EE 124N

Industrial Electronics and

Measurements
 Course Outline

1.Semiconductor diodes
2. Diode Circuit Applications
3. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
4. Field-Effect Transistors (FET)
5. Operational Amplifiers
 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS:
Ge, Si, AND GaAs
• The construction of every discrete
(individual) solid-state (hard crystal
structure) electronic device or
integrated circuit (IC) begins with a
semiconductor material of the highest
quality.

1st IC (phaseshift oscillator,

invented Jack S. Kilby in 1958.
 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS:
Ge, Si, AND GaAs
• Semiconductors are a special class of
elements having a conductivity
between that of a good conductor and
that of an insulator.
• 2 classes: single-crystal and compound
 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS:
Ge, Si, AND GaAs
• single-crystal: • Compound:
– germanium (Ge) – gallium arsenide (GaAs)
– cadmium sulfide (CdS)
– silicon (Si)
– gallium nitride (GaN)
repetitive crystal – gallium arsenide
structure phosphide(GaAsP)
are constructed of
Used most two or more
frequently in semiconductor
electronics: materials of different
atomic structures.
Ge, Si, and GaAs
 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS:
Ge, Si, AND GaAs
• 1939- diode (discovery); 1947- transistor
Mat. Pros Cons
Ge  used exclusively  low reliability
(1939)  easy to find  sensitivity to changes in temperature
 available in large quantities
 Low manufacturing cost

Si  less temperature sensitive  Lower speed of operation

(1954)  One of the most abundant materials
on earth
 cheaper to manufacture
 highly efficient design strategies.

GaAs  Higher speed of operation (up to 5  more difficult to manufacture at high

(1970s) times of Si) levels of purity, was more expensive,
 base material for new high-speed,  and had little design support in the
very large scale integrated (VLSI) early years of development
 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS:
Ge, Si, AND GaAs
• Ge - availability and low manufacturing costs
• Si - leading semiconductor material for electronic
components and Ics
- fundamental building block for Intel’s new line
of processors.
Atomic structure of (a) silicon; (b) germanium;
and
(c) gallium and arsenic.
 Covalent bonding of the silicon atom.

This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons, is called

covalent bonding.
Covalent bonding of the GaAs crystal
• Energy band diagram for an unexcited atom in a
pure (intrinsic) silicon crystal.
There are no electrons in the conduction band.
• An intrinsic Si crystal at room temperature has sufficient
heat (thermal) energy for some valence e’s to jump the
gap from the valence band into the conduction band,
becoming free electrons (or conduction electrons).
• When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy
(hole) is left in the valence band within the crystal.
• intrinsic carriers - free electrons in a material
due only to external causes
• relative mobility - the ability of the free
carriers to move throughout the material
• Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron
loses energy and falls back into a hole in the valence band.
 Intrinsic
n-type

Extrinsic
“Doping” (n or p
type)
Majority carriers: electrons

Impurities
p-type

• Pentavalent: atoms with 5 valence

electrons such as arsenic (As),
phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), and
antimony (Sb). (Donor impurities)
• Trivalent: atoms with 3 valence electrons
such as boron (B), indium (In), and
gallium (Ga). (Acceptor impurities)
Majority carriers: holes
 pn junction develops
at the boundary
between the two
regions and a diode is
formed

depletion region formed

by the 2 layers of + and -
charges
Barrier potential (or threshold voltage)
• potential difference of the electric field across the
depletion region
• amount of voltage required to move electrons through
the electric field.
• 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge at 25oC.
 Water Analogy of Diodes

• When water pressure on left overcomes the restoring

force of spring, the gate is opened and water is allowed to
flow to the right .
• When water pressure is from right to left, the gate is
pressed against the solid stop and no water is allowed to
flow.
• Spring restoring force is analogous to 0.7V needed to
forward bias a Si diode.
 Diode

• 2 lead semiconductor that acts as a one way gate

to electron flow
• allows current to pass in only one direction
• p-side is called anode (+)
• n-side is called cathode (-)
Forward Bias
Requirements:
1. negative side of VBIAS
is connected to the n
region of the diode
and the positive side
is connected to the p
region
2. VBIAS > VBARRIER
3. Narrow depletion
region
Reverse Bias
Requirements:
1. negative side of VBIAS
is connected to the p
region of the diode
and the positive side
is connected to the n
region
2. Wider depletion
region
 Reverse Breakdown

• Reverse current is very small (negligible)

• when VBIAS > Breakdown voltage the reverse current
will drastically increase  could permanently
damage the diode
• Add series-limiting resistor to limit the current
Voltage-Current Characteristic of a Diode

• V-I Characteristic Curve for Forward-Biased diode

Voltage-Current Characteristic of a Diode

• V-I Characteristic Curve for a Reverse-Biased diode

Voltage-Current Characteristic of a Diode

• Complete V-I Characteristic Curve for a diode

Bias Connections
 Diode Approximations

• Ideal Diode Model

 Diode (Practical Model)

Practical Model of a diode includes the “barrier” or “threshold” potential

 Diode (Complete Model)

The most accurate approximation (includes the barrier potential, small forward dynamic
resistance (𝑟′𝑑 ) & large internal reverse resistance (𝑟′𝑅 ) provides a path for the reverse current
 Example 1

(a)Determine the forward voltage & forward current for the diode in
Fig. (a) for each of the diode models. Also find the voltage across
the limiting resistor in each case. Assume 𝑟′𝑑 = 10Ω at the
determined value of forward current.
(b)Determine the reverse voltage & reverse current for the diode in
Fig. (b) for each of the diode models. Also find the voltage across
the limiting resistor in each case. Assume 𝐼𝑅 = 1μA.
 Three Models
Forward Bias

Ideal Practical Complete

Reverse Bias

Ideal Practical Complete

Solution (a)
Solution (b)
 Example 1

Additional Question:
Assume that the diode in Fig. (a) fails open.
What is the voltage across the diode & the
voltage across the limiting resistor?
 Course Outline

1. Semiconductor diodes

2.Diode Circuit Applications

3. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
4. Field-Effect Transistors (FET)
5. Operational Amplifiers
Series-Diode Configurations

Diode material Threshold

voltage (VK)
Si 0.7 V
Ge 0.3 V
GaAs 1.2 V
 Series-Diode Configurations
Approximate:

Ideal:
Series-Diode Configurations

Where VD = VK (threshold voltage)

 Series-Diode Configurations
Example 2

Determine VD, VR, and ID

 Series-Diode Configurations
Example 3

Determine VD, VR, and ID when the diode is reversed.

 Series-Diode Configurations
Example 4 Determine VD, VR, and ID.

Note: The applied voltage is insufficient to turn the

Si diode “on”.
Parallel & Series-Parallel Configurations
Example 5 Determine V0, I1, ID1, and ID2
Note: Both diodes are
in the “on” state.
END