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STREAMFLOW
STREAMFLOW
STREAMFLOW
Urban flooding leads to developed catchments, which increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to
8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times. Consequently, flooding occurs very quickly due to
faster flow times (in a matter of minutes). Urban areas are densely populated and people living in
vulnerable areas suffer due to flooding. Flood is an overflow of water onto a normally dry land.
The inundation of a normally dry area caused by rising of water in an existing waterway such as
river, stream, or drainage ditch. Pounding of water at or near the point where the rain fell. Floods
can arise in a number of ways that are not directly related to ongoing weather events. Zameer, A.
et.al, (2013)
According to Gupta (2016) flooding in urban areas is caused by intense and/or prolonged
rainfall, which overwhelms the capacity of the drainage system. Cities are densely populated,
and an urban flood affects a large number of people in a very small area. In addition, an urban
flood results in inundation and damage to vital infrastructure, and disruption to roads and
services, thereby affecting all walks of life. It often leads to major economic losses which have
both local and global implications. Outbreak of diseases is yet another hazard after a major urban
flood. Flooding may occur in which the water overtops or breaks levee, resulting in some of the
water to escape its boundaries or it may occur due to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated
ground in an aerial flood. Floods result from a number of basic causes. Excessively heavy or
prolonged rainfall is the most common universal cause of floods. Floods depend on the
morphology and operation of fluvial systems. The combined effect of these two variable controls
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Surigao City often experienced rainy days which worried the Surigaonons. It is a big
concern for the people in Surigao City, especially those areas that are prone to floods. It brings
hassle to the people who lived in the city because it affects the transportation system and causes
flood related illness. In connection, the researchers were prompted to conduct a study in the river
bank located in Kaskag because there is a need to create a defense plan. With this study, the
researchers come up with a structural plan solution to help lessen the sufferings of the residents
living near the river bank. The researchers would give time to conduct a site inspection and
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Conceptual framework of the Study
The Philippines is known as one of the most at risk for disasters including floods. The
Government of the Philippines has created a law to provide solution in resolving problems about
flooding. The Republic Act No. 6613 (1998) serves as the amendment to adopt modern scientific
methods over typhoons in order to prevent destruction by floods, rains and droughts, creating a
council on typhoon moderation and flood control research and development, providing for its
powers and functions and appropriating funds. It is declared to be the policy of the State to adopt
a typhoon moderation and flood control research and development program for moderating
typhoons by reducing their intensity and minimizing the destructive effects of floods, rains and
droughts through scientific means, for the purpose of preventing widespread devastation to
typhoons as to improve means of predicting typhoons and consequential floods that gather and
organize climatologically and hydrological data for flood prevention control. Along with this
DPWH (Department of Public Works and Highways) currently works for the planning, design,
construction and maintenance of infrastructure, especially the national highways, flood control
and water resources development system, and other public works in accordance with national
development objectives of the country. DPWH have set design guidelines, criteria and standards
often called as (DGCS). DGCS presents revisions of the different guidelines introducing the
industry’s best practice design for public infrastructures adoptable to the local requirements
Based from DGCS Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects (2015) the following
requirements are used for hydrologic analysis towards developing a plan for flood control. These
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are illustrated on the Framework of the Study in Figure 1 Schematic Diagram. The first box
represents the Criteria in designing a Flood Control Defense Plan and these include the Design
loads, which is the capacity of a design to the water runoff. Hydraulic analysis, is to analyze and
investigate the water current, water quantity, water pressure and rivers. Structural details, the
ways of which how to properly create a flood Control Plan. Construction methodology planned
requirements, construction constraints, risks, and opportunities. Economy, the benefits of the
people living in that particular area. The second box presents as the basis regarding for the
acceptability level of the Flood Control designed plan such as aesthetic and functionality,
environmental condition, drawing details and location. This are used to critique the evidence of
the design by the experts in the field of Civil engineers. Meanwhile, the output box represents as
the outcome of this study, which is the 400 meter flood control plam for the river bank located in
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OUTPUT
The Acceptability level of
Criteria in designing a the Designed Flood
Flood Control Defense Plan Control Plan
Design loads Aesthetic and A 400 METER
Hydraulic analysis Functionality Flood Control
Structural Details Environmental Plan for Kaskag
Construction Condition River Surigao
Methodology Drawing details
Economy Location
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Statement of the Problem
This study aimed to create a plan and design a flood water control defense structural plan in
Kaskag River. To lessen the rise of the water level (flood) during heavy rainfall. Specifically, the
1.5 Economy
2.4 Location
3. Base from the findings of the study, what flood control design may be proposed?
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Assumption
The researchers presented the flood control structural plan on how to control flood problems
and develop a design for the flood defenses by the presentation of the design, including the
important documents in the investigation of the cause and effect problem, and the construction
cost estimate that will determine the total cost of the study.
The findings of the study would be significant to the community and the neighborhood
that suffers from the rapid increase of flood. Specifically, this would bring benefits to the
following:
Department of Public Works and Highways. It would help them to have an idea about improving
and develop the flood control defense located in Emilio Yuipco Street. This study would be used
The residents living in Emilio Yuipco Street, Surigao City. This proposed structural defense plan
to control the rapid increase of flood is beneficial to them because with this study it would help
to protect the people in the bad effects of flooding such as disruption of services, health impacts
such as diseases, and the convenience of the people in their everyday living.
Future researchers. This study would be used as a reference to develop their future research.
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Scope and Limitation of the Study
The location of the Flood Control Structural Development Plan only covers a 400 meter
river bank located in Emilio Yuipco Street Surigao City. The study is limited by the following
parameters which include Dikes, Revetments, floodway, detention structures, and Cut off
Channel. It focused on the flow of water in the river in that area. This study was conducted
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Definition of Terms
For a better understanding of the study, the following are operationally defined.
Average Riverbed. The average riverbed profile in a cross section survey which is set in order to establish
the elevation of the longitudinal profile and to compute the area of river cross section.
Backwater- The rise of water level that occurs immediately upstream from a structure (dam) or
obstructions in a river to a considerable distance brought about by the presence of structure. Backwater
See Area, Catchment, and Benchmark. A permanent point or monument, whose elevation above a given
119 datum is known, and which is used as a point of reference in the determination of other elevations.
Channel, Open. Any conduit in which water flows with a free surface. Channel in which the stream is not
completely enclosed by solid boundaries and therefore has a free surface subjected only to atmospheric
pressure.
Cross Section, Compound. A river cross sectional form which is composed of low-water and high water
channels. This section is usually applied for large rivers wherein the ratio of the design flood level with
Cut- Off Channel. A channel connecting the beginning and the end of a meandering portion of a stream.
Deepest Riverbed. The lowest elevation in a river section which should be taken into account during
cross-sectional survey as basis for deciding foundation depth of flood control Structure.
Depth of Scour. The depth of materials removed below the set datum.
Design Discharge. The calculated discharge based on the frequency of a return period.
Design Flood Level. The design floodwater elevation of a river to which the flood will rise in relation to
the design flood frequency used (e.g., 1-year, 2-years, 5-years return period, etc) in computing the design
discharge.
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Dike. An embankment, sometimes called levee, constructed parallel to the banks of a stream, river, lake
or other body of water for the purpose of protecting the landside from inundation by flood water, or to
Ditch. An artificial open channel or waterway usually constructed parallel to the dike to drain the
Concave Bend Freeboard. Allowance in height (of a revetment/levee) to arrest overtopping of water due
to wave action.
Groundsill. A flood control structure, usually built downstream of the bridge in order to fix the riverbed
and prevent further degradation. Groundsill is classified into two (2) types, the head type and the non-
head type.
Inner Bend. A curvature and/or a meander stretch of a river wherein low velocity or sometimes no flow
is observed. This is the part of the river where sediment accumulation is formed. Also known as dead
water zone.
Master Plan. The overall description of the project area. Sometimes this is referred to as a basin-wide
comprehensive study of a river system. Master plan explains the flood control policy, strategy, target
Narrow Plain. A plane composed of sand and other fine materials which is formed and
conveyed by the overflowing of flood water from the river running between two mountains.
Reference Point. In a river, the place or location of observation point where the planned
discharge is observed and fixed, Term “Control point” is used in Yellow Book.
Retarding basin. A natural or man-made reservoir designed and operated to reduce the peak
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Return Period. The probability, expressed in years, where a phenomena (i.e., flood, rainfall) of a
Revetment. A flood control structure for protection of the riverbank from collapse brought about
River Bank. River bank is herein defined as the highest point and/or ground elevation of a river
which can contain flood water without flooding the adjacent land areas.
River, Dike. A river where improvement (like dike) has been introduced.
River Non- Dike. A natural river or an improved river where the Design Flood Level is lower
than the ground elevation and no dike/river wall has been introduced.
Run-Off Analysis. Calculation of discharge from rainfall analyzing the basin and river
characteristics.
Safety Level. The design period applied planning and design of flood control projects where
flowing water.
Local Scouring. Scouring concentrated on a specific part or location of the river. Local scouring
Spur Dike. A flood control structure to reduce the flow velocity near the bank by directing the
flow away from the bank and in order to protect the riverbank from collapse.
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CHAPTER II
According to Omar Munyaneza et. al., (2013), the negative consequences of flood on the
socio-economic welfare of the global society cannot be over emphasized. Floods causes lost of
properties and destructions of the environment, these result in several unwanted effects. Almost
every year a series of flood events that have negative impact on the society are recorded. This
Together with the DPWH and Jica Japan International Corporation Agency, the Department
of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) worked with JICA to elevate the river walls, map
hazards, and raise public awareness on flood disasters. Japanese consultant Hitoshi Kin said the
project will be using Japanese technology for river improvement and dredging work. The project
also contributed to the vibrant scenery at the riverside because of the alignment of the dike and
According to the Technical Standards of JICA (2002), the magnitude of flood events has
theoretically no upper limit. The flood control work may be implemented targeting flood event
with high magnitude, safety level with higher return period, but in this case, construction cost is
too expensive and will be difficult to implement because of limited funds, hence the whole areas
with flood problems cannot be totally protected. The return period should be determined based
on the size of catchment area, the degree of importance of the proposed project area and the
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economic viability of the project. Thus, it is necessary to determine the design flood discharge
corresponding to the design flood frequency of the river. It is also necessary to consider the
funds needed for the implementation of the proposed improvement works and the expected
benefits.
Base from the Technical Standards of JICA (2002), there are two (2) methods to
determine the return period of the design discharge of the project. In the first method, the safety
level against flood is determined first and necessary measures are studied from engineering,
socio-economic and environmental viewpoints. In this method, the return period applied to
projects to protect areas and /or basin with similar socio-economic importance is considered. The
assets, etc. This method is mostly applied for Master Plan. The other method is to find realistic
measures for project implementation plan. This method is to select and summarize design flood
frequency on foreign assisted flood control or studies. The return period that maximizes the
The design discharge or the probable discharge is generally computed at the reference
point and other important points of the target river such as the junctions of tributaries and sites of
proposed flood control facilities. The design discharge/probable discharge along the river reaches
is then allocated for the various flood control measures and their attendant costs determined and
evaluated for the most optimum plan. River improvement is a measure to increase the flow
capacity of the existing river channel and includes widening, dredging/excavation, and dike
construction. To attain a large flow capacity, widening of the channel is one of the appropriate
measures. However, in urbanized area, implementation may be difficult due to land acquisition
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problem. Measures to reduce peak discharge at the upper reaches of the urbanized area are
River Characteristics
The channel improvement should attain not only a river channel, which can confine the
design flood discharge, but also a stable channel, which is of less susceptible to river course and
bed changes for easy maintenance. River improvement planning involves analysis of river
characteristics on the existing river channel in order to determine the various factors that can
make the existing river channel stable and unstable. Technical Standards of JICA (2002),
The following parameters are therefore taken into account in the planning procedures.
Hydraulic quantities during flood: flow velocity (V) and attractive force (T*) during
flood for design of river structures. (2) Typical scale of channel: channel width (B), water depth
(H), bed slope (IBM). (3) Floodplain (high-water channel) characteristics: quality of high-water
channel deposits and behavior of high-water channel during flood. (4) Channel alignment: types
of meander, relationship between sand bars and a, location of bank erosion and rate of erosion,
formation of islands. (5) Channel cross section: scour depth, changes in cross section due to
flood. (6)Types of change in longitudinal profile of channel: rate of change, armoring, others
such as small-scale sand wave pattern, sediment discharge, ecosystem, types of human-induced
change in channel characteristics and river scope. It has been found that the river features
mentioned above can be roughly classified and described in terms of (1) mean annual maximum
discharge Am, 2) bed slope IBM and (3) representative grain diameter of bed material dry.
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Mean Annual Maximum Discharge
In Japan, it is found that the bank full discharge, which formed the low-water channel of
compound river channel approximately, corresponds to the mean annual maximum flood, which
is nearly equivalent to 2-year or 3-year return period flood. The scale of low-water channel of an
alluvial river reflects the force of flow water mediated by bed material. Bed material, therefore,
is closely related to attractive force acting on the riverbed. For the rivers in Japan, the
representative grain diameter (dry) has close relation with the square of shear velocity (u*2),
which is equal to the product of gravitational acceleration (g), average water depth (Him) and
bed slope (IBM) of mean annual maximum discharge. The bank full discharge is estimated by
changing discharge of the uniform flow or the non-uniform flow computation method. The
obtained bank full discharge should be compared with the mean annual maximum discharge
Riverbed Slope
Riverbed slope is estimated from the average riverbed elevation. (a) Average Riverbed
Elevation, (i) Identifying the River Element. The right and left bank shoulders, shape, base, etc.
of the river cross-section should be established first. Determine the base of the river by
identifying the bank shoulders, which can accommodate the maximum capacity of the river, the
possible bottom width and the side slopes through survey. From the plotted cross-section, the
average riverbed can be determined. There are many methods used in determining the average
riverbed of which the trapezoidal method is popularly used. Technical Standards of JICA (2002),
Design Flood Level (DFL) means the high water level that corresponds to the Design
Discharge. Basically, the DFL shall be set at about ground height along the river. For non-diked
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rivers, it should not be higher than the ground level. It should not be set above the experienced
maximum flood level because it will induce problems on overflow flooding, tributary
confluence, etc. As much as possible, river should be planned non-diked, because it allows the
sufficient afflux of drainage from the hinterland into the river and the damage potential once
overflow flooding takes place is minimal. On the other hand, if the floodwaters continue to rise,
it induces a large pressure against the Dike Rivers and its damage potential is great once the dike
The peak flood discharge of the main river and a tributary river do not usually occur at
the same time. When the situations of the drainage basins are extremely different between the
main river and tributary and little relationship is considered to exist in the situations of peak
flood occurrence, the backwater of the main river is surmised to be almost horizontal. In
consideration to the relation between the catchments area of the main river and tributary, if the
two peak discharges might appear at same time, the backwater effect should be taken by the
Gradient of Riverbed
The gradient of riverbed, as one of the parameters in the calculation of flow velocity, is
based according to the average elevation of the existing riverbed. However, it varies according to
the classification of river segment that exists in a certain river. Basically, the riverbed should be
set as low as possible for the flood flow, however, too much lowering of riverbed will also cause
a problem of lowering the ground water level. Technical Standards of JICA (2002),
In a large river, when the ratio of the design flood level to the ordinary water level is
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large, the design cross-section form (of a waterway) should be a compound cross section, if
possible. However, it is costly to maintain the low water channel because it is normally planned
with revetment to maintain the waterway. The purpose of setting a low water channel is to
secure and/or fix the waterway stability to prevent meandering, to protect the bank and to
maintain a navigable waterway In a small river, there usually occurs rapid flow resulting to
several changes in watercourse. Under such situation, it is often difficult to clearly set low water
channel and to maintain it, thus, the single cross section is normally adopted. . Technical
The height of a high water channel is to be discussed together with the width of a low
water channel, as it is not preferable to have an excessively high velocity on the high water
channel from the maintenance viewpoint, i.e., to secure the stability of high water channel on the
occasion of a flood. The design velocity on the high water channel should be less than 2 m/sec.
If a large design velocity on the high water channel is inevitable, then bed protection for the high
water channel shall be designed. The width of a low water channel is generally decided with
emphasis on the present situation, and the height of a high water channel is designed by
calculating the flow capacity for the frequency of one to three floods on high water channel per
year, depending on the demand for utilization of high-water channel. . Technical Standards of
JICA (2002),
At a curve of waterway, a drift current occurs during floods, and the water level at the
concave side of the curve rises to cause high velocity locally, threatening to make the waterway
unstable. Considering that dead water zone is caused inside the curve, and that the effective
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cross-section area of the river is decreased due to eddy, river width at said portion shall be
designed about 10% to 20% wider. And at the outer bend side, if scouring and erosion occurred
frequently, cut off channel should be considered. . Technical Standards of JICA (2002),
In planning a river for improvement, it is necessary to set the design discharge (targeted
volume of flood flow). Basically, if the design discharge is not determined, it is difficult to
determine the required width of the river, height of dike, volume of dredging, depth and length of
revetment, etc. Ideally, calculated discharges are obtained based on runoff analysis using
available rainfall data. But, in cases where there are sufficient past annual maximum flood data
on the project site, it will be more convenient to analyze these flood data compared with rainfall
data. For example, there are available annual maximum flood discharge data in a 30-year period,
the largest among these data is approximately the flood discharge for a 30-year to 60-year return
period. In cases where there are already project studies of the area/site, a review is needed to
determine the applicability of data in the study, particularly the design discharge and other
In actual situation, however, it is almost impossible to determine the flood discharge data
at each project site in a considerable number of years, say 30 years, even if there were water
level gauging stations because, if the flood discharge is greater than the existing river capacity,
flood water will overflow and therefore it is very hard to establish the cross section (wetted
perimeter) needed for calculating the flood discharge. In other words, it is very difficult to
estimate the flood discharge based from the water level data. Due to its geographical location,
the Philippines is influenced by weather-producing systems which occur at various space and
time scales. Since the variability of rainfall is more pronounced compared with the variability in
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temperature, the climate is classified according to the rainfall distribution. Based on Corona’s
type of classification, the Philippines has two distinct seasons, the wet and dry which are further
Type I – Two pronounced seasons: dry from November to April and wet during the rest of the
year. Type II – No dry season with a very pronounced maximum rainfall from November to
January. Type III– Seasons not very pronounced: relatively dry from November to April and wet
during the rest of the year. Type IV – Rainfall more or less evenly distributed throughout the
such as air streams, tropical cyclones, the Inter tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), fronts,
easterly waves, local thunderstorm, etc. About 47% of the average annual rainfall in the country
is attributed to the occurrence of tropical cyclones, 14% to the monsoons while 39% are due to
the effects of the other weather disturbances (Climate of the Philippines, R.L. Kintanar, 1984).
The significance of each of these climatic influences varies with the time of the year.
Tropical cyclones are characterized by a low pressure center where winds of varying intensities
blow around this center. The tropical cyclones are the most destructive weather disturbances
because they are accompanied by strong winds aside from voluminous rains. They contribute
largely to the rainfall from May to December and result to annual maximum quantities in many
areas of the country especially in Luzon and the Visayas. . Technical Standards of JICA (2002),
REVETMENT
and/or riverbed degradation. Planning of Revetment, main factor of bank erosion is river flow
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velocity. The external force of erosion depends on the velocity of river flow. Therefore the
determination to provide revetment should be made depending on the river flow velocity,
and river flow direction, etc., with due consideration to the appropriate type of revetment suited
to the existing site condition. On the other hand, revetment should be so design to withstand the
lateral forces in case of high velocity flow, flow attack zone, weak geological condition of
the site condition (river flow direction, topography, geology, and embankment material). In case
of sluggish stream area and budgetary limitation, priority of construction should be conducted on
river bend or at stream attack part or drift stream. This is because the possibility of scour is very
high on these locations comparing with other parts along the river system. Although the
alignment of revetment depends on the channel plan or existing alignment of bank, bank
alignment should be improved with revetment as smooth as possible particularly at bend areas. .
HEIGHT
Basically, the height of revetment is determined by setting it at the Design Flood Level (DFL).
However, the revetment height should be designed up to the top of riverbank or crest of
embankment because there is a possibility of occurrence of floodwaters to exceed the DFL or top
of the bank. If the height of revetment is more than 5.0 meters, berm (banquette) must be
provided and is so designed in order to separate the revetment into segments, as well as in
consideration of site condition (geography and geology). Berm shall be at least 1.0 meter in
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width for maintenance purposes, patrolling the river and stability of the revetment. For a single
berm revetment, the berm is located just above the ordinary water level whenever possible. .
Depth
For a narrow river (less than 50 meters in width) the minimum depth of revetment
foundation should be 1.0 meter below the deepest riverbed elevation of the original riverbed or
design riverbed, because riverbed materials are subjected to erosion during flood times (Figure
6.1.4a). In case of a wide river (more than 50 meters in width), more than 1.0-meter depth of
revetment foundation should be considered. If there is a tendency for riverbed degradation, the
foundation has to be placed deeper than 1.0 meter. . Technical Standards of JICA (2002),
In the case of a wide river where the velocity is generally mild and when the mainstream
course is fixed and flowing very far from the bank required for revetment, (more than 20 meters
away) the foundation may be placed 1.0 meter below from existing toe of the bank (Figure
6.1.4b). However, if the mainstream course has a tendency to changed, the foundation depth
should be determined more than 1.0 meter below the original and designed river bed. . Technical
Standards of JICA (2002), if it is impossible to place the revetment foundation below the original
or designed riverbed in technical viewpoint due to higher low water level, the pile type revetment
Segment Length
The length of one segment of revetment in the longitudinal direction should be less than
50 meters in order to prevent the extension of damage once one section of revetment collapses.
Edge of the segment end shall be adequately filled with joint material (mortar) to connect with
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Slope
The slope of revetment should be gentle as much as possible to for stability purposes. Though
standard slope is horizontal and vertical, respectively, it depends on the natural slope of the
ground before construction. For concrete revetment, a maximum slop shall be observed
considering stability and the resulting residual hydraulic pressure. . Technical Standards of JICA
(2002).
Thickness
The thickness of revetment is generally decided based on the existing flow velocity,
sediment runoff whenever the latter exists or likely to occur in the proposed improvement stretch
(topography and geological conditions, scouring, degradation, etc.), soil and groundwater
pressure at the back of revetment and other associated factors. Minimum overall thickness should
be 300 mm for all types of revetment, except for reinforced concrete type. Prevention of Outflow
of Backfill/Behind Material, One of the main causes of caving in of soil particles behind the
revetment is the flowing out of fine backfill materials through the joints of revetment and weep
holes. This phenomenon leads to the collapse of the revetment. In order to prevent the outflow of
these fine materials, filter cloth, such as geo-textile is necessary to be laid behind the revetment.
However, cost of procuring filter cloth should be considered in planning and design of the
revetment. As alternative, gravel may be used instead. . Technical Standards of JICA (2002),
Generally, most scouring occurs at the upstream and downstream ends of the revetment.
The scouring develops sucking out of backfill materials resulting to the gradual destruction of the
revetment. So, the revetment ends should be strengthened by making it massive/thick and
providing a transition structure like gabion/boulder which are called the “end protection” works
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of the revetment. Technical Standards of JICA (2002,
When river improvement planning and structure designing are planned, it is necessary to
understand the characteristics of river. The shape of the river is formed through the recurring
effects of scouring, meandering and sedimentation as a result of perennial and annual maximum
riverbed gradient, riverbed material and the annual maximum flood. Moreover, the riverbed
materials can be roughly assessed through the riverbed gradient too. It means that the riverbed
gradient information can roughly provide the phenomenon of the stream and river characteristics.
Therefore, when the river improvement planning is discussed as a first step before river structure
could be designed, it is necessary to undertake the river survey and the actual river (riverbed)
gradient. However, since actual cross sectional survey as well as riverbed gradient determination
from the result of the said survey is difficult, the importance of understanding the river
determining the river characteristics. Each segment of the river classified by the gradient of
riverbed and has its own characteristics. The characteristics pertain to the riverbed material,
tractive force of flow during flood, river width and water depth during ordinary flood, etc. In the
same segment, the roughness and/or sand bar conditions are almost the same. So it means that
the velocity of flow and phenomena of scouring are almost the same range in the same segment.
It is very useful to make a river planning and the designing of structure, if the river segment of
target stretch for improvement is identified. Availability of past plan and design of structure in
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the same segment may be of useful references. Longitudinal profile of the river gradually
becomes gentle from the upstream towards the downstream. It has been thought that the friction
action of the riverbed materials makes them smaller. However, the longitudinal profile and the
size of riverbed materials are changed in a certain point rather than gradually changing. The
riverbed materials such as gravel disappear in a certain area, and the rough sand appears. There
is no attractive force to move the gravel in the downstream at that point where the riverbed
gradient is gentle, and gravel accumulates in the upstream point. Moreover, the fine sediment is
produced from the mountain area and flows downstream, so it does not remain so much in the
The safety of river structure against scouring phenomena depends upon the river
characteristics by segment. The main factor of external forces that destroy the dikes and banks is
flow velocity. This flow velocity depends upon the river alignment, longitudinal and cross
section profiles and types of riverbed materials. The countermeasure required to overcome this
external force is by considering change/adjust the riverbed gradient. Thus, primarily when the
river improvement plan is discussed, the classification of each river segment should be
Improvement Stretch
To protect the flood prone area, a continuous river improvement plan must be formulated
along the stretch/portion wherein the susceptible area is considerably wide. The discontinuity of
the improvement plan might still cause inundation. However, the stretch for necessary
improvement could be connected to another non-required improvement stretch provided that the
existing discharge capacities between these sections are different even if the latter (non-required
Improvement stretch) is included in the flood prone area. The improvement stretch shall be
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decided considering what flood control countermeasures are to be undertaken to resolve the
problems relating to inadequate flow capacity, existing obstruction of flow, scouring, and so on.
Generally, the right and left banks should be planned in a single river improvement plan.
However, if the priority area to be protected is only one side of the river especially in case of
large rivers where sometimes the opposite bank has no existing land use, then this vital area that
The common improvement works on existing river are widening, dredging, construction
of dikes, and so on. Although the main method to increase the flow capacity is to widen the river
width, construction of floodway must also be considered if it is very difficult to widen the
existing river due to the large-scale congestion of houses and commercial establishments
especially in urban areas, and the site area to be acquired for floodway is comparatively
economically and easy to secure. If there is a problem on the existing land use and flow
disruption because of sharp meandering, then cut off channel shall be discussed. Several routes
shall be set by combining the portions of existing river use and the portions of new river
excavation, and for the respective routes, the topographic and geologic reasonableness,
considerations for the present and future land uses, administrative district, irrigation and drainage
systems, influence to groundwater level, countermeasure against inner waters, influence to the
upper and lower reaches of the planned section, project cost for improvement, maintenance after
improvement shall be taken into account to select the best route. Technical Standards of JICA
(2002),
For setting the improvement route, the following matters shall be essentially followed:
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Alignment must be set smoothly with minimal meanderings. As much as possible, the
improved river channel route should be far away from a densely populated area. The
velocity rivers shall be planned to have many open dikes. Technical Standards of JICA (2002).
Floodway
along the existing river by excavating a new manmade waterway directly discharging into the
sea, lake, or another main river, in order to avoid the drastic widening of the existing river or to
The floodway requires big amount of project cost, and since floods are going to be introduced in
an area which is almost free from the damage of floods from the past, then comparative design
must be employed for planning under the sufficient pursuit of economic warrant and safety as to
the flood flow and with comprehensive discussion made on the following points:
(1) The diverted floodwater of the design flood discharge to the floodway is generally
decided by assuming several separation ratios to calculate the improvement costs, and
by finding the combination to minimize the total of all the improvement costs for the
(2) The floodway is decided to be as linear as possible, but it should be constructed far
away from a densely populated areas. Moreover, sufficient attention should be observed
(3) The floodway should be decided whether it is to be made by means of natural diversion
or by any structures such as fixed weir, gate, etc. These structures should also be
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planned whether they are to be constructed at the main river, at the floodway itself or
(4) In case of cut off channel, the longitudinal profile of floodway is generally steeper than
the upper and lower reaches of the existing river. Furthermore, variation of river flow is
method of reducing the flood energy should be sufficiently discussed as well as the
safety measures for structures by deepening the embedment of bridge piers, revetments,
(5) For the cross sectional form, the compound cross section shall be employed as
(6) The designed floodway for flood diversion is not ordinarily used for low flow diversion
in order to keep the water use of the main river especially during non-flood phase, but
for other cases other than flood. The river function should be discussed such as to
For excavating new river such as a cut off channel or a floodway, any countermeasure
against inner waters should be sufficiently taken into consideration to prevent problem of inland
flood. Also, sufficient investigation must be made beforehand regarding groundwater to avoid
conspicuous troubles. Therefore, the drainage system particularly in the drainage basin along the
river must be sufficiently planned. With respect to the diked river, countermeasures against
inland waters shall be examined so as not to impair the functions of existing drainage channels.
conditions of the upper and lower reaches. In this case, the runoff from the drainage basin of the
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new river shall be included in the calculation of the design flood discharge. Cut-off channel is a
meandering. Conspicuous meandering are river stretches with insufficient flow capacity where
bank collapse is apparently inevitable. Countermeasure along the said meandering requires
meticulous planning considering the behavior of the river. On the other hand, significant
maintenance is expected when flood control structures are constructed on the meander portion.
In a river with stable riverbed in the state of meandering, the steep gradient is considered
to break the stability, causing riverbed degradation to endanger structures because of increased
velocity in the upper reach, and also causing the rise of riverbed because of deposition caused in
the lower reach. For this reason, planning is not only confined at the cut off section, rather at the
same time, it is necessary to consider the long stretch in the upper and lower reaches such as the
improvement of riverbed gradient, alignment and cross section forms of the waterway. For this
purpose, basic investigation must be made as to bed variations such as form of waterway,
riverbed gradient, bed materials, river regime and the newly designed riverbed variation must be
Open dikes should be constructed along wide rivers where high flow velocity exists
during flooding time in order to confine as much as possible the floodwaters into the main
stream. To minimize disasters due to excessive floods, deposition at riverbeds, breaking of dikes,
etc, open dikes shall be arranged positively in a rapid river, particularly of steep gradients, as far
as they do not provide a hindrance in view of land use in the hinterlands. Technical Standards of
JICA (2002).
Alignment of River
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For deciding the alignment of river, the following points must be comprehensively examined:
1. Generally, all cross sections where sufficient river width exists should be considered by
retarding effect.
2. During the event of floods, the direction of river flows and positions of flow attack zones
along the river should be analyzed cautiously in order to devise the suitable alignment for
the floodwater to flow with a little resistance as much as possible. Generally in most
cases, rapid rivers are almost linear. Medium to small rivers shall avoid sharp bend,
rather their alignments should be generally smooth. In large rivers, flow attack zones can
be fixed in order to omit the revetments on the other side. In this case, most designs are
worked out with mild bends for large rivers with meandering course.
3. The position of new flow attack zone shall be decided in consideration with the present
river course, topographic and geologic features in the hinterland, and conditions of land
use. House-congested areas and the closing places of old rivers, etc. shall be avoided as
practically as possible.
4. At the point of sharp bend, it is necessary to offset the bend as well as the river width into
a mild course so that flow velocity towards the flow attack zone could be decelerated or
slackened.
The bank alignment of the low flow channel in a compound cross section should be
normally parallel in the alignment of the dike whenever it is linear or slightly curved. But in
other cases, its alignment is not parallel to those of the banks, as it is decided generally in
consideration of the channel maintenance, low flow channel uses, i.e., navigational, irrigation
purposes, etc. It is necessary to arrange/set the banks as far as possible from the dikes. Technical
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Standards of JICA (2002),
The longitudinal profile shall be determined according to the average elevation of the
existing riverbed and not on its centerline. This is the safest method in setting up the said river
dredging/deepening, it will return to its original profile. The deepest riverbed should be indicated
in the longitudinal profile because this will be the one of the important parameters in deciding
the design foundation depth of revetment. In order to increase the discharge capacity, cross
sectional area has to be improved through widening, but without any revision/changing of the
longitudinal profile. However, the Design Flood Level (DFL) shall primarily be determined
before deciding the required longitudinal profile and cross section form of the river channel.
1.5 ECONOMY
The projects under the DPWH area of responsibility shall be subjected to economic evaluation to
determine their viability and justify their implementation and inclusion under the DPWH
Infrastructure Program. The proposed projects shall pass the following criteria to be judged if it
is economically feasible:
The NPV, B/C, IRR are economic indicators estimated by comparing the present value of
benefits against the present value of project economic cost discounted at 15% discount factor
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NPV = (Present Value of Benefits)-(Present Value of Cost)
IRR = Discount Rate that will make the Present Value of Benefits equal to Present
Value of Cost
In Technical Standards of JICA (2002) Flood control projects for wide range area with
increasing target flood frequency level are evaluated by estimating the reduction in damages
brought about by the project as benefits and comparing it against the economic cost including
maintenance cost of the project considering the implementation period and economic life of the
project.
Small-scale flood control projects, especially projects for preventing bank collapse (erosion and
scouring) and harmful degradation of riverbed are fundamental flood protection works. In this
case, Economic Analysis is not necessary. Project benefits are estimated as the reduction of
damages that will result with the construction of flood control facilities. There are two
Flooding Damages and Flooding damages consist of direct and indirect damages.
Direct damages within the flood prone area are estimated from damageable value of
properties multiplied by damage ratio depending on the flooding condition. Damageable value of
properties can be estimated as the unit assed value of properties by land classification (i.e.
infrastructure can be assumed as 50% of the damage to residential or commercial area. Indirect
damages including income loss and emergency costs due to flooding can be estimated as 5 to
50% of the total direct cost, which depends on the condition of flood prone area.
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Economic Cost
The economic cost, which is used for comparative studies and evaluation of project from
economic viewpoint of the project, can be estimated as 86% of the financial cost. Where, the
14% reduction covers taxes, profits and other indirect costs. The cost of Right-of-Way will not
be included in the economic cost. Economic Life of the Project, The economic life of flood
Bank stabilization and river training is a specialized field requiring familiarity with the
stream and its propensity to change, knowledge of the bed load and debris carrying
characteristics of the stream, and experience and experimentation at similar sites on the same or
similar streams. Attempts at localized control should be avoided where the river is in the midst of
changes by studying long reaches. Regardless of the size of the stream and the control measures
used, consider stream response to the installation of the measure. For instance, bank stabilization
at a crossing can cause scour in the bed of the channel or redirect the current toward an otherwise
To a large extent, design is an art, and many questions concerning the relative merits of
various measures have not been definitively answered. General principles for the design and
The cost of the protective measures should not exceed the cost of the consequences of
Base designs on studies of channel morphology and processes and on experience with
compatible situations. Consider the ultimate effects of the work on the natural channel
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combination of on-site inspection, aerial reconnaissance, or aerial photographs taken
Inspect the work periodically after construction with the aid of surveys to check results
Design Flood
The design flood for bank protection works and dikes is typically determined at the
master plan stage. However, where a master plan has not been undertaken, then a design flood
environmental and social. In determination of a design flood for a project, a risk based approach
Likelihood refers to the frequency of the flood event, such as a 100 year flood or a 5 year flood.
Consequence refers to the implications of the inundation occurring, and may include the
economic damages of inundation and potential risk to life. These factors should be weighed up
Where protection of new assets or new developments is to be constructed, then the design
flood may be based on the design flood for development of that asset, so as to provide
suitable protection. For example, it may be appropriate to adopt a larger flood for urban
areas where inundation will cause potential risk to life and property, and smaller flood for
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For protection of existing assets, then the design flood may be a level that is achievable
Where a revetment or spur dike is adopted, then the aim may be to alleviate more
works and protection one area of land, that another area of land is not significantly impacted as a
Construction of a levee to protect a village or urban area. The levee removes the
floodplain storage, and results in increases in flood levels for a village on the other side
of the river.
Construction of spur dikes to protect against erosion issues on the outer bend of a river.
As a result, the inner bed starts to erode, placing properties on the inner bend at risk.
Therefore, any assessment of potential flood control works will need to consider changes to the
flood behavior in the surrounding areas. Ideally, this should be undertaken as a part of a wider
flood control master plan, as defined in FCSEC (2010). However, where this is not available, the
following is recommended:
No more than a 50 mm change in flood levels on urbanized areas, and planned future
urban areas
No change in the design flood immunity of critical infrastructure such as highways and
bridges
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Dike/Embankment/Levee
Basic Concept
A dike is an embankment or levee constructed along the banks of a stream, river, lake or
other body of water for the purpose of protecting the landside from overflowing floodwater by
confining the stream flow in the regular channel. Internationally, a dike may be referred to as a
“dike”, “levee” or “embankment”, and the terms can generally be used inter changeably.
It is generally preferred to consider dikes/ levees as a last resort alternative for river
improvements. Key considerations for the design of a dike include: Difficulty of implementation
due to land acquisition (right of way) or existence of important facilities such as ports or harbors.
Note that in these cases a concrete retaining wall type dike might be adopted. Maintenance and
access considerations. Potential for breach of the dike, and the subsequent damages as a result.
Overtopping of the dike in floods larger than those planned. Local tributary and drainage
problems, and the need to allow for these in the design. Technical Standards of JICA (2002)
Types of Levees
Levees can be applied for the protection of urban areas or agricultural areas. In general,
given the lower value of agricultural land, and the lower impact from resulting inundation, urban
levees tend to be the most common type. Agricultural levees may be used in some situations to
reduce more frequent, nuisance flooding that can impact on the use of the land. Location and
Alignment The alignment and location of a levee should consider: The alignment should be as
straight as possible, as sharp curves are subject to direct attack from flow and should be avoided.
Where there is sufficient space, the embankment should not be close to the river banks otherwise
constructed together with a revetment. The embankment should be well away from the estimated
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meander belt of the meandering river. Valuable tillable land, wells and historical or religious
When a dike is designed in rural or undeveloped areas, consideration should be made for
future development potential of that land. Reduction of the existing stream area shall be avoided
as much as possible. The new dike shall be designed to protect the affected flood prone areas. In
consideration of the stability of the structure, the dike alignment shall avoid unstable peat and
muck, weak subsoil, and loose sand foundation to prevent settlement. Technical Standards of
JICA (2002),
Materials
Dikes generally consist of soil and sand. The advantages of using earth materials are:
Economical because of the availability of materials. It will last for a long period of time. It could
be easily mixed with the ground materials. It follows the ground deformation/settlement of
foundation. If the scale of flood control plan is increased in the future, it is easier to improve.
There are many potential causes of damage and breaching of dikes. A general overview
note that each individual case may be different and consideration of the specific issues will need
structures in rural areas are implemented to protect lives and public/private properties in
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populated areas (barangays and municipalities) along rivers and streams, flood-prone areas and
areas of economic value (i.e. farmlands). Rural areas have been experiencing increased flooding
for the last ten years. The increased incidence of flooding is due to several reasons, ranging from
increased precipitation due to climate change, to deforestation that decreases the water storing
capacities of forests and watersheds; to siltation and decreased hydraulic capacity of rivers;
storm surges example of a river wall or riverbank slope protection used as a flood control
structure and to degradation of riverbanks which results in communities being more susceptible
to and affected by overflow flooding. Applicable and appropriate small-scale rural flood control
a. Increasing river flow capacity through use of dikes, levees, widening of sections
b. . Reduction of peak flood discharge through the use of small scale dams (although
dams are mentioned because they fall specifically under this category, use of
dams must be further discussed with the RPMO as they are highly technical and
basins (these can also be considered as rain collector areas) and floodways
c. Prevention of riverbank collapse by the use of river revetments, spur dikes, bio
e. Lateral water transport from flood prone areas to discharge areas through drainage
canals
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A further explanation of the structures mentioned is: a. Dikes and levees are constructed parallel
to the banks of a stream, river, lake or other body of water for the purpose of protecting the land
side from inundation by flood water, or to confine the stream flow to its regular channel. These
are elevated fill or wall structures that are intended to control a designed maximum water level.
These structures can be made from earth, reinforced concrete, or stone masonry (riprap) b.
Dredging is the deepening of a riverbed by the removal of targeted materials. This increases the
hydraulic capacity of the specific river section and decreases the possibility of rivers bursting
their banks. Dredging is usually accomplished by the use of heavy equipment and typically
requires earth-moving equipment. There should be particular attention given to disposal sites and
the siltation of downstream waters. Prevention of riverbank collapse (Technical Standards and
c. Small-scale dams Small-scale dams are man-made structures that are meant to hold back water
flow from rivers and streams. They allow for water to be kept and released slowly after the peak
flow has subsided. These types of dams are usually made of earthen materials and rock and are
designed as gravity dams (other dam types are not considered as they are too large for the small-
scale rural context of KC). Dams may also be built as a means of impounding water for irrigation
d. Retarding basins and rain water collectors (SWIP) Retarding basins for KC projects are
typically designed in the form of rainwater collectors or small water impounding projects
(SWIP). These are water harvesting and storage subprojects for soil and water conservation,
flood control, supplemental irrigation, inland fishery and recreation. Specific to the Philippines
and to KC, the SWIP is an earthen dam or shallow impoundment structure built across a narrow
depression or valley to harvest and store rainfall and run-off for multiple uses. A SWIP has a
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maximum height of 30 meters. e. River revetments A river revetment is a sloping structure of
stone or concrete surfacing. They are used on riverbanks or vulnerable steep slopes in such a way
as to absorb the energy of incoming water and prevent excessive erosion or degradation that may
lead to flooding. Spur dikes are subprojects built at an angle or perpendicular to the riverbank.
These structures can be above or below water and have functions of retarding velocity near the
riverbank and deflecting the main flow from the levee. Spur dikes reduce the force of storm
water and are usually built as part of a system for managing critical riverbanks.
CHAPTER 3
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METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents how the researchers conducted the study. It determines the methods
on how the proponent collected some relevant information and data that would serve as reference
in developing the designed Flood Control located in the river bank near Emilio Yuipco Street.
This chapter also contains the research design, participants, instrument, data gathering procedure
Research Design
The study will employ a descriptive research design with a developmental approach; the
researchers will be interacting with the participants through evaluation surveys to collect the
needed information. It is also considered as developmental because the designs will undergo a
series of trial and error, where changes and improvement are being looked into. The secured
design is very appropriate because the researchers will develop a design with references of past
Participants
The participants involved in this study were the professional civil engineers. They are
chosen because of their expertise, wide knowledge and capabilities in terms of designing
effective flood control in river banks. They are the one to critique the presented flood control
design. Purposive Sampling technique would be used in choosing the participants in gathering
the data. Evaluation forms would be provided to the participants to critique the presented design.
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Instrument
The researchers used research made questionnaire for evaluation. The evaluation form was
presented to the researcher’s adviser for comments and suggestions that would improve the
study. The researchers conducted a summary addressed to the civil engineers. Through
evaluation, the relevant information that was obtained from the participants was used to make the
The researchers will gather information from the professional civil engineers, at the
implementation of the project by finalizing the acquired data for the project. The researchers will
make sure that everyone will agree on what are the things that need to improve or develop for the
project details. The researchers will focus on the parameters that are related and covers the study.
After gathering the necessary information, they will need the help and assistance of the experts in
the field of engineering for the design of the flood control structure.
Data Analysis
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Qualitative information will be used to this study and quantitative data shall be analyzed
Hydraulic Analysis. This will be used in designing the required flood control structural design
Mean and Standard Deviation. This will be used to present the result of the participant’s
evaluation about the flood control structure in terms of the specification of the design.
Description
Very Acceptable
Moderately
acceptable
Not Acceptable
Ethical Consideration
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The researchers must strive for honesty in all aspects and do not fabricate, falsify, or
misrepresent the data. Researchers must not deceive colleagues, research sponsors, or the public.
In order to collect the needed data and relevant information, the researchers must have
professional relationship with the participants and have respect to its confidentiality to avoid
tampered data and information. Researchers must submit a letter of consent to the DPWH, and
barangay office for the purpose of the study and receive approval consent when conducting a
survey to the professional civil engineer. The researchers must be very careful upon doing the
research. They must examine their work critically in order to avoid mistakes. Respect for
intellectual property is used to give acknowledgement and to give credit to the owner, and also to
avoid plagiarism.
REFERENCES
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