principles that are directly relevant

to instructional design. These include “anchoring learning in meaningful context, actively using

what is learned, revisiting content at different times and in rearranged contexts and for different

purposes and from different conceptual perspectives, developing pattern-recognition skills and

presenting alternative ways of representing problems and presenting new problems and situations

that differ from the conditions of the initial instruction.” According to Tam (2000), the main

criticisms of constructivism are that they are costly to develop, many requiring technology to

implement and sometimes being difficult to evaluate. She went on further to say that these issues

can be corrected by designers who are creative and innovative.

Simulations are one of the ways that constructivism is used in instructional technology

and design. There is one such simulation called the “Electronic United Nations”. In this

simulation children do role-play where they communicate on global concerns and develop their

own understanding of what is done and should be done by the United Nations. They will form

their own constitution, economy and judicial system. This allows them to learn and construct

their ideas about leadership, politics, and the importance of law, order and politics, (Stančić,

Seljan, Cetinić, & Sanković, 2007). In a science class the students are posed with a physics

problem. The teacher assists the students in presenting the questions from different perspectives.

The students are then encouraged to reflect on what they already know about the topic. When

any useful information comes out the teacher highlights it and encourages them to try those

avenues. After the students do the experiment they then engage in another discussion concerning

what they have learnt about the concepts from the exercise done, Constructivism as a Paradigm

for Teaching and Learning (2004).

LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 15

How does learning theory influence instructional design

Moore, Bates & Grundling (2002) in reference to (Smith and Ragan, 1999) states that

“instructional designers use established learning theories and principles as problem-solving

procedures (models) to guide them in making decisions about their designs.” Instructional

materials are designed to solve learning problems thus these theories act as a base to show

various ways students can be exposed to knowledge. Theories such as constructivism create

alternative ways of presenting information other than the usual chalk and talk. Ertmer & Newby

(1993) explains that “the designer must have the ability to diagnose and analyze practical

learning problems.” One way to do this is by familiarizing oneself with learning theories which

give solutions to these learning problems. They went on further to support this in saying

“learning theories are a source of verified instructional strategies, tactics, and techniques.” These

strategies, tactics and techniques are what designers of instruction use to develop instruction and

instructional tools.

Ertmer & Newby (1993) referred to (Richey, 1986) in stating “the ultimate role of a

theory is to allow for reliable prediction.” It is through these theories that designers are able to

set their goals, format the problems and objectives and come up with effective solutions. When

designers allow students to be exposed to varying theories it helps to develop their competency

levels. Also, considering that ways of learning are changing over time it is always good for an

instructional design to be diverse. Learners are also different, they have different learning styles

and competency levels therefore instructional design has to be carefully researched through the

use of the theories to be effective and efficient.

LEARNING THEORIES & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 16

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