Lesson 12 Portland Cement Plants Lesson Goal and Objectives Goal To familiarize you with processes at cement plants, the pollutant emissions produced by them, and the devices used to reduce these emissions. Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1, recognize the process steps necessary to produce cement. 2. recall the pollutant emissions resulting from the production of cement. ‘5. list the major pollutant emission points (if any) in each process step involved in cement production. 4. recall the control device used to reduce pollutant emissions at a given emission point. _ Introduction Portland cement, commonly called “cement,” is a fine, powdery material. When mixed with water. cement forms a paste that hardens to form a rocklike mass. When rock, gravel, or sand are mixed with the cement, the resultant mixture is termed concrete. When made into concrete, Portland cement resembles the building stone that is quarried on the isle of Portland, England: hence. its name. Cement is manufactured using a combination of various raw materials such as limestone, cement rock, sand, iron ore, clay, and shale. Most of these raw materials (stones) are mined at or near the cement plant. These raw materials are then crushed to the proper size and blended to give the Proper proportions of chemical compounds, mainly silica, alumina, and calcium oxide. The blended mixture is then sent (0 a kiln where it is heated to a very high temperature. Heating chemically changes the raw mix to clinker—a gravel-like material. Gypsum is added to the clinker, and this mix ture is ground into Portiand cement. Cement plants are referred to as either wet or dry. The processes are very similar, except that in the wet process, water is added to the raw materials before or during grinding. The addition of water forms a slurry, which helps to ensure a more uniform blend of materials. However, almost all new or planned cement plants will use the dry process, since it can be twice as energy efficient as can the wet process (EPA. 1979) 121Producing Cement ‘The manufacturing of Portland cement can be divided into four steps: quarrying and crushing of raw materials, grinding and blending of raw materials, cement clinker production, and . finish grinding and packaging. Cement rock, limestone, clay, shale, and other stones are usually mined from open-pit quarries at or near the cement plant, These raw materials are then transported to the primary crusher by dump trucks, rail cars, or conveyors (Figure 12-1). The primary crusher reduces the rocks to diameters ranging from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 in.). After the rock is broken by the primary crusher, it is con- veyed to a secondary crusher where the rocks are crushed to diameters from 2 to 2.5 cm (X to 1 in.). Figure 12-1. Quarrying and crashing operations. Rocks from the secondary crusher are conveyed to raw material storage bins. Each type of raw material (rocks) is stored in a separate storage silo. From storage they will be sent to grinding and blending operations. 12-2‘The second step is the preparation (grinding and blending) of the raw materials for feeding into the kiln (Figure 12-2). The raw materials are ground to approximately 0.01 cm (0.029 in.) either before, during, or after blending. The preparation process depends on whether the cement is pro- duced by the wet or the dry process, In the dry process, as shown in Figure 12-2a, the raw materials are proportioned onto a conveyor and put through air separators (cyclones) where they are dried by heated air. The air separators allow the proper-sized material to be pumped to the dry mixing and blending silos. Any oversized material is sent to the grinding mill and then recycled. saw material sorage Figure 12-22. Grinding tnd blending operntions—dry proces. 123In the wet process, Figure 12-2b, water is combined with the raw materials in the grinding mill, forming a slurry. After grinding, the slurry is then screened (oversized material is sent back to the grinding mill) and stored in huge, open tanks. The advantage of the wet process is that it is easier to produce a more uniform (homogeneous) mixture of the raw materials. The big disadvantage, though. is thar much more heat must be used in the kiln to evaporate the added water. Figere 12-2. Grinding and blending opernions—wet proces. 12-4In the third step, Figure 12-5, the blended feed material (either wet or dry) is fed into the kiln and heated. The kiln is fired with coal, oil, or gas at the opposite end from where the feed is introduced. The hot combustion gas flows countercurrent to the feed material, exposing the feed to higher and higher temperatures. Heating this material to above 1595°C (2900°F) causes a chemical reaction (called fusion) to occur, and a new mineralogical compound, cement clinker, is produced. Cement clinker is a round, marble sized, glass-hard material that forms at approximately 1595°C. At the flame end of the kiln, the clinker drops from the kiln into a cooler, where its temperature is quickly reduced. From the cooler, the clinker is stored in tanks for later use or sent directly to the finishing mills Tigre 123, Cement clinker produc. 12-5The final step of cement production is the finish grinding and packing (Figure 12-4). The clinker is finely ground (to approximately 0.0043 cm (0.0017 in.] in diameter) along with a small amount of gyptum. The gypsum controls the setting time of the cement. The final product (Portiand cement) is either bagged or stored for bulk shipping. Figure 12-4, Finish grinding 1nd packaging. 12-6Review Exercise 1, True or False? Cement and concrete refer to the same mineralogical substance. 2. Name the four steps involved in the production of Portland 1. False cement. 3. Portland cement can be produced by a or 2. © quarrying and Process. crushing * grinding and blending * clinker production © finish grinding and packaging 4. Clinker is produced in the ___. 3. wet (or) dry a. ball mill b. kiln ¢. grinding mill 4. cooler 4. b. kiln Air Pollution Emissions Particulate matter is the primary pollutant emitted from the manufacture of Portland cement Because of the raw materials used, almost every operation in the cement plant has the potential to produce dust. Figure 12-5, a flow diagram of a typical cement plant, indicates the potential sources of dust emissions. Exhaust from the kiln is the largest source of particulate emissions in the cement planc. The second and third largest sources are the clinker cooler and the dry milling system, respec- tively. Many other potential fugitive emission points, called transfer points, are at the end of all material-conveying devices. Combustion gases from the fuel used to heat the kiln are also present. These include both SO, and NO,. However, it has been reported that very little of the SO, that is generated is emitted into the atmosphere (EPA, 1979). As SO, is generated. it reacts with both calcium and other alkaline oxide Particles to form sulfates and is eventually incorporated into the clinker (EPA, 1979). NO, emissions are much greater than SO, emissions. Cement kilns can be a potentially large source of NO, emis- sions. Four primary factors contribute to the formation of NO,. 1. the flame and kiln temperature, 2. the residence time of the combustion gases at this temperature, 5. the rate of cooling of the gases, and 4. the quantity of excess air present. Control of these factors may result in a sharp reduction of the NO, emissions. However, at present. NO, control equipment in cement plants is not used because of the absence of regulations and because of the high technology costs 12-7‘The change from the wet to the dry production process has both a positive and a negative effect on the amount of particulate emissions. With a dry process, fugitive particulate emissions are increased (over wet process emissions) from grinding, mixing, blending, storing, and feeding raw materials into the kiln. However, the dry processes generally use a suspension preheater for heating the feed going into the kiln. A suspension preheater is similar in operation to a cyclone. The exhaust containing the fines from the suspension preheater is sent to a collection system. therefore reducing the uncontrolled particulate emissions from the kiln. It also ensures better contact of the kiln exhaust ‘gases with the feed material, which may increase sorption of SO, from the kiln exhaust gases. Review Exercise 1. What is the primary pollutant produced from the manu- facture of cement? a. ozone b. NO, €. $Oy 4. particulate matter 2. List, im order of highest to lowest emissions, the three largest sources of dust in the cement plant. 4. particulate matter 3. Which pollutant generated by cement production is usually incorporated into the process? exhaust gases from the kiln, from the clinker a. orone cooler, from the dry b. NO, milling system «. SOr d. particulate matter 4, True or False? NO, emissions are not emitted from cement |. €. SOx plants because plants have effective NO, control devices. False 12-9Air Pollution Control Equipment Cyclones, gravel bed filters, electrostatic precipitators, and baghouses are all used to control par- ticulate emissions from various points in a cement plant. Although high-energy wet scrubbers (vencuris) have been installed at a few cement plants, they are not generally used (EPA, 1975). Table 12-1 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the control equipment used throughout a Portland cement plant. Table 12-1, Advancage and dimdvancage of control device: {or cement operations. (Operation ‘Mechanical cllocoes Beghoue Hiecremate precipictons Qurreg ‘Nox applicable ‘Nox applicable ‘Nox applicable “Crashing amd | Not applicable Very good ‘Nox econoenically feasible roding low Gow volumes Raw macerial | New applicable Ver pod ‘Not economically feasible sone Teaegral Tauegral part of pre Very ood: ana coor) Very good, i gas ream repeater heer countercurrent gar | tend with temperacure | propery conditioned ind ble sod material ow; highs | reduction, dewpoin ‘ergy cootrols neve: {ry 12 eet opacity requirements Kila sed as preccaners for | Very good: mum coe | Very good, must contend with igh-eoergy devices teod wid temperature | dewpome paraicle reusaiy reduction, dewpount | and pocental explouoa probleme (Ginker cooler | Und as precleanen for | Very good, mum com | Mum contcad with combine high-energy devices tend wich abraave soa of clinker duse and panicles: gravet-bed | mowrure, pombly coating lees have bere ESP inceror wich cement recenuy ineroduced Fam Cannot meet ope Very good. Very good oa large malls ‘Finding requiremens Fiaubed ‘Cannoe meet ope Very good ‘Now econowaically feasible ‘material requirement low sir ow volumes orig Packaging tnd | _Gannoe ment opaciy Vey good ‘Nox economically eanble! sippiog requrenen low ai dow volumes Source: EPA. Sepuember 1975. Fugitive Emissions Small baghouse systems are used at the numerous transfer points in a cement plant to recover and recycle the dust. Small baghouses are also used to control dust generated from the grinding and the packaging operations. Emissions generated at transfer points are not exhausted through a stack: i.e... they are fugitive emissions. Therefore, adequate control requires the installation of a hood capable of capturing the emissions and a fan that can move the dust to the baghouse. Kiln Emissions ‘A baghouse or electrostatic precipitaror is required to meet current regulations to control dust from a kiln. Most control systems also include cyclones to remove the larger-sized particles before they enter 12-10the baghouse or electrostatic precipitator. Generally, the dust collected in the cyclone can be recycled back into the kiln. Presently, neither the baghouse nor the electrostatic precipitator has proven to be more effective than the other for controlling emissions from the kiln. When baghouses are used to control kiln emissions, the gas temperature is of primary importance, especially from dry-process kilns. Kiln exhaust gases should be cooled to below 260°C (500°F) before being sent to the baghouse. Higher temperatures will accelerate the deterioration of the bag fabrics. However, when baghouses are used on wet-process kilns, the baghouse may need insulating to prevent water vapor from condensing on the bags. Effective operation of an electrostatic precipitator depends on the resistivity of the dust being col- lected (see Lesson 4). Wet-process kiln gases generally exhibit the proper moisture and temperature characteristics to reduce particle resistivity and allow effective electrostatic precipitation. When precipitators are used on dry-process kilns, water cooling and conditioning are occasionally used to overcome the problems of high resistivity and high temperacure. A special problem arises when electrostatic precipitators are used to control kiln emissions. During kiln startup. the temperature of the kiln is raised slowly to reduce the loss of the heat resistant (refractory) lining. While the kiln is warming up, combustible gases will be present in the exhaust stream (especially with coal-fired kilns). Electrostatic precipitators cannot be activated in the presence of combustibles. The internal arcing of the precipitator could cause a fire or explosion. Use of a cyclone preceding the precipitator helps to minimize the excessive emissions during startup. Periods of excessive emissions during startup, malfunction, or shutdown are specifically exempted from the Federal New Source Performance Standards for cement kilns. Clinker Cooler Emissions The relatively small particle size of clinker cooler dust requires a high efficiency control device to meet present regulations. Baghouses are the primary control device used on clinker cooler exhaust gases. One gravel bed filter system was installed on a clinker cooler (EPA, 1975). A gravel bed filter system generally consists of a cyclone and a silica gravel bed filter. The cyclone removes the large articles, and the remaining dust is removed in the gravel bed —which is insensitive co operating temperatures. These collectors handle operating temperatures of up to 540°C (1000°F) with no gas cooling or conditioning required. New Source Performance Standards The Federal government has promulgated New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for Portland cement plants. The NSPS apply to plants under construction on or after August 17, 1971, and impose limits for particulate matter emissions and opacity. Table 12-2 summarizes the NSPS for Portland cement plants. ‘Table 1-2, New Soarce Performance Scandards for Pordand coment plant. Pardcalae manct cnimioa imix] ie! Team of feed co kiln | g/Maof feed wo bila | OPT as 230 os) =20% [tinker cooler 2.10 0.05" “10% [Other eae 10% ‘Theat limit are based on bg/Mig (0b/t) of dry feed to che kl 12-11. Review Exercise . Which of the following are generally not used by the cement industry to reduce pollutant emissions? a. baghouses b. mechanical collectors c. wet collectors 4. electrostatic precipitators . Which control device is generally used at the transfer points in cement plants? a. baghouse b. mechanical collector ¢. wet scrubber 4. electrostatic precipitator - €. wet collectors Which control device(s) is(are) usually the primary dust con- troller at the kiln? a. baghouse b. mechanical collector ¢. electrostatic precipitator 4, all the above e. both a and ¢, above . baghouse A precleaning device often used with kilns is the a. baghouse. b. electrostatic precipitator. ¢. cyclone. 4. absorber. |. €. both a and c, above With control devices commonly used on wet-process kilns, extensive thermal insulation is used to prevent . eyelone. . Since clinker cooler dust is relatively large/small. a control device should be of high/low efficiency. condensation of water vapor within che control device . Which of the following control devices should not be used during kiln startup? a. baghouses . venturi scrubbers ¢. electrostatic precipitators 4. cyclones small, high iet2 «, electrostatic precipitators8. A(n) combustible materials. b. ¢. electrostatic precipitator a. baghouse venturi scrubber cyclone cannot be activated in the presence of 9. The NSPS opacity limit for emissions from kilns in cement 8. c, electrostatic plants is b, © 4. 10%. . 20%, 30%. - 40%. precipitator 10. The NSPS opacity limit for clinker cooler operations in 9. b. 20%. cement plants is b. a. 10%. 20%. 30%. 40% 11. Compliance with :mission regulations and opacity regulations 10. a. 10%, is usually waived during paoee starwup. shutdown. malfunction. all the above none of the above 11, d. all che above References Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). April, 1977. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. AP-42. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). September, 1975. Inspection Manual for Enforcement of New Source Performance Standards: Portland Cement Plants. EPA $40/1-75-001 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). March, 1979. A Review of Standards of Perfor- mance for New Stationary Sources— Portland Cement Industry. EPA 450/3-79-012. 1218