Joe Reville - (100 Pages) Answers To Lecture Worksheeets

Biology Lecture Day Book Answers
Chapter 1. Scientific Method and Characteristics of Life

1. (a) (i) Hypothesis: an informed testable possible explanation of a natural event.
(ii) Theory
(b) (i) Control: an investigative procedure identical to the experimental procedure but does not have the factor
being tested but has a non-influencing substitute.
(ii) The control results are compared to the experimental results to determine if the factor under investigation
has a role in the natural event.
(iii) Herbicide is not used in the control – use the same volume of water as the herbicide solution.
(c) Repeating the full investigative procedure many time to check if the results are consistent and valid.
(d) (i) Data: measurements or observations or results recorded during an investigative procedure that can be used
to explain the natural event being studied.
(ii) Theory: a hypothesis that has been tested severely and has not yet been shown to be false.
(e) (i) 1. Table 2. Graph 3. Chart or named chart 4. Continuous prose. 5. Photographs/Film
(ii) In a scientific journal e.g. Nature or on the internet.
(f) hypothesis, experiments/data or findings or outcomes.
Chapter 2. utrition and Food Chemistry

1.
Carbohydrate Protein Fat
Oxygen √ √ √
itrogen X √ X
Hydrogen √ √ √
Carbon √ √ √
2. (a) Oxygen
(b) Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen. (note that the question asked for the names)
(c) Carbohydrates.
(d) Hydrogen and Oxygen
(e) Disaccharide
(f) Glucose or Fructose or Galactose or Maltose or Lactose (Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar)
(g) Starch or Cellulose or other named polysaccharide e.g. Glycogen
(Glycogen is not on the syllabus but is the animal and fungal equivalent of starch – carbohydrate storage.)
(h) Cellulose (the only structural carbohydrate listed in the syllabus)
(i) Carbohydrate or polysaccharide.
(j) Cellulose
(k) A large carbohydrate composed of many monosaccharides (single sugar units) chemically bonded.
(l) Energy source – respiration substrate or Energy storage e.g. starch, glycogen or stimulate peristalsis in the gut
e.g. dietary fibre of which cellulose is a major component.
Joe Reville © Page 1

(m) (i) Name: glucose Role: energy source – undergoes respiration, the energy released is used to make ATP.
(ii) Disaccharide: a carbohydrate composed to two monosaccharides (single sugar units) chemically bonded.
(n) 1. Glucose – many glucoses chemically bonded.
2. Structural – the main component of plant cell walls controlling cells shape and size. Or
Turgor of plant cells – maintaining the optimum concentration of the plant cell,
also a role in the support of soft plant tissue.
3. Starch
4. Energy storage in plants.
5. Cell walls surrounding plant cells.
(o) (i) Iodine.
(ii) Starch
(iii) Testing a food for the presence or absence of reducing sugar.
3. (a) For - enzymes, hormones, antibodies (immunity), growth, energy, repair, defense, muscle, hair, - any one.
Proteins are digested to amino acids which are then absorbed. Excess amino acids can be converted to a form that can be respired
in the mitochondria.
(b) (i) Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen. [CHON]
Their names were asked for but the symbols of the elements are acceptable.
(ii) Sulfur, Phosphorus – any one. [S, P]
(c) Nitrogen
(d) Nitrogen [carbohydrates only contain C, H and O]
(e) (i) Amino Acids [peptides or peptones also acceptable but amino acids is better as they are the fundamental subunits of
proteins]
(ii) Amino Acids
(f) Meat, Fish, Eggs, Milk, Cheese, Beans, Peas, Nuts - any one.
(g) Testing for the presence or absence of protein.
(h) (i) Biuret Reagent or Copper Sulfate with Sodium Hydroxide.
(ii) 1. Blue. 2. Purple-violet or Mauve
4.
Column A Column B
A protein present in blood haemoglobin
An element always present in protein along with C, H, O Nitrogen
A protein which changes reaction rates Enzyme
The end product of protein digestion Amino Acid
A structural protein Keratin
5. (a) Carbon
(b) Glycerol
(c) Oil
(d) Fats are solid at room temperature.
(e) Energy source, Energy Storage, Heat Insulation, Storage of Fat-soluble Vitamins, Cell membrane structure,
protection e.g. kidneys, hormones, myelin – any two.
(f) (i) Cell membranes.
(ii) Phospholipids have two fatty acids and a phosphate groups bonded to the glycerol, other lipids have three
fatty acids bonded to the glycerol and to not have a phosphate group.
(iii) Carbohydrates have a lot less energy.

Carbohydrates have a lower ratio of hydrogen.
Carbohydrates have a higher ratio of oxygen. any one
6. (a) Fat –soluble
(b) Vitamin C [B is also water-soluble but we will just consider C as one is only required by the syllabus]
(c) Vitamin C Deficiency Disorder Name: Scurvy
(d) (i) Vitamin D (Calciferol)
(ii) Milk, Cheese, Butter, Egg-yolk, Liver, Fish Liver Oil, Made in our skin when it is exposed to ultra violet
light which is present in sunlight. Any One
(iii) Deficiency Disease: rickets (in children) or osteomalacia (in adults)
[osteoporosis is not a correct answer – osteoporosis is not caused by lack of vitamin D]
7. (a) (i) Calcium or Iron [there are quite a few other ones but we will just deal with the two most popular ones]
(ii) Calcium Function: formation of bones or formation of teeth
[Calcium has many other functions but these are not part of our syllabus]
Iron Function: transport of oxygen or the formation of haemoglobin or formation of red blood cells.
[Iron has many other functions but these are not part of our syllabus]
(b) Trace elements [See syllabus 1.3.2]
(c) Iron (Fe) or Copper (Cu) or Zinc (Zn)
[Note that the question referred only to the human body – not to living organisms in general]
8. (a) (i) Digestion or Respiration or Energy release when ATP is converted to ADP and Phosphate. any one
[Note that the question referred only to an animal – not to living organisms in general]
(ii) Photosynthesis or Protein Synthesis or DNA replication or RNA synthesis (Transcription) any one
[Note that the question referred only to a plant – not to living organisms in general]
(c) Catabolic
9. (a) 1. Water is the major component of all living organisms e.g. 60% by mass of the human body.
2. Transport of materials throughout the organism.
3. Provides a favourable type of material environment (medium) for metabolism.
4. Carry small soluble substances across cell membranes.
5. Essential for the breaking of bonds in catabolic reactions.
6. Role in general metabolism by keeping the temperature constant. any two
[Functions given are those for a general living organism and keeping close to the properties of water listed in the syllabus.]
(b) 1. Transport e.g. nutrients, oxygen and wastes.
2. Temperature control e.g. cooling by evaporation of sweat to prevent body temperature rising too high.
3. Role in keeping cells at their correct size and shape e.g. red blood cells.
4. Breathing role by keeping the lungs ‘glued’ to the diaphragm and rib cage.
5. Lubrication e.g. it is the major component of the synovial fluid in freely moveable joints.
6. Cleansing action – tears wash over the cornea keeping it clean and free of bacteria.
7. Protection – the amniotic fluid protects the developing baby in the mother’s uterus.
8. Keep the concentration of the blood at a favourable level.
9. It is a suitable medium in which the sperm can move to journey to the egg cell.
[If you give three different examples of a transport function you may only be given marks for one function i.e. transport.]
(c) Urine or Sweat or Exhaled Air or Faeces
10. (a) Water

(b) Excretion

(c) Lignin
11. (a) Catabolism
(b) Digestion or Respiration or Release of energy by the breakdown of ATP
(c) 2:1 [General formula for a carbohydrate Cx(H2O)y ]
(d) Keratin [hair, nails, outer dead layer of skin]
Myosin [ a major protein in muscle ]
(e) Carbohydrate or Polysaccharide
(f) Fat-soluble
(g) Disaccharide
MPA 1
12. Named Polysaccharide: starch
Add a few drops of yellow-brown iodine solution to the food.
If the colour stays yellow-brown then starch is absent.
Any part of the food that changes to blue-black colour is starch.
13. (a) Benedict’s Reagent Test.

(b) (i) Benedict’s Reagent.
(ii) Blue
(iii) Heat is needed. [but do not boil as boiling the food could convert starch to maltose which is a reducing sugar]
(iv) Red-brown
(v) Add water if the food is dry and make a food solution [reducing sugars are water-soluble]
Add an equal volume of blue Benedict’s Reagent to the food solution in the test tube.
Use water as a substitute for the food solution in the control.
Heat both test tubes in a hot water bath but do not boil.
Control result: no change in colour – stays blue.
Food solution results: (a) a change from a blue colour to brick-red indicates that reducing sugar is present.
(b) no colour change, i.e. stays blue, indicates that reducing sugar is absent.
14. (a) (i) Meat, fish, egg, milk, cheese, beans, peas and nuts. any two
(ii) Biuret Reagent
(iii) No
(iv) Blue
(v) Blue to purple-violet
(vi) No
(b) Add water if the food is dry and make a food solution
Add an equal volume of blue Biuret Reagent to the food solution in the test tube.
Use water as a substitute for the food solution in the control.
Shake the contents of each test tube vigorously to mix the Biuret reagent and the food solution.
Control result: no change in colour – stays blue.
Food solution results: (a) a change from a blue colour to purple-violet indicates that protein is present.
(b) no colour change, i.e. stays blue, indicates that protein is absent.

Chapter 3. General Principles of Ecology
1. (a) Biosphere: the part of the Earth and its atmosphere where organisms live.
(b) Habitat: the place where an organism lives and to which it is adapted.
(c) Consumer: an organism that cannot make its own food or
an organism that feeds on other organisms or detritus (dead organic matter)
[also known as a heterotrophy]
(d) Producer: an organism that can make its own food. [also known as an autotroph]
(e) Niche: the ecological role of an organism in a community
(f) Edaphic Factor: (i) a soil condition that influences living organisms.
(ii) Soil pH, aeration, water content, porosity, mineral nutrient content, humus content,
texture, temperature. any one
(g) Symbiosis: different species living close together where at least one benefits.
(h) (i) Predation: the hunting and killing of one animal by another animal for food or
the active search by an animal of another organism to feed on it.
2. (a) Autotroph or Producer

(b) Heterotroph or Consumer
(c) Habitat
(d) Sun or Sunlight
(e) Biosphere
(f) Omnivore
(g) Grass or Dandelion or Daisy or Buttercup or Clover
(h) Nitrogen Fixation
(i) Mutualism or Symbiosis
(j) Niche
(k) Trophic Level
(l) Ecosystem
3. (a) Ecosystem: the community of living organisms plus the environment they interact with.
(b) Grassland, Woodland, Hedgerow, Rocky Seashore, Sandy Seashore, Freshwater Pond, River, Lake any two
4.
Column A Column B
Predator Kills and eats other animals
Biosphere All parts of the Earth an its atmosphere where life exists
Ecosystem A community of organisms an their environment
Niche The role of an organism in an ecosystem
Habitat Place where an organism lives
5. (a) Grassland
(b) Soil, Hedgerow, Chestnut Tree, Exposed Bare Rock, Waterlogged Area, Stream, Ditch. any two
(c) Named Animal: rabbit.
Adapted: brown fur gives it camouflage and so is less likely to be found and killed by predators.
[must give a double answer to adapted: state the positive advantageous feature and then explain how that feature improves the
organism’s chances of survival and/or reproduction]
6. (a) Caterpillar [the primary consumers are the first heterotrophs in the food chain]

(b) Decrease [predation tends to decrease the population of the prey]
(c) Primary Producers or First Trophic Level or Autotrophs
(d) Blue Tit or Sparrowhawk
[note that the question said ‘by reference to this food chain’ – accordingly blue tits are carnivores even though in real life they also
feed on plant material
such as seeds]
(e) Energy or Food [only about 10% of the energy (organic matter) in one trophic level is transferred to the next as food – about
90% is lost as heat due to respiration]
7. Predator: fox Prey: rabbit
8. (a) A practical study to identify the species living in the ecosystem.

(b) Buttercup → Greenfly (aphid) → Blue Tit → Hawk
[asked for a grazing food chain so the list of species must begin with a plant]
(c) 1. Blue Tit or Hawk
2. Buttercup
3. Blue Tit [secondary consumers are the second heterotrophs in the list of species]
4. Greenfly [primary consumers are the first heterotrophs in the list of species]
[Hawk – a tertiary or third order consumer in this food chain]
9. (i) Decomposition is the breaking down of dead plants and animals into simpler substances by the feeding
activity of other organisms.
(ii) 1. Bacteria 2. Fungi
[Viruses are not decomposers – they cannot feed on dead organisms, they are parasites of living cells.]
10. (a) Sun or Sunlight

(b) Photosynthesis
(c) Chlorophyll
(d) (i) A: grass. B: rabbit. C: fox.
(ii) B
(iii) C only gets 10% of the energy that B receives from A because 90% of the energy at each trophic level is
lost as heat due to respiration.
(f) Food Web
Fox Hawk Fox Hawk
Rabbit Field Mouse or Rabbit Field Mouse
Grass Buttercup Grass Buttercup
[all the possible interconnections are not needed – just showing one interconnection between two food chains is enough]

11. (a) A pyramid of numbers is a modified bar chart showing
the number of individuals at each trophic level in an ecosystem or
the number of individuals at each trophic level in a food chain.
(b)
2 Fox Third Trophic Level
5,000 Rabbit Second Trophic Level
5,000,000,000
Grass First Trophic Level
12. (a) A trophic level is the position of an organism in a food chain based on how it gets its food.
(b) A: Spiders
B: Parasitic Wasps
C: Caterpillars
D: Buttercups
[Part A was considered too difficult the year of this question and no marks were awarded for it – the marks were divided equally between
A, B and C.]
(c) Primary Producers or Autotrophs
(d) D [the first trophic level is always forms the base of the pyramid where the food makes its first appearance]
(e) The producers (buttercups) are a much larger organism than the primary consumers (caterpillars) and so each
buttercup plant can support (feed) a large number of caterpillars.
13. (a) 7
(b) May, June, July, August
(c) Good food supply or Long days to gather extra food to fee the young or Warm time of year
(d) Reduction in food supply (starvation) or migration to more suitable area or turning cold (weather conditions
becoming unsuitable) or Disease or Predation or competition pressure or fire (habitat disturbance) any two
14. (a) The thrush population declines steeply from August reaching its lowest in May; from May to August the
thrush population increases steeply reaching its maximum at the end of July.
(b) Breeding season – birth of many young birds or migration of thrushes into the area or greater food supply
can support a greater number of thrushes any one
(c) Reduction in food supply (starvation) or migration to more suitable area or turning cold (weather conditions
becoming unsuitable) or Disease or Predation or competition pressure or fire (habitat disturbance) any two
(d) Yes
Animal populations are mostly dependent on food supply so with increase food supply in the longer warmer
days of Summer would expect a population increase and a decline in Winter due to shorter colder days
which lead to a decline in photosynthesis and food production.
15. (a) Ash tree → Earthworms → Robins → Owls or Ash tree → Caterpillars → Robins → Owls
(b) Ash tree
(c) Ladybirds or Owls or Robins [Owls and Robins are secondary consumers in some of the food chains; in one food chain
the Owls are tertiary consumers, robins are primary consumers in one food chain]
(d) Greenfly or Mice or Caterpillars (or Earthworm according to this food web – [you would not be expected to
know that an earthworm is a decomposer feeding mostly on dead plants and their fallen leaves]
(e) Robin [feeding on plants (ash tree) and on animals (caterpillars and earthworms)]
(f) Ladybirds or Owls [carnivores feed on animal material]

16. (a) The formation of nitrogen compounds from pure atmospheric nitrogen (elemental nitrogen). or
Conversion of N2 to ammonia (NH3) and nitrate (NO3).
[The ammonia and nitrate can be used by plants to make their nitrogenous biomolecules like amino acids, protein, DNA, RNA,
ATP, chlorophyll]
(b) Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria
[The names of specific types or species of bacteria are not required by the syllabus.]
(c) Permit nitrogen to be continuously available for reuse by all living organisms to make their nitrogenous
biomolecules and as a result the biosphere continues to thrive.
(d) Nitrification: the oxidation of nitrogen compounds e.g. (i) Ammonia to Nitrite (NH3 → NO2)
(ii) Nitrite to Nitrate (NO2 → NO3)
[the nitrifying bacteria that carry out nitrification are all chemosynthetic autotrophs]
(e) Nitrogen Cycle

itrogen Gas (2)
in atmosphere
denitrification Lightning Biological Nitrogen Fixation

(denitrifying bacteria) (abiotic nitrogen fixation) (nitrogen fixing bacteria)
Free-living Symbiotic
(mutualism)
nitrifying bacteria
itrite (O2) itrate (O3) Ammonia (H3)
nitrification
absorption/assimilation
nitrifying bacteria
Plant Tissue (protein) Animal Tissue (protein)
feeding/nutrition
nitrification
Death/Excretion/Egestion
Ammonia (H3) Detritus

(dead organic matter)
Decay
saprophytic bacteria
[The Haber Process used for the industrial production of artificial nitrogen fertilizers (ammonia, urea, nitrate) is never given marks at
Leaving Certificate.]
[Most accounts of the Nitrogen Cycle incorrectly show bacterial nitrogen fixation producing nitrate and usually fail to show that plants
absorb ammonia.]
[Nitrite (NO2) is toxic to plants and it is not absorbed by plants.]

Learning Sequence:
Day 1 – nitrogen gas to ammonia and nitrate and absorbed by plants;
Day 2 – Plants to Animals then Detritus then Ammonia and to Plants;
Day 3 – nitrification, Day 4 –denitrification,
Day 5 – put all the pieces together and now you know the whole cycle.
itrogen Cycle in Words

(a) Nitrogen Fixation
Lightning causes the formation of nitrates from nitrogen and oxygen gases in the air – the nitrates are brought
into the soil by rain.
Free-living and symbiotic bacteria produce ammonia from nitrogen gas.
Nitrates and ammonia are absorbed by plant roots and used to make nitrogenous biomolecules.
(b) Living to Dead Organic Matter
Energy (food) transfer along food chains is how animals obtain simple nitrogenous biomolecules from which
they make their complex nitrogenous biomolecules.
Detritus contains nitrogenous biomolecules from dead plants, dead animals, the discarded parts of plants and
animals plus the excreta and egesta (faeces) of animals.
(c) Decay
Saprophytic bacteria breakdown detritus and the nitrogen of nitrogenous biomolecules is released as ammonia.
Much of this ammonia is absorbed by plants and used to make nitrogenous biomolecules.
(d) Nitrification
Ammonia is converted to nitrite by the activity of nitrifying bacteria.
Nitrite is converted to nitrate by a different group of nitrifying bacteria.
Nitrate is absorbed by plants and used to make their nitrogenous biomolecules.
(e) Denitrification
The nitrogen of nitrites and nitrates is released into the air as pure nitrogen as a result of the activities of
denitrifying bacteria.
[Nitrogen fixing bacteria use a huge amount of ATP to convert pure nitrogen into a form that they can use to make their nitrogenous biomolecules.]
[Nitrifying bacteria oxidize (‘burn’) the ammonia or nitrite using oxygen and in doing so they release lots of energy which they use to make ATP; the ATP is
then used to make food from water and carbon dioxide – these bacteria are producers i.e. autotrophs and they method of making food is called
chemosynthesis.]
17. (a) Grassland

(b) Plants: 1. Grass, 2. Dandelion, 3. Buttercup, 4. Daisy, 5. Clover, 6. Stinging nettle any three
Animals: 1. Rabbit, 2. Fox, 3. Greenfly, 4. Ladybird, 5. Hawk, 6. Earthworm
(c) 1. Increase in numbers of its competitor plant species.
2. New colonising plant species become established by taking advantage of the new conditions.
3. New animal species, that feed on the new colonizing plants, become part of the ecosystem.
4. Decrease in numbers of the animal species that use it as a source of food.
5. Increase in numbers of other animals that feed on its competitor plants that have increased in numbers.
6. Decrease in numbers of other plant species to which the disease could have been transferred. any three
18. (a) Nitrogen Cycle

(b) Herbivore: rabbit Carnivore: fox
(c) Protein or Amino Acids or DNA or RNA or Nucleic Acid or ATP or Chrlorophyll
(d) (i) The activity of denitrifying bacteria returning pure nitrogen by breaking down nitrites and nitrates.
(ii) The activity of saprophytic bacteria returning nitrogen as ammonia by breaking down nitrogenous
biomolecules such as proteins.

(e) X: nitrogen fixation
(f) Nitrogen fixing bacteria
(g) To reduce the runoff of nitrogen fertilizer into freshwater habitats - rivers and lakes. Nitrogen fertilizer
pollution causes excessive growth of algae and plants resulting in major damage to the community of
organisms – loss of species, deoxygenation of the water leading to the death of aerobic species
19. (a) (i) Sun or Sunlight or Light
(ii) Photosynthesis
(b) (i) Seaweed or Plant Plankton (simple plants)
(ii) Plant Plankton (simple plants)
(iii) Fish and Mussels
(iv) Periwinkles feed only on plants or Perwinkles are herbivores or Periwinkles are the first heterotrophs in
the food chain. [Do not use the word ‘consumer’ to explain consumer, use heterotrophy or non-producer.]
(v) 1. Seaweed → Periwinkles → Fish → Seals
2. Seaweed → Periwinkles → Fish → Birds
3. Plant Plankton → Animal Plankton → Fish → Seals
4. Plant Plankton → Animal Plankton → Fish → Birds
5. Plant Plankton → Animal Plankton → Mussels → Fish
6. Plant Plankton → Animal Plankton → Mussels → Birds any one
20. (i) An abiotic factor is a non-living components or aspects of the environment.

A biotic factor is an influence resulting from the presence of a living organism in the environment.
(ii) Temperature: grass is present in the habitat because the temperature range does not inhibit grass growth.
(iii) Buttercups influence the distribution of greenfly because they are a source of food for greenfly.
[Be careful you were asked to name a plant in (ii) and name an animal in (iii).]
21. (a) 3.6 years [29.2 →33.2, 33.2 →36.2, 36.2 → 40.1 4 + 3 + 3.9 = 10.9 → 10.9 ÷ 3 = 3.63]
(b) 39 years [33 + 38 + 37 + 40 = 148 148 ÷ 4 = 39]
(c) A predator is an animal that hunts and kills another animal for food. or
A predator is an animal that actively searches for and kills another organism for food. or
A predator is an animal that feeds on other species of living organisms.
(d)
[Arctic fox population peaks: not as high as the lemming’s and the arctic fox peaks occur later than the lemming peaks.]
(i) Lack of food or disease or migration (emigration) or fire or unfavourable climate change or competition
(intraspecific and/or interspecific) or human interference (hunting, poisoning, trapping, agriculture). any two

(ii) Increase in food source or reduction in predator numbers or migration (immigration) or increase in
reproductive rate (more young per litter, more litters per breeding season) or reduced competition or more
favourable climate change or reduced human interference. any two
22. (i) Competition is the rivalry between living organisms for limited resources i.e. for any means they need for
survival and/or reproduction that is in short supply.
[Examples of limited resources for plants: light, water, mineral nutrients, space, pollinators, seed dispersers.]
[Examples of limited resource for animals: space (territory), water, food, mates.]
(ii) Validity of Statement: Yes, the statement is true.
Comment: members of the same species require exactly the same set of limited resources and so compete
against each other for ‘everything’. Members of different species require different sets of resources and so
they are in competition with each other over a smaller range of resources.
23. (a) Stimulus: ‘increase in day length pass an initial threshold’.

(b) 1. To get a better supply of food.
2. To move to an area of more favourable weather e.g. temperature, humidity.
3. To move to an area of more favourabe for breeding e.g. more food, less disturbance from predators.
4. On reaching sexual maturity some animal species move to a new location joining the adult group. any two
[The ultimate function of migration is to improve the chances of survival and/or reproduction.]
(c) Fat [remember that fat contains more than twice the energy of a similar mass of carbohydrate or protein.]
(d) 1. Beneath the skin (subcutaneous). 2. Inside the abdomen (visceral)
(e) The fat is broken down to smaller subunits which are used in aerobic respiration to supply energy for the
formation of ATP. ATP supplies all energy for metabolism.
(f) In the growing tips.
(g) The growing tips are meristematic regions of very fast growth so they have a great supply of nutrients to
sustain the high metabolic rate.
24. (a) The lemming population increases as the phosphorus level increases and
decreases when the phosphorus level decreases.
(b) Phosphorus is an essential mineral nutrient and has many functions in animals e.g. ATP, DNA, RNA, the
mineral content of bones [calcium phosphate] and many proteins. Increased levels of phosphorus in the food
would lead to a better growth rate, higher survival rate and greater reproductive rate all leading to an
increased population.
25. (a) Contest Competition: direct confrontation to deny others an essential resource – only one gains the resource
and its opponents lose the resource.
Scramble Competition: each individual gains an equal share of the resource, there is no aggressive
confrontation between individuals.
(b) (i) B
Explanation: Predator populations are smaller than the prey population – more than one individual prey is
needed in the lifetime of one predator; predator population changes occur a little later than those in the
prey; population peaks of B are slightly to the right of the peaks of A.
(ii) Predation or Predatory-prey Relationship
(iii) 1. Reduced competition because of the elimination of original cyclamen population in the strawberry fields.
2. Normal colonization behaviour as a result of dispersal.
3. There was a large population of cyclamen mites in the neighbouring fields but the population of

carnivorous mites was much lower.
4. Carnivorous mites were eliminated in the strawberry fields and so the invading cyclamen mites could
build their population rapidly without the handicap of predation.
5. Possibly the cyclamen mites are more resistant to the herbicide than the carnivorous mites.
6. The strawberry fields are a huge food resource for the cyclamen mites but not the carnivorous mites.
any two
(iv) 1. Biological Control 2. Genetically modified or special breeds of strawberries resistant to mites.
3. Crop rotation – don’t grow strawberries in the same fields each year. any one
(v) Pyramid of Numbers
Carnivorous Mites
Cyclamen Mites
Strawberry
Plants
[Strawberry plants at the base – they are the primary producers, cyclamen mites are the primary consumers (herbivores), carnivorous
mites the secondary consumers. The number of strawberry plants is lower than the cyclamen mites – these mites are very small and many
will feed on one strawberry plant.]
(vi) Food availability or parasitism or disease or human activity e.g. pollution. any one
26. (a) Predator

(b) Prey
(c) Less food for the predator so the possibilities are
1. Predator population declines due to starvation and death.
2. Predator population declines due to its migration to other feeding areas.
3. Predator population unchanged as other prey species increase by taking the place of the original prey.
any two
(d) 1. War, 2. Famine, 3. Contraception, 4. Disease - these are the four listed in the syllabus.
5. Level of education, 6. Level of medical care, 7. Birth rate, 8. Death rate, 9. Natural disasters e.g
. earthquake, tidal wave. any four
27. (i) Species: a group of organisms that can interbreed producing fertile offspring.
[Being able to interbreed is not sufficient on its own, producing offspring is not sufficient either the progeny (offspring) must be able
to reproduce successfully.]
(ii) Mauve Stinger
(iii) France, Spain – any one [ these are the countries mentioned in the extract]
[Any named country with a coastline on the Mediterranean would also get the marks – but this is a Biology Test not Geography.]
(iv) Swelling, Redness, Oozing, Allergic Responses. any two
(v) Defence against predators or To kill their prey or To repel competitor species any one
[Note that the question asked for a suggestion – your suggestion must only make ecological sense it does not have to be the correct use
of this organism’s venom.]
(v) The water of the Mediterranean has warmed or the jellyfish have evolved tolerance for cooler non-tropical
water or their food supply has increased in the Mediterranean or their predator populations have decreased in
the Mediterranean or change in the wind pattern has dispersed them into the Mediterranean or change in the
tide pattern has dispersed them into the Mediterranean. any one

(vi) The jellyfish have no control over the direction they travel they just drift with the moving water.
[This is not a fair question – there is no biological testing here just a test of your vocabulary checking if you understand the word
‘sutonomy’ – (sutos is Greek for ‘self’ and nomos is Greek for ‘governing’); besides it asks you for ‘what do you think’ so any snswer you
give fully satisfies what you have been asked to do and so you deserve full marks.]
28. (a) 1. Occupy a territory.

2. Defend a territory from other foxes.
3. Mark the boundaries of the territory.
4. Hunt/forage in family groups. any two
(b) Urine and scent are used to mark the territory boundary.
(c) By being with their parents when the parents are hunting.
(d) The wheelie bins are too awkward for the foxes to open. or
The wheelie bins are too heavy for the foxes to knock over. any one
(e) Omnivore: an animal that eats plant and animal material.
(f) Nocturnal Advantage
1. Less visible to its prey and so has a better chance of catching food.
2. More prey available at night – its preferred prey are also nocturnal.
3. Avoid its predators which are not nocturnal – its predators are active only during the day i.e. diurnal.
4. Avoid competition from daytime active (diurnal) species that feed on the same food sources. any one
(g) More Successful: Urban Foxes
Reason: there is more food available to foxes in urban areas - there is a large quantity of discarded human
food that foxes can eat and much more road kill (e.g. domestic pets).
or
More Successful: Rural Foxes

Reason: more food available to foxes in rural areas - there is a larger quantity prey (small rodents, frogs,
insects and birds) in the more natural habitats of rural areas plus more of plant food that they eat.
or
Much of the food suitable for foxes (discarded human food) is no long longer available as it is placed in
wheelie bins therefore there is more available food from natural resource in rural areas.
‘ [It does not matter whether you say Urban or Rural: the marks are for the reason backing up your choice. Your reason must make
ecological sense –
food availability is the main factor but you must mention why you think there is more food for the urban or rural fox.
Note also that is not about overall success – you are limited to ‘finding food’ ]

Chapter 4. Habitat Surveying Techniques
1. A: Diving Beetle, B: Water Mite, C: Hydra, D: Pond-snail, E: Nematode, F: Planarian, G: Leech
[Ideally each pair of statements in the key should be labelled (a) and (b) and so the steps to identify E would be 1(b), 3 (b),
4 (b), 5 (b) and 6 (b). A key can be used in a backward direction to gain a description of a particular species e.g. Hydra –
ring of tentacles around the mouth (5 (a)), shell absent (4(b)), body not divided into segments ((3(b), jointed legs
absent((1(b)) – told to go to 5(a) by 4(b), 3(b) told you to go to 4(b) and 1(b) indicated that you go to 3(b).]
2. (a) (i) Fauna: all the animal species of the ecosystem.

[Faunus: god of the woods, Fauna: goddess sister of Faunus.]
[Flora: all the plant species of the ecosystem.] [Flos: latin for flower.]
(ii) Key: an ecological key is a method of identifying organisms using a sequence of contrasting pairs of
statements or a set of instructions based on easily observable characteristics.
(b) (i) Five Plants: Grass, Dandelion, Buttercup, Daisy, Clover.
(ii) Key
1. (a) Leaves with branching veins. ………………………………………………… 2
(b) Leaves with parallel veins. ……………………………………………………. Grass
2. (a) White or Purple Flowers. ……………………………………………………… 3
(b) Yellow Flowers. ……………………………………………………………….. 4
3. (a) Leaves are simple spoon-shaped fleshy and flat to the ground. ……… ……… Daisy
(b) Leaves are compound of three heart-shaped leaflets. …………………………. Clover
4. (a) Flower head contains many tiny flowers. ……………………………………… Dandelion
(b) Flower head has only one open large flower. ………………………………….. Buttercup
(iii) Five Animals: Rabbit, Fox, Earthworm, Hawk, Greenfly (Aphid)
(iv) Key
1. (a) Vertebrate (backbone present). ………………………………………………………. 2
(b) Invertebrate (no backbone). ………………………………………………………….. 3
2. (a) Skin covered in hair. …………………………………………………………………. 5
(b) Skin covered in feathers. …………………………………………………………….. Hawk
3. (a) External skeleton. …………………………………………………………………….. Greenfly
(b) No external skeleton. …………………………………………………………………. Earthworm
4. (a) Strong sharp spines covering the back. ………………………………………………. Hedgehog
(b) Spines absent. ………………………………………………………………………… Fox
[Questions (b) (ii) and (iv) should not have been asked because the syllabus only requires you to know how to use a key.
Always attempt to answer a question because in this case having realised their mistake any reasonable attempt was given
full marks; if you do not attempt a question then you leaves yourself open to getting zero marks.]
3. (a) Named Ecosystem: Grassland

[Grassland is chosen for all named ecosystems questions because the plants and animals typical of grassland are well
known by everybody and so no new learning has to be done if you have done a different ecosystem e.g. rocky seashore.]
(b) Named Animal: Greenfly (Aphid)
How Collected: using a pooter – operated as a mini-vacuum cleaner, the long tube is placed beside the small
insect and with a sharp strong intake of breath at the end of the other tube the small delicate animal is drawn
safely into the collecting bottle.
[You could also answer this with a labelled diagram of a pooter and short notes on the diagram showing how it is used.]
[The collecting methods listed in the Teacher Guidelines (but not in the syllabus) are: mammal trap, pitfall trap, cryptozoic
trap, pooter, nets (to include – sweep net, insect net, plankton net or fish net), direct search, Tullgren funnel – so the
answer can be any of these as long as it matches the animal that you have named.]

(c) Adaptation: The greenfly is green in colour giving it camouflage and so reducing it chances of being caught and
killed by its predators.
[Adaptation answer requires two parts for full marks: first the feature and second the advantage the named feature gives
the organism – feature + advantage; the feature does not have to be a structure it can also be an aspect of its behaviour.]
(d) Quadrat: a border, usually square, enclosing of known area e.g. ¼ m2, used to study the plants and sedentary
animals in an ecosystem. [Sedentary animals are those who do not move or move only very very very slowly.]
4. (a) Qualitative Survey: a practical investigation to identify all of the species in the ecosystem.
(b) Quantitative Survey: a practical examination of the ecosystem to take measurements of the community of
organisms e.g. distribution, population, frequency and percentage cover of species.
5. (a) Ecosytem: Grassland

(b) Habitats: any two
1. Field or meadow 2. Soil 3. Freshwater stream 4. Isolated trees 5. Bare rock 6. Hedgerow
(c) Named Animal: Rabbit
Adaptation: digs and lives in narrow burrows underground gaining extra protection from its predators.
(d) Named Plant: Dandelion
Survey Type: Using line transects to discover the range of dandelions in the field.
Method:
1. Draw an outline map of the field.
2. Record on the map the path of three straight transect lines traced out by measuring tapes across the habitat.
3. On the map mark the position of each dandelion plant touched by a measuring tape.
4. Combine the results of the three transect line to establish the area of the habitat dandelions are growing in.
The results are recorded on a map of the habitat.
[the method can easily be describe with a well labelled diagram]

[the syllabus only mentions two specific quantitative survey techniques that must be known – frequency and percentage
cover; in the practical activities section of the syllabus it just indicates that ‘a quantitative study of plants and animals’ has to
be conducted but does not state if you have to use one or more techniques or even which particular and it would seem that
you are free to choose what suits you best]
[other plant quantitative techniques will be outline in answers to questions further on]
6. (a) Quadrat
(b) Most animals are fast moving and are not fixed in position like plants. Therefore the animals will move
away rapidly from the quadrat site.
(c) Oak tree [oak trees are too large to lie inside the size of quadrat (0.25 m2) shown in the diagram]
7. Named Animal: field mice

Survey Method – grid trapping to establish the range of fieldmice
(a) Draw a grid pattern on the map of the field with 50 m distance between the lines.
(b) In the field place and open a small mammal trap at each intersection of the grid lines.
(c) Early next day examine the traps and mark on the map the position of each trap that held a field mouse.
(d) Release the field mice back into the habitat at their capture site.
(e) Combine the results to discover which area of the field the mice occupy.
[the method can easily be describe with a well labelled diagram]
[another animal quantitative technique will be outline in answers to questions further on]

8. Named Plant: Dandelion
(a) Method: random quadrats
1. Measure the area of the study site in square metres e.g. 400 m2. (20 m x 20 m)
2. Randomly choose eight quadrat sites in the study area.
With your eyes closed throw a white tennis ball behind your head and place the quadrat on the grass with
the tennis ball in the middle.
3. On a chart record the number of dandelions inside each quadrat.
Sample Results in the chart below.
Quadrat A B C D E F G H
Dandelion Number 2 0 1 3 1 0 2 3
4. Calculate the number of dandelion per square metre.
5. Multiply by the area of the study site to find the total number of dandelions.
Calculation
8 quadrats = 12 dandelions [choose nice easy numbers so the maths will be simple]
0.25 m2 x 8 = 12 dandelions [each quadrat is 0.25 m2; 0.5 m x 0.5 m = 0.25 m2]
2 m2 = 12 dandelions
2
1m = 6 dandelions
400 m2 = 400 x 6 dandelions
= 2,400 dandelions
[This plant quantitative survey should not have been asked as it is not specified in the syllabus and you are free to choose to
carry out any quantitative plant survey of your choice in your practical fieldwork]
(b) Presentation of Results: in a chart and total shown as a histogram to compare with other plant species.
(c) Possible Error any one
1. Not enough quadrats used – too few sample sites.
2. Mistakes made in identifying dandelions.
3. Incorrect recording of numbers of dandelions onto the chart.
4. Mistakes make in the mathematical calculation of the total population.
5. Quadrat sample sites may not have been chosen randomly.
9. [You could describe a plant population survey as in the answer to previous question but to give you extra revision a
percentage cover survey will be described here]
(a) 1. Method: use of a gridded quadrat – a quadrat with 25 intersections with 5 equally space strings running
across the quadrat from ‘North’ to ‘South’ and another 5 perpendicular to them from ‘West’ to ‘East’.
2. Each intersection represents 4% cover. [100% ÷ 25 = 4%]
3. Randomly choose ten quadrat sites in the study area.
With your eyes closed throw a white tennis ball behind your head and place the quadrat on the grass where
the tennis ball site.
4. Looking vertically down on the gridded quadrat count the number of intersections that are directly over a
particular plant species e.g. dandelions.
5. Multiply the number of ‘scoring’ intersections by 4 to calculate the percentage cover of dandelions.
6. Repeat for the other 9 randomly chosen quadrat sites.
7. Add the % cover for all quadrats and divide by 10 to calculate the average percentage cover.

(b) To reduce the chances of a major error as one quadrat could, by chance, may not be normal. or
Using many quadrats will neutralise the atypical counts and give a more accurate measurement.
(c) Using a key or using identification charts or using photographs or using drawings
(d) Bar Chart or Histogram or Table
(e) Suitable: Yes
Explanation: small sedentary animals, being fixed in position, will remain within the quadrat or
small very slow moving animals e.g. snails, will remain within the quadrat.
or
Suitable: No
Explanation: small animals able to move rapidly and will not remain within the quadrat as they will move
away if disturbed.
10. (a) Field Mouse

(b) 1. Long tail. 2. Large rounded ears. 3. Bright brown fur. 4. Prominent black eyes. any two
(c) snails or spiders or berries of bramble or nuts of hazel or beetles or grass. any one
(d) (i) Survey Method: Capture-recapture
(ii) Day 1: using many small-mammal traps capture field mice and record the number e.g. 20,
mark each captured mouse with a dab of red paint on its belly surface,
release the mice back into the habitat at their capture site,
allow time for the mice to readjust to normal conditions.
(iii) Day 2. Capture field mice as before and record number captured e.g. 22,
record the number of recaptures, the mice with the red paint mark e.g. 4,
release the mice back into the habitat at their capture site.
(iv) Calculation: Population = Number of Captures on Day 1 x Number of Captures on Day 2
Number of Recaptures on Day 2
= 20 x 22
4
= 110 Field Mice

[Part (d) should never have been asked because population of animals is not specified in the syllabus as a must know or do
animal quantitative survey – the question should only have asked you to describe how you carried our a quantitative animal
survey of your choice]
(e)
11. (a) 1 Quadrat = 0.5 m x 0.5 m

= 0.25 m2
10 Quadrats = 0.25 m2 x 10
= 2.5 m2
2.5 m2 = 30 clover plants [6+2+2+2+4+0+2+5+5+2 = 30]
1 m2 = 30 clover plants
2.5
= 300 clover plants

25
25,000 m2 = 300 x 25,000 clover plants [2.5 hectare = 2.5 x 10,000 m2 = 25,000 m2]
25
= 300,000 clover plants

(b) Calculation: Population = Number of Captures on Day 1 x Number of Captures on Day 2
Number of Recaptures (tagged mice) on Day 2
= 40 x 40
5
= 320 Field Mice
Population Density = Population of Field Mice

Area in hectares
= 320 field mice

2.5 hectare
= 3200 field mice

25 hectare
= 128 field mice per hectare
[This question was in the 2004 Sample Paper Higher Level from the State Examination Commission that sets the Leaving
Certificate Examination Papers – the questions should not have been asked because these two survey techniques are not
specified by the syllabus and in addition appear more a test of your mathematics ability and patience than biology.]
12. Named Ecosystem: Grassland

(a) Abiotic Factor: non-living environmental features that influence living organisms
(b) Examples of abiotic factors: any three
Light intensity, light duration, temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind, atmospheric pressure,
[all the above would fall into the category of abiotic factors called ‘climatic factors’]
Soil pH, soil aeration, soil porosity, percentage available soil water, soil mineral nutrient profile, percentage
soil humus, soil type – profile of rock fragment proportions
[all the above would fall into the category of abiotic factors called ‘edaphic factors’]
[for aquatic habitats other abiotic factors which are not relevant to grassland include – tides, wave action, salinity,
submergence duration or duration of exposure to air, oxygen concentration of the water, currents or flow speed,
sedimentation, light intensity and light quality (affected by depth)]
(c) Abiotic Factor 1.Light Intensity.
Method: Used a light meter (lux meter) – recorded readings into a chart at intervals throughout our time
doing the fieldwork. [same method as in the light intensity investigation in photosynthesis]
Abiotic Factor 2: Temperature
Method: Used a thermometer – recorded air and soil temperature readings into a chart at intervals throughout
our time carrying out the fieldwork.
Abiotic Factor 3: Humidity
Method: Used a hygrometer (wet and dry bulb thermometers) and the conversion chart - recorded readings
into a chart at intervals throughout our time doing the fieldwork.
[Having studied Junior Certificate Geography you will have not trouble describing how to measure other climatic factors such
as wind speed, wind direction, light duration, rainfall and atmospheric pressure]
(d) Named Organism: Buttercup
Adaptation: large yellow petals
(e) Benefit of Adaptation: attracts insects and so increases the chances of pollination and sexual reproduction.

Chapter 5: Human Impact On The Biosphere
1. (a) Conservation: protection of biodiversity from the effects of human activity; to make sure that no species to go
extinct because of human interference.
[The most effective conservation strategy is to maintain populations large enough to be self-sustainable and to this end
protection of habitats is essential.]
(b) Reasons for Conservation any three
1. Maintain our food supplies, all our food comes from nature particularly plants e.g. wheat, and animals.
2. Maintain our supply of raw materials for important industries e.g. timber and rubber.
3. Maintain the irreplaceable source of medicines and potential source of new medicines.
4. Maintain biodiversity to develop new more efficient crop plants and livestock animals.
5. Maintain the ‘balance of nature’ – if one species goes extinct it may lead to the extinction of others.
6. Maintain our recreational use of the natural environment e.g. unpolluted beaches.
7. Scientific: each species lost is ‘a missing page in the big book of life’ and the less we know of life.
8. Every species has a right to exist – we are wrong if our activities lead to the extinction of any species.
9. Our survival: we should not pass the biosphere to the next generation in a worse condition than we got it
or if we protect habitats for other species we protect the biosphere for ourselves.
10. Natural ecosystems, e.g. forest and grassland, give us immense pleasure because we find them beautiful
(c) Conservation Practice any one
1. Planting trees in deforested agricultural land returning it to its original habitat and community of
organisms.
2. Maintaining hedgerows, or planting hedgerows, so they can function as ‘corridors’ linking separated
forests allowing migration them increasing the chance of species survival.
3. Removing a section of farmland from agricultural use and ‘setting-it-aside’ for recolonisaton by nature.
4. Control of the use of industrial fertilisers in farming to prevent pollution of freshwater and coastal
seawater habitats.
2. (a) Pollution: any human activity that contaminates any part of the biosphere that leads to unfavourable changes
in the natural community of organisms.
(b) Pollution of Air: burning fossil fuels. or
Pollution of Water: the use of industrial fertilisers in farming.
(c) Counteracting the Burning of Fossil Fuels any one
1. Carbon tax: extra charge placed on carbon fuels and paid to the government.
2. Catalytic converters in internal combustion engines e.g. in cars and trucks.
3. Financial incentives to switch to nuclear power or renewable forms of energy e.g. wind, wave, tide.
4. Financial incentive to switch from car to bicycle for travel to work.
or
Counteracting Use of Industrial Fertilisers any one
1. Replace industrial fertilizers with organic fertilisers.
2. Legislation to impose severe financial penalties for use of industrial fertilisers over a set limit.
3. Diligent monitoring of aquatic habitats to detect the sources of industrial fertiliser pollution.
4. Financial incentives for ‘organic farming’.

3. (a) Example of Pollution: burning of fossil fuels e.g. combustion of coal, oil, natural gas, peat.
(b) Named Pollutant: carbon dioxide gas or CO2
Effect: This form of pollution is causing an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air enhancing
the ‘Greenhouse Effect’ leading to ‘global warming’ - an increase in the temperature of the atmosphere. This
warming may result in climate change leading to increase desertification, sea level rise due thermal expansion
and the melting of land ice (especially Antarctica) leading to reduced land surface and ‘drowning’ of coastal
cities. Plant communities may change becoming dominated by species that thrive best at higher CO2 levels.
(c) Pollution Control/Prevention see also the answer to question 2 (c)

1. Removal of CO2 from the exhaust gases of fossil fuel power stations.
2. Collection and burial (in disused oil fields) of the CO2 fossil fuel power stations
3. Legislation to limit the CO2 emissions by a country.
4. Financial incentives to use ‘green’ cars powered by electricity not by fossil fuels.
(d) Apologies: this part should be in a different question dealing with waste management not pollution – will
have this sorted out for next year.
Waste management is the active control by law of the disposal of materials no longer wanted by others.
Waste disposal is a major form of pollution if it is not controlled. There are many other problems such as the
enormous amount of waste, some wastes are dangerous (poisonous, radioactive, has pathogens) and many
people do not want waste-management facilities e.g. incinerators, in their neighbourhood. The best approach
is the 3Rs – reduce, reuse, recycle. Waste management is very expensive.
[The information has to be given in a paragraph – therefore it must be in the form of continuous prose not a set of
numbered points. In the paragraph get as many ideas as you can – don’t just deal with one idea in detail, the topic is waste
management in general not just one aspect of it.]
4. (a) Waste Disposal Problems any three

1. There is an enormous quantity of waste that has to be managed and the amount of waste increase with an
increase in population and wealth.
2. People object strongly to the placement of waste management facilities in their neighbourhood - landfill,
sewage treatment plants and incinerators – due to fears of pollution, smell, increased traffic and lower value
on their houses..
3. Many types of waste pollute the environment and may need separation and special treatment.
4. Some wastes are dangerous to our health and dangerous to handle – poisonous, radioactive or contaminated
with pathogens – and will need special methods of management.
5. Waste management is very expensive and may result in illegal unsafe unregulated disposal activity.
(b) Waste Management Example
An example of waste management is the reuse of glass. The empty glass bottles are brought to the ‘bottle
bank’ and sorted into separate bins for green, clear and brown glass. The glass is collected and brought to
a glass treatment plant where it may be melted down to make new glass objects.
[Note that the question asked for an outline – an outline just means the main ideas only, details are not required; take the
word outline as a warning from the examiner in that you do not have time for a detailed account.]

5. (a) Waste Management Increasing Difficult: Reasons any two
See answer to question 4 (a) – same question just asked in a different way.
(b) Waste Management in Agriculture [can’t be asked just one because the syllabus allows you to choose, from
the three mentioned, which one you like to study]
Slurry is organic waste from the farm – it may be livestock egesta and/ or the waste liquid from silage
production. The slurry may be made more fluid by adding water and then spread on dry agricultural land in
dry weather as an organic fertiliser.
(c) Minimising Waste
1. Reduce the amount of packaging material surrounding consumer goods.
2. Reuse the waste e.g. beer bottles are collected, washed and sterilized to be serve the same purpose again.
3. Recycle the waste – the disposed material is collected and treated to be made into new products with a
different function e.g. the plastic of plastic bottles used to make garden furniture.
4. Reduce consumer demand for non-essential goods by wage reduction, increased pricing.
5. Miniaturisation: reduce the size of consumer goods e.g. computers, radios, TVs.
[The question asked for some ways therefore at least two must be given and in this case only two were needed.]
(d) Micro-organisms in Waste Management any one
1. Saprophytic bacteria and fungi in compost bins using waste food from the kitchen making organic fertiliser.
2. Bacteria and fungi of decay breaking down human egesta in sewage treatment plants or septic tanks.
3. Bacteria breaking down farm livestock egesta (pig and cattle slurry) and the methane (natural gas) produced
by the bacteria can be used as an energy source.
{The subsections of the question were labelled badly – should have read (a), (b), (c), (d) and not (a), (c), (d), (e)}
Unit 1 is now completed.

Unit 1 is worth at least 25% of the exam and maybe 32.5% if any of its four Mandatory Practical
Activities turn up in Section B of the examination paper.
There must be 2 questions from Unit 1in Section A of the exam paper – 40 marks.
One question in Section C must come from Unit 1 – 60 marks.
Make sure you know the answers to all the past paper questions and understand why each is the
correct answer – it is much easier to learn and recall information if you understand the topic.
Work away steadily on this developing ‘quiz book’ and try to learn the answers to each chapter
before the next set of ‘chapter answers’ are posted on this website.

Unit 2. The Cell
Chapter 6. Cell Structure

1.
Structure Cytoplasm Cell Wall Chloroplast ucleus Vacuole

Animal Cell √ √ √
Plant Cell √ √ √ √
2. (a) A: Cell Wall, B: Nucleus, C: Cytoplasm, D: Vacuole

(b) 1. Cell Wall or A
2. Vacuole or D
3. Chloroplast [Not labelled but are the bold large black dots in the cytoplasm.]
4. Definite Shape [The cell wall is solid and gives the plant cell a definite shape.]
[Do not have to name the structures can give the label letter. You cannot be penalised twice for a mistake – if you do not
know the name in (a) then the correct label letter will get you the marks.]
(c) Cell Sap or Sap or Water or Metabolic Wastes or Food (glucose, amino acids) or Salts
(d) Cellulose [Cellulose is the major polysaccharide forming the cell walls of plants.]
3.
Column A Column B
Contains chlorophyll Chloroplast
Site of protein formation Ribosome
Site of energy release Mitochondrion
Site of storage of water, salts and sugars Vacuole
Allows osmosis to occur Cell membrane
4, (i) Ribosome: protein synthesis or the translation of mRNA into a specific sequence of amino acids
(ii) Cell Membrane: 1. Allows osmosis to occur.
2. Controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell.
3. Acts as a protective barrier against pathogens and toxins.
4. Communication role as it has receptors for hormones and neurotransmitters.
5. Has ‘self-recognition’ chemicals preventing attack from the immune system.
6. Holds all the cell contents together and so the cell can work as an efficient unit.
[Only one function needed in the answer for a function of the cell membrane.]
5. (a) (i) Tissue: a group of cells specialised to carry out a specific function for the organism.
(ii) Animal Tissues: any two
Muscular or Connective or Nervous or Epithelial [these are the four basic animal tissues]
Skeletal or Adipose or Blood – [these are different forms of connective tissue]
(b) (i) Tissue Culture: the in vitro growth and multiplication of cells by mitosis, in an artificial nutrient
liquid medium. [in vitro: means ‘in glass’ – the cells are reproducing outside the body of the organism]
(ii) Oxygen or O2 or Air [aerobic respiration supplies almost twenty times more energy than anaerobic respiration

(iii) 37°C [this is normal human body temperature at which human enzyme action will be very efficient]
(iv) 1. Competition for nutrients from other types of living cells e.g bacteria, could inhibit skin tissue growth. or
2. Contamination by otther types of cells could kill the skin cells. or
3. The skin cells could be become infected and pass this infection onto the recipient of the skin graft.
(v) Mitosis [mitotic cell division produces cells that are genetically identical to the original parent cells]
(vi) Application of Mitosis any one
Production of virus free plants using apical meristems in micropropagatgion.
Growing cancer cells for research.
Growing specific B lymphocytes to harvest the specific antibody they produce.
Making vaccines against virus diseases by growing the specific host cell for the virus to reproduce.
Multiplication of ‘stem cells’ for transfer into a patient.
6. Eukaryotic Cell – unique feature

It has a membrane- bound nucleus – its DNA is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane or
It has mitochondria.
It has chloroplasts.
It has membrane-bound internal cell organelles.
7. (i) False [the magnification is X40; Total Magnification = Eyepiece Lens x Objective Lens]
(ii) True [chloroplasts are the cell organelles that carry out photosynthesis]
(iii) True [cell membranes are selectively permeable – they control what substances can pass across them]
(iv) True [human cells are eukaryotic, their DNA is in a nucleus separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane]
8. Unfortunately numbered as a second 6 in the book. – apologies for this.

A: Eyepiece Lens or Ocular Lens or Eyepiece
B: Objective Lens
[for extra revision label the following on the diagram in the book: C: coarse focus wheel, D: fine focus wheel, E: stage,
F: stage clip, G: condenser or iris or diaphragm, H: condenser adjuster, I: light source]
Magnification: X400 [Total Magnification = Eyepiece x Objective = X10 x X40 = X400]
9. Unfortunately numbered as a second 7 in the book. – apologies again for this.

(i) Cell Type: human cheek cell
Obtained: gently scraping the inside cheek surface of the mouth with a sterile toothpick
(ii) Stain: Methylene |Blue
Application: using a dropper a few drops of the stain are placed on the ‘cheek scrape’ which has been
positioned in the middle of a glass slide, allow a few minutes for the ‘scrape’ to soak in the stain, then
remove the excess stain with filter paper.
(iii) Reason for Coverslip any one
Makes the image brighter and much easier to see at high magnificaiton
Prevents the cell drying out keeping them moist and maintaining their shape.
Protect the objective lenses during focusing.
Helps to keep the cells (material for study) in place.
(iv) How |Coverslip Applied
The coverslip is held at a 45° angle against a pencil or needle and gently and slowly lowered over the scrape.
[before putting on the coverslip a couple of drops of water are placed on the stained scrape]
or The coverslip is held horizontal just above the scrape and dropped directly onto it [this method is only for
highly skilled microscopists]
Why this technique? to prevent air bubbles forming under the coverslip

[air bubbles will look like small thick-walled black rings with a clear centre and easily mistaken for cell structures by
inexperienced students of biology]
(v) The nucleus is very dark blue. The cytoplasm is very pale blue.
10. Unfortunately numbered as a second 8 in the book. – apologies accepted I hope.

(i) Onion
(ii) The onion bulb is cut vertically in half with a knife; a thick fleshy leaf is pulled out from one half exposing
The concave surface of the next leaf; this surface is covered with a layer of living cells one cell deep; peel
away a part of this layer with a forceps and cut a small piece from it for microscopic study using a scissors
or blade.
(iii) Iodine
(iv) using a dropper a few drops of the stain are placed on the ‘cheek scrape’ which has been
positioned in the middle of a glass slide, allow a few minutes for the ‘scrape’ to soak in the stain, then
remove the excess stain with filter paper and transfer to the slide with a forceps or small artist’s brush.
[It is important that you name the instruments that you used in this procedure.]
(v) The excess stain was removed by soaking it up with filter paper, then a couple of drops of water were placed
over the stained cells after which a a coverslip was placed over the tissue.
(vi) 1. The cells are surrounded by a cell wall – animal cells do not have a cell wall.
2. The cells have a large central vacuole – a large vacuole is not present in animal cells.
3. The cells are much larger than animal cells.
[Onion epidermal cells do not have chloroplasts but if you used a moss leaf chloroplasts would be visible;
if you used potato tissue then starch grains would have be visible – chloroplasts and starch grains are not present in animal
cells.]
[In Unit 2 the syllabus only requires a study of plant and animal cells; cells of fungi are studied in Unit 3 – the hyphae of
Rhizopus and yeast cells have a cell wall plus a large central vacuole and so in the early days of biology these organisms
were placed in the plant kingdom but today the fungi have a kingdom all to themselves]
Chapter 7. Movement Through Cell Membranes

1. (a) Osmosis:
The movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a
region of lower water concentration. or
The movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from a more dilute to a more concentrated solution.
The diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to
region of lower water concentration. [Osmosis is a specific example of diffusion.]
[Some definitions use terms such hypotonic and osmotic potential to compare the regions on the opposite sides of the semi-
permeable membrane – these terms do no apply to our syllabus.]
(b) Example of Osmosis in Plants any one
1. Absorption of water from the soil by plant roots.
2. Gain and loss of water by the guard cell controlling the opening and closing of stomata.
3. Gain of water by plant cells in the elongation zone of roots leading to the increase in size.
4. Gain of water by the ground tissue of leaves giving support to the leaves.

(c) Selectively Permeable or Semi-permeable Membrane
A thin flexible boundary sheet that allows water to pass through but does not allow all dissolved substances
(solutes) to pass through.
[When explaining biological terms do not use the words to explain themselves – so ideally here do not use the ‘membrane’
or ‘permeable’.]
(d) Osmosis a Special Case of Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of a fluid substance (liquid, gas, solute in solution) from where it is in higher
concentration to where it is in lower concentration. In osmosis water moves through a semi-permeable
membrane that separates two solutions of different concentrations – the direction of water flow is from the
more dilute solution (higher water concentration) to a more concentrated solution (lower water concentration).
Therefore osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane.
2. The cell sap of the outermost cells of the root has a lower water concentration than the soil water or
The cell sap of the outermost cells of the root is more concentrated than the soil water or
The cell sap of the outermost cells of the root has a higher solute concentration than soil water.
3. (a) Demonstrating Osmosis Diagram
(b) 1. Set up as shown in the labelled diagram in (a).

2. The Visking tubing was not completely filled – the excess air at the top was squeezed out before tying the top
knot – this allows space for t .
3. The control tube holds tap water – it is pure water, 100% water, more dilute than the solution in the
experiment tube.
4. Before placing the ‘tubes’ in water they were ere dried on the outside, their mass was measured with a top pan
balance and then squeezed gently to gauge their firmness which was also recorded.
5. The apparatus was allowed to stand for 30 minutes.
6. After immersion the tubes were dried as before, their mass and firmness was measured and recorded and
compared to their original mass and firmness.
(c) Results
No change in the control – same mass and firmness as it had before immersion in water.
Experiment – increase in mass and firmness plus the level of water in the beaker had decreased. (if the decrease
in water volume had been measured it would be found to be equal to the gain in mass by the ‘tube’.)
(d) Explanation of Results
Control: there was no gain or loss in mass because osmosis did not occur as there was no difference in water
concentration between the contents of the tube and the external water in the beaker.

Experiment: the gain in mass was due to a gain of water – water moved into the ‘tube’ by osmosis because the
Visking tubing is semi-permeable and the water concentration in the ‘tube’ was lower than in the liquid outside.
Chapter 8. Cell Continuity – Mitosis and Meiosis

1. (i) The nuclei of the somatic cells are direct mitotic descendents of the nucleus of the original zygote and so
are genetically identical to it and so are genetically identical to each other.
Part of the preparation for mitosis is the replication of DNA, the genetic material, and during mitosis the
‘original’ and the ‘copy’ are separated into two different nuclei.
[Somatic cells are the ‘body cells’ and in humans are diploid with 46 chromosomes that contain the DNA – the somatic cells
are produced by mitotic cell division. Diploid means that the nuclei contain two sets of chromosomes; in our case two sets of
23 chromosomes – each of the 23 chromosomes in a set has a unique collection of genes in a specific sequence along it.]
[The non-somatic cells are the gametes (sex cells), sperm and egg, which are haploid being produced by meiotic cell division.
Meiosis is therefore often described as a reduction division’.]
(ii) Gamete or Sex Cell or Sperm or Egg
[The DNA of these cells is only half the amount that is present in the somatic cells.]
2. (a) Interphase [The interval between the end of the cell division and the first visible signs of the next division.]
(b) Transcription, Replication (duplication), Uncoiling (decondensation) any two
[Transcription is the copying of the genetic information of the DNA into messenger RNA in the nucleus which is followed by
its translation in the cytoplasm by ribosomes into a specific protein.]
[Replication is the copying of the DNA doubling up the quantity of DNA in the nucleus.]
or about 10,000 longer that the chromosomes – the uncoiled DNA is now is a condition for transcription of its genes.]
(c) 1. Prophase, 2. Metaphase, 3. Anaphase, 4. Telophase
(d) Anaphase or Stage 3
[The spindle fibres do not contract, they shorten are not like muscle fibres; shorten by disassemble of their subunits.]
(e) Diploid; the nucleus contains
(i) two sets of chromosomes or
(ii) two of each different chromosome or
(iii) chromosomes in pairs.
(f) Cancer or Named Cancer
[Cancer is a genetic disorder caused by mutation in genes that regulate cell division.]
3. (a) 6 [ Animals are diploid, just like flowering plant, so the number of chromosomes in the nucleus is the diploid
number. Ideally theses should be clearly shown as two long, two medium and two short chromosomes.]
(b) 6 [Mitotic cell division produces two daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.]
(c) 3 [Meiotic cell division produces four daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.]
(d) 1. Reproduction or Multiplication or Increase in population
2. Growth by increase in cell number or Repair of damaged tissue or Cell replacement e.g. red blood cells
or Multiplication of Lympocytes, B and T, for defence or Ensure that all thesomatic cells are
genetically identical.

4. (a) A: Chromosome or Chromatid, B: Centromere C: Spindle Fibre or Spindle
(b) Stage: Metaphase
Reason: the chromosomes are arranged along the equator (equatorial plane) of the cell and each
chromosome is connected to both sides of the cell by spindle fibres.
(c) 4 [Each chromosome is X shaped because it is composed of the original DNA and its copy that was produced
during replication just before mitosis began; so an X-shaped chromosome is really two condensed DNAs and each is known
as a chromatid – when the sister chromatids separate they are renamed as chromosomes.]
(d) Chromosomes contain the genetic or inheritance material, DNA, and so carry the genes. The genes carry
the information, in the form of a chemical code, for the formation of specific proteins.
(e) Role of Meiosis in Humans: production of the haploid sex cells (gametes), the sperm and egg cells.
[Role of meiosis in flowering plants is the production, in flowers of haploid microspores (male spores) in the anther of the
stamen and megaspores (female spores) in the ovule of the ovary of the carpel of the flower. The microspores germinate to
produce the pollen grains and a megaspore to produce the embryo sac.]
5. Diagram: Metaphase of Mitosis 2n =6
2n = 6 (n = 3)
Therefore six chromosomes.
Diploid: therefore two of each chromosome.
Here the chromosomes have been
distinguished by length: two long, two
medium and two short.
Metaphase: therefore the chromosomes are
arranged along the equatorial plane of the
cell.
There is not particular sequence of the
chromosomes along the middle of the cell.
Each chromosome is connected to both sides
of the cell by spindle fibres.
Must show the spindle fibres connected to
the centromere.
6. (a) (i) A: spindle fibre B:chromosome

(ii) Anaphase
(iii) Two sets of identical chromosomes being pulled to opposite sides of the cell.
[The pairs of structures at opposite ends of the cell at the origin of the spindle are the centrioles but these cell organelles are
not on the leaving cert syllabus.]
[The two transcellular spindle fibres, although realistic, confuse the normal diagram drawn for anaphase.]
(iv) Two identical sets of chromosomes, identical to those of the parent nucleus are being separated to the
opposite sides of the cell where each set will go to form a nucleus – this will result in two daughter
nuclei genetically identical to each other and to the original parent nucleus.

(v) 2
(b) Difference Between Mitosis and Meiosis any one
1. Mitosis produces two daughter nuclei, meiosis four.
2. The daughter nuclei of mitosis are genetically identical to each other and the parent nucleus, those
from meiosis are genetically different to each other and to the parent nucleus.
3. Chromosome number of the daughter nuclei of mitosis is identical to that of the parent nucleus, the
chromosome number of the daughter nuclei of meiosis is half of that of the parent nucleus.
4. Mitosis can occur in haploid and diploid cells but meiosis only in diploid cells.
[There are other differences but they are not part of the leaving cert syllabus e.g. mitosis is a single division of the nucleus
whereas meiosis involves a double division and crossing-over occurs in meiosis but not mitosis.]
(c) Causes of Cancer any two
1. Mutation
2. Mutagen or Carcinogen
3. Nuclear radiation, X-rays, UV light – these are examples of physical carcinogenic agents.
4. Benzene, mustard gas, cigarette smoke – these are examples of chemical carcinogenic agents.
5. Viruses – example of a biological carcinogens.
6. Faulty DNA replication.
7. Example: True
1. True, 2. True, 3. False, 4. False, 5. True
8. same as question 5 in chapter 6
9. same as question 1 in this chapter.
[The correct understanding of mitosis and meiosis is that they are processes by which nuclei divide – they are not cell
division. In most cases after mitosis and meiosis the parent cell divides between the new nuclei forming new cells. In some
cases in the leaving cert syllabus mitosis and meiosis are not followed by the division of the cytoplasm between the new
nuclei e.g. the nuclei scattered thoughout the cyptoplasm in the hyphae of Rhizopus, the formation of the binucleate pollen
grain when the microspore undergoes mitosis, the formation of male gametes by mitosis of the generative nucleus in the
pollen tube, the formation of the embryo sac when the megaspore nucleus divides by three mitotic divisions.]

Chapter 9: Enzymes
1. (a) Metabolism: the sum total of all the different biochemical reactions that take place in a living organism.
(b) Role of Enzymes in Metabolism: enzymes are protein biological catalysts that speed up the rate of specific
biochemical reactions both within and outside living cells and allow the reactions to occur at low temperature
producing maximum product with minimum wasteful byproducts.
(c) Influencing Factor: any one
1. Temperature 2. pH these are the two factors mentioned in the syllabus
3. Co-factors: (a) co-enzymes e.g. Co-enzyme A (b) metallic ions e.g. calcium
4. Inhibitors 5. Regulatory molecules
2. (i) Enzyme: a protein, made by living cells, that functions as a biological catalyst.
(ii) Substrate
(iii) Enzyme Shape: the enzyme is globular in form due to folding of the amino acid chain; the enzyme has a
location called the active site that is complementary in shape to its specific substrate; only the substrate can
bind closely to the active site where it is rapidly converted to the products – the shape of the active site
determines which specific chemical reaction the enzyme speeds up.
(iv) Protein
(v) Ribosome [Enzymes are proteins and protein synthesis takes place at the ribosomes by the translation of mRNA.]
(vi) Protein
(vii) Optimum pH: the pH at which the enzymes works fastest without denaturing or
the hydrogen ion concentration at which the enzyme works fastest without denaturing.
(viii) Denatured: the shape of the enzyme’s active site has changed resulting in the protein’s inability to function
as a biological catalyst.
(ix) Structural Protein any one
1. Keratin Role: formation of hair or nails or outer dead layer of the skin
2. Myosin Role: contraction of skeletal muscle or cardiac muscle
3. Collagen Role: connective tissue layer of arteries and veins or tendons or ligaments
[Keratin and myosin are the structural proteins mentioned in the syllabus.]
3. (a) Protein
(b) Amino Acids
4. Substrate: the substance on which the enzyme acts speeding up it chemical change to it products e.g. starch is the
substrate of amylase and is converted to maltose which is a reducing sugar.
Catabolic: a biochemical change, speeded up by enzymes, converting a large molecule into smaller products e.g.
digestion and respiration.
5. (a) Amylase
(b) Mouth or Small Intestine or Named Part of Small Intestine e.g. Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum.
[The stomach is not accepted for marks even though amylase in saliva continues to work in the stomach for up to half an
hour much longer than food remains in the mouth.]
(c) Maltose or glucose [Amylases are a group of enzymes that breakdown starch and glycogen.]
(d) pH 7 or pH 8
(e) Optimum
(f) 37°C
(g) folded or globular

6. (i) Bioreactor: a large sterile vessel, usually stainless steel, in which biological agents are used to produce
biochemicals of commercial value.
[The biological agents may be organisms, cells, cell organelles or enzymes.]
(ii) Immobilisation: the enzymes are not free in solution – the enzymes fixed onto or inside a solid material.
(iii) Immobilising Substance: agar
(iv) Advantages any two
1. Easier purification of the product – the enzyme is much easier to separate from the product solution or the
enzyme is not in the product solution.
2. Easier to recover the enzyme for reuse.
3. The enzymes are more stable maintaining their catalytic ability for much loner.
4. Allows for efficient continuous flow processing.
5. More cost efficient in many bioprocessing procedures.
(v) Named Immobilised Enzyme plus Product plus Substrate any one
1. Sucrase is the enzyme: glucose and fructose are the products and sucrose (table sugar) is the substrate
2. Glucose Isomerase is the enzyme; fructose is the product and glucose is the substrate.
(vi) The enzymes may react with and damage the hair, skin and eyes surface which are made of protein.
7. (i) Enzyme 1: Amylase Substrate: Starch or Enzyme 2: Catalase Substrate: Hydrogen Peroxide
(ii) Labelled Diagram
[Controls were not included in this question: there must be a control at each pH– the control is an identical procedure but
has a non-active material as a substitute for the enzyme e.g. water for the amylase solution and glass beads for the finely
chopped radish.]

(iii) Varied pH: using specific pH buffers e.g. pH buffer 4, pH buffer 6, pH buffer 7, pH buffer 8, pH buffer 10
(iv) Constant Factor any one
1. Temperature 2. Enzyme 3. Substrate
[It is not enough to keep the temperature constant, it must be at a suitable value to ensure that the enzyme can work
efficiently i.e. 37°C for amylase, 25°C for catalase.]
(v) How Kept Constant
1. Temperature: using a heated water bath and temperature continuously monitored with a thermometer.
2. Enzyme: (a) Amylase – using the same volume of the same amylase stock solution.
(b) Catalase - using the same mass of finely chopped fresh radish at each pH.
3. Substrate: using the same volume of the same substrate stock solution
(vi) Graph

8. (i) Enzyme 1: Amylase or Enzyme 2: Catalase
(ii) Substrate 1: Starch Substrate 2: Hydrogen Peroxide
(iii) Labelled Diagram: same diagram as in question 7 for temperatures greater than room temperature.
(iv) Constant Factor any one
1. pH 2. Enzyme 3. Substrate
(v) How Kept Constant
1.pH: using a specific pH buffer – pH buffer 8 for amylase, pH buffer 7.4 for catalase.
2. Enzyme: (a) Amylase – using the same volume of the same amylase stock solution.
(b) Catalase - using the same mass of chopped fresh radish at each pH.
3. Substrate: using the same volume of the same substrate stock solution.
(vi) How Temperature Was Varied
0°C: use an ice cold water bath.
Room Temperature (20°C): let the reaction vessel (test tube, graduated cylinder) stand in the room.
Greater then Room Temperature: use a heated water bath e.g. 30°C, 37°C, 50°C, 60°C, 70°C.
(vii) How pH Kept Constant: using a specific pH buffer – pH buffer 8 for amylase, pH buffer 7.4 for catalase.
[It is not enough to keep the pH constant, it must be at a suitable value to ensure that the enzyme can work efficiently i.e.
at its optimum pH – pH 8 for amylase, pH 7.4 for catalase.]
(viii) How Rate of Enzyme Action Measured
Amylase: record the time taken to get the first yellow-brown starch test result using iodine;
Rate = (the shorter the time the faster the rate of enzyme action)
Catalase: record the height of froth after one minute; Rate ≈ Height
(the higher the froth the greater the rate of enzyme action)
(ix) End of Enzyme Activity
Amylase: the yellow-brown colour using iodine indicated that starch was not present, it had been completely
broken down to reducing sugar.
Catalase: when no more oxygen bubbles are given off then enzyme activity has stopped, this is because all the
hydrogen peroxide has been converted to water and oxygen - (the enzyme activity has not ended
after one minute but its rate greatly slows down due to a big reduction in the amount of hydrogen
peroxide present).
(x) Result: Enzyme activity is very low at 0°C but increases as the temperature rises to 37°C and then declines as
the temperature rises beyond this and at very high temperatures there is no enzyme activity.
(xi) Graph

[Controls were not included in this question: there must be a control at each temperature – the control is an identical
procedure but has a non-active material as a substitute for the enzyme e.g. water for the amylase solution and glass beads
for the finely chopped radish.]
[Amylase and catalase are the two most commonly used enzymes for the Mandatory Practical Activities involving enzymes –
make your choice which you are going to learn, amylase or catalase; do not do both.]
9. (i) Enzyme 1: Amylase or Enzyme 2: Catalase

(ii) Substrate 1: Starch Substrate 2: Hydrogen Peroxide
(iii) Heat Denaturation Activity
1. Half of the stock amylase solution or finely chopped fresh radish is heated in a boiling water bath at
100°C for 15 minutes – this procedure denatures the enzymes.
2. Allow the amylase solution to cool to 37°C or chopped radish (catalase source) to cool to 25°C.
3. Set up as shown in the labelled diagram below.
4. The temperature is kept constant at a suitable level, 37°C for amylase or 25°C for catalase using a heated
water bath.
5. The pH is kept constant at the optimum pH using a specific buffer, pH buffer 8 for amylase or
pH buffer 7.4 for catalase.
6. The control has the same volume of stock native enzyme solution instead of the denatured enzyme.
7. The control and the experiment have the same volume of the same stock substrate solution – this ensures
that the substrate is constant.
8. Every minute a tiny sample of the control and the experiment is tested for starch using iodine.
[Control: the procedure using the native enzyme. Experiment: the procedure using the denatured enzyme.]
Labelled Diagram
(iv) Results

Amylase: control – after a short time, e.g.10 minutes, the starch test produces a yellow-brown colour –
this indicates that starch is no longer present.
experiment – the starch test always produces a blue-black colour -
this indicates that starch is not being broken down.
Catalase: control – frothing takes place – this indicates that hydrogen peroxide is being broken down.
experiment – no frothing – this indicates that hydrogen peroxide is not being broken down.
[Conclusion: heat denaturation of the enzyme destroys it ability to act as a catalyst.]
10. (i) Enzyme Immobilisation: biological catalysts that are not in solution but are fixed in position by being
attached on or trapped in a suspended solid.
(ii) Sucrase or Yeast [The yeast is the source of sucrose – when sucrose sugar, a disaccharide, is detected the yeast
cells are stimulated to produce sucrose which breaks down sucrose to glucose and fructose monosaccharides.]
(iii) Immobilising the Enzyme: Diagram
(iv) Immobilising the Enzyme

1. Thoroughly mix the sodium alginate solution and the yeast suspension using a stirring rod.
(a) The sodium alginate solution will form the solid gel in which the enzyme/yeast will be trapped.
(b) The yeast suspension is the source of the sucrose – the enzyme being immobilised.
2. Draw the mixture into a syringe.
3. Gently squeeze drops of the mixture into a beaker containing a solution of calcium chloride.
(c) The calcium chloride hardens the sodium alginate drops into solid beads of jelly.
4. The spherical beads of immobilized enzyme/yeast are allowed to harden in the calcium chloride solution.
5. The immobilized enzyme beads are collected in a strainer and rinsed in water.
(v) Diagram: investigating activity of immobilised enzymes

(vi) Investigating Activity of Immobilised Enzyme
1. An equal volume of sucrose solution is placed in each bottle.
2. (a) Gel beads with immobilised yeast are placed in one bottle – the experiment.
(b) A yeast suspension, i.e. free yeast, is placed in the second bottle – the control.
3. The two bottles are held in the hands and constantly swirled. [This mimics as stirred reactor.]
The hands warm the bottles speeding up the action of the enzyme.
4. Every minute a small drop from each is squeezed onto a plastic sheet and tested for glucose using glucose
test strip e.g. clinistix or diastrix.
5. Results: (a) Glucose appears much sooner in the free yeast bottle.
(b) The ‘immobilised yeast’bottle is much clearer than the rather cloudy ‘free yeast’ bottle.
(c) It is easy to separate the immobilised yeast from the nutrient/product solution – it is very
difficult to separate the free yeast from the nutrient/product solution.
(v) Immobilised Enzyme Advantage any one
1. Easier purification of the product – the enzyme is much easier to separate from the product solution or the
enzyme is not in the product solution.
2. Easier to recover the enzyme for reuse.
3. The enzymes are more stable maintaining their catalytic ability for much loner.
4. Allows for efficient continuous flow processing.
5. More cost efficient in many bioprocessing procedures.

Chapter 10: Photosynthesis
1. (a) (i) No food made by plants so all plants and heterotrophic organisms would die.
(ii) No oxygen made by plants – eventual de-oxygenation of the atmosphere and death of all aerobic organisms.
(b) Autotrophic or Photosynthetic Autotrophism
2. (a) 6CO2 + 6H2O + light + chlorophyll → C6H12O6 + CO2 or

chlorophyll
6CO2 + 6H2O + light C6H12O6 + CO2
(b) The Sun
3. Leaf
4. (a) Gas A: Carbon Dioxide

(b) Gas B: Oxygen
(c) Sunlight or Light or Sun
(d) (i) Burning of fossil fuels, (ii) Respiration, (iii) Volcanic Activity
(e) 1. Remains inside the plant and used for its aerobic respiration.
2. The excess not needed for aerobic respiration is released from the plant into the external environment.
5. (a) ,ote that the question asked for openings so all three in the diagram should be labelled.
(b) A: stomata.
(c) Factor: Carbon dioxide concentration of the air in the internal air spaces of the leaf.
CO2 is the factor mentioned in the syllabus. Best to stick to the syllabus to ensure you gain the marks.
or Blue light or Temperature or Wind or Low Humidity or Low Soil Water or Abscisic Acid
(d) Oxygen or Water
(e) See diagram: the layer of cells (palisade cell layer) labelled B: highest concentration of chloroplasts in the
best illuminated part of the leaf – densest packing of chloroplast-rich cells.
(f) Chloroplasts
(g) Water
(h) The upper layer of the ground tissue of the leaf or the layer of chloroplast-rich cells directly below the
upper dermal layer of the leaf – ‘palisade mesophyll’.

[The name ‘palisade mesophyll’ is not in the syllabus – mesophyll just means ‘middle leaf’ (mesos = middle, phyllon = leaf)
and palisade is a fence of pointed pieces of wood.]
[The cells have the highest number and concentration of chloroplasts – the light intensity in this part of the photosynthetic
ground tissue is at it highest with the maximum potential for photosynthesis.]
6. (a) Chloroplast or in the internal green membranes of the chloroplasts or grana

[The syllabus does not require you to know the detail structure of the chloroplast just be able to recognise it from an outline
diagram or photograph; grana, stroma, lamellae (thylakoids), outer and inner membranes are not required.]
(b) Chloroplast [Just different ways of asking the same question.}
[Maybe as many as a hundred chloroplast in each of the cells in the upper layer of the ground tissue of the leaf.]
7. (a) The first stage, the light phase, needs light to produces ATP and NADPH. NADPH carroes high energy
electrons and hydrogen ions (protons), produced by the splitting of water, to the dark phase. Oxygen is a waste
product of the light phase..
The second stage, the dark phase, is not directly dependent on light. Here carbon dioxide is converted to
carbohydrate when supplied with electrons and hydrogen ions from NADPH. The energy to make
carbohydrate is supplied by ATP from the light phase.
(b) Energised Electron: an electron in chlorophyll that has gained energy by absorbing light energy and moves
out to a higher orbit and is transferred to an electron acceptor molecule.
(c) ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate
(ii) Light Stage [In pathway 1and pathway 2: in pathway 1 from an energised electron from chlorophyll, in
pathway 2 from a high energy electron released from water.]
8. (a) 1. Electrons, 2. Hydrogen Ions (protons), 3. Oxygen

(b) 1. Electron Fate: passed along an electron transport chain - where some of its energy is released and used to
make ATP - to chlorophyll replacing an energised electron it lost to pathway 2.
2. Hydrogen Ions (protons) Fate: join the proton pool in the chloroplast and then picked up by NADP- - which
then becomes NADPH – and carried into the dark stage to react with carbon dioxide.
3. Oxygen Fate: passes out of the chloroplast, some is used by the mitochondria for aerobic respiration and the
remainder is ‘excreted’ from the plant into the external environment.
9. Pathway 1
(a) Light energy is absorbed by an ‘energisable’ electron in the chlorophyll of a chloroplast.
(b) The energised electron ‘escapes’ from the chlorophyll and is captured by an electron acceptor.
(c) The energy rich electron is passed along an electron transport chain releasing its excess energy.
(d) The released energy is used to make ATP by the addition of a phosphate onto ADP.
(e) The electron now back to its original energy level returns to chlorophyll.
[The written account above could alternatively be given as a well labelled flow chart.]
Pathway 2
(a) Light energy is absorbed by an ‘energisable’ electron in the chlorophyll of a chloroplast.
(b) The energised electron ‘escapes’ from the chlorophyll and is captured by an electron acceptor.
(c) Two energised electrons are passed to NADP+ which becomes NADP-.
(d) The electron deficient chlorophylls stimulate the splitting of water in electrons, protons (H+) and oxygen.
(e) The electrons pass along an energy transport chain releasing energy which is used to make ATP; the electrons
then pass to electron deficient chlorophylls – these electrons are not the ones lost by chlorophyll.
(f) The protons (H+, hydrogen ions) join the proton pool in the chloroplast and then are picked up by NADP-
forming NADPH which moves into the dark stage.

10. (a) Role of Water
Supply of electrons and hydrogen ions (protons) for the dark phase – these are carried by NADP+ as NADPH.
The electrons from water also supply energy for the production of ATP which is also used in the dark phase.
Light energy is responsible for the rippling of electrons from water, therefore light energy is responsible for
the formation of ATP by the electrons from water.
The oxygen from water has no role in photosynthesis – if it is not removed it will inhibit photosynthesis.
(b) Role of Chlorophyll
The formation of ATP and NADPH involving energised electrons resulting from chlorophyll absorbing light energy.
The loss of energised electrons from chlorophyll leads to the splitting of water and in the formation of
(i) ATP – high energy electrons from water release energy as they pass along an electron transport chain
(ii) NADPH – from hydrogen ions (protons) and energised electrons captured by NADP+.
(iii) Oxygen Gas (O2) – some of the oxygen will be used for aerobic respiration and the remainder will be
‘excreted’ into the external environment.
11. The water molecules undergo photolysis splitting into electrons, hydrogen ions (protons) and oxygen gas.
[Light energy is responsible for this ‘destruction’ of water and that is why this splitting of the water is called photolysis
(photos = light, lysis = split apart, set free). Light is absorbed by electrons in chlorophyll and the loss of these energised
electrons makes chlorophyll electron deficient, the ‘electron hungry’ chlorophyll then pulls an electron from a water molecule
leading to its breakup.]
12. (a) Water

(b) Light Stage or Pathway Two of the Light Stage
(c) 1. Used by the plant for aerobic respiration. [The mitochondria of plant cells use oxygen in stage two of
respiration producing 36 of the 38 ATPs from the complete respiration of a molecule of glucose.]
2. ‘Excreted’ into the external environment.
[Free oxygen (O2) inhibits photosynthesis and so it removal from the chloroplasts is essential for photosynthesis to continue
to operate at a high level.]
13. NADP+ accepts two energised electrons from chlorophyll becoming NADP-
NADP- then accepts a proton (hydrogen ion), from water that has undergone photolysis, becoming NADPH
NADPH carries the high energy electrons and hydrogen ion into the dark phase delivering them to CO2
The reaction between CO2, electrons and hydrogen ion results in the formation of carbohydrate e.g. glucose
Having delivered its ‘passengers’ NADP+ returns to the light phase to pick up more electrons and a proton.
14. (a) Dark Stage or Light Independent Stage. (b) Supplies the carbon used in the formation of carbohydrate.
15. (a) Because light is not needed or used. This stage can operate in the absence of light (in darkness) as long as
ATP and NADPH are present.
(b) Carbon Dioxide or CO2
(c) ATP and NADPH.
(d) ATP supplies the energy to drive the anabolic reactions of the dark stage.
NADPH supplies the electrons and protons (hydrogen ions) that reduce the carbon dioxide to carbohydrate.
(e) Carbohydrate or monosaccharide or polysaccharide. [The question asked for group so glucose and starch would
not be acceptable answers as they are specific carbohydrates.]
16. ATP stores the energy of sunlight is the bond that holds the third phosphate to the second phosphate.
ATP releases this energy, in the dark stage, when the third phosphate breaks away forming ADP and P.
The energy is used to drive the anabolic reactions of the dark phase leading to the formation of carbohydrate
from carbon dioxide with electrons and protons (hydrogen ions) supplied from the light stage.

17. (a) The rate of photosynthesis is increasing as the light intensity or carbon dioxide concentration is increasing.
(b) The rate of photosynthesis has stopped increasing and is remaining constant at the highest level.
(c) Some factor, other than light intensity or carbon dioxide concentration, essential for photosynthesis is in short
Supply (limiting factor) preventing photosynthesis from increasing any further or chlorophyll has become a
limiting factor or the enzyme system has become a limiting factor or the photosynthetic system is light
saturated or the photosynthetic system is carbon dioxide saturated.
[Light and CO2 saturation although given marks is not an explanation – at best it is a description, the lowest level of that
factor for the highest rate of photosynthesis and at which some other factor begins to limit photosynthesis.]
(d) Sources of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide any two
1. Respiration or any example of respiration e.g. aerobic respiration or anaerobic respiration of plants and
fungi and certain bacterial or respiration of saprophytes (micro-organisms of decay)
2. The burning of fossil fuels.
3. Volcanic activity [Although not mentioned in the marking scheme volcanic activity contributes more carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere than the burning of fossil fuels.]
18. Increased Plant Yield In Greenhouses By Increasing Photosynthesis any one

1. Increased temperature – greenhouse effect of the glass or artificial heating.
2. Increased carbon dioxide – using kerosene burners or CO2 gas cylinders.
3. Increased light intensity – artificial lighting.
4. Increased light duration (longer ‘day length’) – artificial lighting.
19. (i) X: Pondwater or Water

Y: Pondweed or Elodea or Canadian Pondweed or Aquatic Plant
[Plant: not allowed for marks as this procedure does not work for land plants (terrestrial plants).]
(ii) Measuring the number of bubbles of oxygen gas given off per minute.
[Bubbles of equal size can be achieved by putting a couple of drops of washing up liquid in the water.]
(iii) Light Intensity or Carbon Dioxide Concentration [These are the two specifically mention in the syllabus.
(iv) How Varied any one
Light Intensity: by changing the distance of the lamp from the pondweed.
Carbon Dioxide Concentration: by using different amounts of sodium hydrogen carbonate to give different
concentrations of carbon dioxide solution or by different dilutions of a saturated carbon dioxide solution.
[Most students do light intensity, very rare for the carbon dioxide alternative to be carried out in the lab.]
(v) Other Factor to be kept Constant
If used light intensity in part (iv): CO2 concentration or Temperature or Chlorophyll Content
If use carbon dioxide concentration in part (iv): Light Intensity or Temperature or Chlorophyll Content
(vi) How Factor Mentioned in (V) Kept Constant (apologies for the bad numbering in the question)
Light Intensity: keep the lamp at the same distance and use a light meter to keep a check on the intensity.
CO2 concentration: use a saturated solution of CO2 by using excess sodium hydrogen carbonate in the water.
Temperature: use a heated water bath at 25°C and keep check with a thermometer.
Chlorophyll Content: use the same aquatic plant sample or the same mass of the same aquatic plant.

20. Labelled Diagram
1. Set up the apparatus as in the labelled diagram to investigate the effect of light intensity on photosynthesis.
2. The temperature is kept constant at 25°C using a heated water bath monitored using a thermometer.
3. The CO2 concentration is kept constant by using excess sodium hydrogen carbonate to give a saturated
solution of CO2.
4. The chlorophyll content is kept constant by using the same Elodea plant throughout the investigation.
5. The light intensity is varied by moving the lamp to different distances and measuring with a light meter.
6. At each new light intensity the plant is given 5 minutes to adjust to the new lighting condition before
measuring the rate of photosynthesis.
7. The rate is determined by measuring the number of oxygen bubbles given off per minute – the average of
three measurements at each light intensity is calculated and recorded.
8. The results are compared to other groups in the class – these represent replicates.
9. A graph is draw of the results with light intensity on the x-axis.
10. Conclusions about the effect of varying the light intensity are drawn based on the results.
21. (a) Light Intensity or Carbon Dioxide Concentration [Again, a huge majority of students do light intensity.]
(b) Oxygen gas in not very soluble in water and is much less dense than water; therefore the oxygen from
photosynthesis is easy to collect from an aquatic plant as it remains separate from the water and will float
upwards – whereas from an land plant the oxygen gas will mix rapidly with the air inside the leaves and
cannot be collected separately or much easier to measure the rate of photosynthesis of an aquatic plant than
from a land plant [hard to believe that the second answer was accepted for full marks – another lesson to you to always
give an answer, never leave it unattempted]
(c) Bubbles of Oxygen Gas per minute

(d) Graph
(e) 1. Increasing light intensity to A causes an increase in the light phase supplying increasing amounts ATP and
NADPH for the dark stage resulting in an increase in photosynthesis.
2. The rate levels off around light intensity A as some factor other than light intensity is in short supply e.g.
carbon dioxide, and so photosynthesis cannot continue to increase.
3. The rate remains constant at this high level because increasing the light intensity has no influence on the
factor that is in short supply (the limiting factor is not affected).
22. (a) Using a heater water batch at 25°C and monitored with a thermometer.
(b) 1. CO2 in the air dissolved in the water.
2. Respiration by organisms in the water or in the sediment or decaying matter at the bottom.
(respiration by aquatic animals or respiration by plants or respiration by saprophytic micro-organisms)
(c) At each new light intensity wait five minutes before taking any measurements of photosynthesis rate.
This allows sufficient time for the plant to adjust to the new lighting conditions and the bubble rate is then a
fair representation of its rate of photosynthesis at the new light intensity.
Chapter 11. Respiration

1. (a) Adenosine Triphosphate
(b) ATP is the immediate source of energy for cell work. Other sources of energy are stored as ATP e.g. light
energy in the light phase of photosynthesis and the energy released from food by respiration. The energy is
stored in the bonding of the third phosphate to the second phosphate of ADP e.g. ADP + energy + P → ATP.
Energy is released when the third phosphate of ATP breaks away e.g. ATP → ADP + P + Energy. The energy
released by ATP is used to drive the dark phase reactions of photosynthesis, other anabolic reactions such as
protein synthesis and DNA replication plus movement involving muscle contraction.

(c) (i) ADP or Adenosine Diphosphate
(ii) Energy [The form of energy can be light as in the light stage of photosynthesis, energy released during
catabolic reactions of respiration or energy from chemical reactions such as nitrification by the chemosynthetic nitrifying
bacteria involved in the nitrogen cycle.]
2. (a) Respiration is the enzymatic controlled release of energy by the oxidation of food by living cells.
(b) Using free oxygen (O2) for the release of energy from food by living cells.
(c) Respiration is essential for living cells to obtain energy to make ATP which can then be used to supply energy
without delay for cell work e.g. protein synthesis.
3. (a) C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

[About 60% of the energy is released as heat, 40% is used to make ATP (38 ATPs per glucose.]
(b) X: O2, Y: CO2
4. Uses of Released Energy in Human Body any two

1. Muscle contraction. 2. Protein Synthesis. 3. DNA replication. 4. Maintain body temperature at 37°C
5. Active Transport e.g. reabsoption of glucose in the proximal convoluted tubule of the nephron in the kidney.
6. Impulse transmission along nerve cells (neurons). 7. Movement of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis.
5. True [About 60% or 3/5 of the energy is released as heat.]
6. (a) So if carbon dioxide is detected in bottle 3 it was not due to the presence of carbon dioxide present in ordinary
air
(b) Flask 2: to check if bottle A removed all the carbon dioxide from the air.
Flask 3: to check the air from the ‘mouse bottle’ for carbon dioxide.
(c) Identical set up but no mouse or any other living organism in the bottle.
(d) No.
The plant would also be carrying out photosynthesis using up all the carbon dioxide it produces by respiration.
Therefore the plant would not be releasing CO2 so limewater flask 3 would remain clear.
[If the light intensity is very low the rate of photosynthesis may be less than the rate of respiration. Therefore not all the
carbon dioxide made by respiration would be used in photosynthesis and as a result the excess carbon dioxide would be
excreted turning flask 3 milky.]
7. (a) The liquid solution of the cytoplasm in which the cell organelles are suspended.
(b) Small amount in comparison to the second stage.
[The energy released in the first stage only results in the formation of 2ATPs but 36 ATPs are made from the energy
released in the second stage – the first stage only releases 18 times less energy than the second stage.]
8. (a) Mitochondrion.
(b) Yes.
9. (a) In the cytosol of the cytoplasm.

(b) No
(c) Only a relatively small amount of energy is released in the first stage – only enough to make 2ATPs,
(d) A relatively very large amount of energy is released in the second stage – enough to make 36 ATPs.
10. (a) False

(b) True
(c) False
11. A: stage 2, B: stage 2, C: stage 1, D: stage 1.
12. (a)
Type of Respiration Energy Source End Products
Aerobic Respiration Glucose Energy (38 ATPs), CO2, H2O
Anaerobic Respiration in muscle Glucose Energy (2ATPs), Lactic Acid
Anaerobic Respiration in yeast Glucose Energy (2ATPs), Ethanol, CO2
(b) Cytosol of the cytoplasm.
(c) Mitochondrion
(d) Stage 2
13. (a) Glycolysis

(b) Pyruvic Acid or Pyruvate
(c) The energy released is used to bond a phosphate to ADP forming ATP.
ATP is a special energy storage molecule and is the immediate source of energy for cell work.
ATP releases energy when the bond hold the last phosphate breaks releasing the phosphate – this results in
the formation of ADP and a free phosphate.
(d) Carbon Dioxide or CO2
(e) Krebs Cycle
(f) Mitochondrion or Lumen of Mitochondrion
14. The pyruvic acid (3C) is converted to an acetyl group (2C) by the loss of a carbon dioxide.
Co-enzyme A joins the acetyl group forming acetyl co-enzyme A
Acetyl co-enzyme A enters the Krebs cycle during which more Carbon Dioxide is lost, energy is released and is
used to make an ATP plus four pairs of hydrogen are also released.
Each pair of hydrogens is carried to the electron transport chain by a carrier molecule called NAD+.
The electrons from the two hydrogens pass along the electron transport chain releasing energy which is used to
make more ATP – the two hydrogen ions (protons) that remain pass into solution.
At the end of the chain the electrons pass to oxygen making it a double negative ion.
Water is formed when the hydrogen ions react with the negative oxygen ion.
or can be given as a flow chart – see next pape
Pyruvic Acid
3C
CO2
Acetyl Group
2C
Co-enzyme A

Acetyl Co-enzyme A
2C
4C KREBS CYCLE 6C
2CO2
ATP
5C
4(2H)
NAD+:2H 3 ADP + 3P 3ATPs
Energy
Oxygen Atom
2é Electron Transport Chain 2é
2H+ O 2-
H2O
15. Role of NAD: NAD, during the breakdown of glucose in aerobic respiration, collects a pair of hydrogen atoms
in the mitochondria and transfers the electrons from these hydrogen atoms to the Electron Transport Chain and
releases the hydrogen ions (protons) into solution
or
2H (from breakdown of glucose during aerobic respiration)
( in mitochondrion)
NAD+ NAD+:2H 2é Electron Transport Chain
2H+ (in solution)
or
NAD+ traps and transfers electrons and hydrogen ions in aerobic respiration in the mitochondria.
Role of NADP+: in the light phase of photosynthesis NADP+ collects a pair of energised electrons and a
hydrogen ion (proton) and transfers them to the dark phase and then NADP+ returns to the light stage repeating
the process.
or
Light Phase DARK STAGE

H+ 2é + H+
2é
NADP- NADPH
ADP+ NADP+
or
NADP+ traps electrons and hydrogen ions in the light phase of photosynthesis and transfers them to the dark stage.
16. (a) The cells are not receiving any oxygen – complete lack of oxygen. or
(b) Insufficient oxygen supply to the cells such that aerobic respiration cannot supply all the needed energy. or
(c) During strenuous physical exercise. or
(d) Reduced blood supply e.g. heart attack or stroke.
[(a) is the only fully correct answer – cells will automatically engage in the second stage if there is they are being supplied
with oxygen, if aerobic respiration cannot supply all the needed energy then anaerobic respiration will be engaged to supply
the extra energy required; aerobic and anaerobic respiration will be engaged at the same time.]
17. (a) Aerobic respiration requires and uses oxygen undergoing stage 1 in the cytosol of the cytoplasm and stage 2
in the mitochondria; anaerobic respiration does not require or use oxygen and only undergoes stage 1 and
does not involve the mitochondria.
(b) Aerobic [The energy released from glucose during aerobic respiration leads to the formation of 38 ATPs, only
2ATPs are made from the energy released during anaerobic respiration.]
18. Fermentation
(a) Fermentation is a type of anaerobic respiration. or
Anaerobic respiration by yeast producing ethanol and carbon dioxide. or
Anaerobic respiration by certain bacteria producing lactic acid. or
Anaerobic respiration by micro-organisms.
[The origin of the word ‘fermentation’ is from latin ‘fevére’ meaning ‘to boil’ – during alcoholic fermentation the water
appears to be boiling because of the large number of carbon dioxide bubbles being produced and rising to the surface.]
19. True
[Lactic acid is produced during anaerobic respiration of certain bacteria e.g. those that cause the souring of milk, and also by
anaerobic respiration of animal cells e.g. our skeletal muscle cells during strenuous physical activity.]
20. Yes.
Explanation: fermentation is an enzyme controlled metabolic pathway and temperature influences the rate of
enzyme action.
21. (a) Lactic Acid (the product named in (c) was pyruvic acid or pyruvate – in trying to organise the questions to
run in sequence through the chapter I cut out one part of a question and pasted it into another)
(b) Suggestion any one
increasing the supply of oxygen into the blood at the lungs by increasing the depth and rate of breathing or
lactic acid in the blood must be converted to glucose by the liver or
lactic acid in the human cells, that carried out anaerobic respiration, is converted back to pyruvic acid.
[Oxygen debt is the extra oxygen which must be taken into the body after anaerobic respiration has stopped to restore the
cells to their normal aerobic resting state i.e. no lactic acid, ATP reserves reestablished, glucose stores replaced.

Oxygen Debt is the difference between the amount of oxygen which would have to be used to get all the energy used during
the activity and the amount of oxygen that was actually used. {O2 debt = Total Energy Used – Aerobic Energy Supplied} e.g.
4.8 litres of oxygen in a 100 m sprint the energy for which would need to use 6 litres of oxygen if supplied aerobically –
during the 12 second sprint aerobic respiration only supplies 20% of the energy using 1.2 litres of oxygen.]
[Oxygen debt is not mentioned in the syllabus so why was there a question on it? Because it was asked in the old syllabus?]
(c) 1. Alcohol (Ethanol) and Carbon Dioxide
2. Lactic Acid
(d) Example: Brewing of Beer
Micro-organism: yeast or fungus
Product: alcohol (ethanol)
[Although the alcohol is the primary product the carbon dioxide is also important in the beer for taste and the ‘head’ plus
the excess carbon dioxide is used by the fizzy drinks industry.] [There are many other examples that could be given but this
is the easiest and the one you mimic in one of your mandatory practical activities.]
22. (a) Labelled Diagram
(b) Glucose or Sugar or Sucrose

(c) Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
(d) Identical set up but live yeast is not present.
(e) 25°C
(f) Compare the results to that of the experiment set up – a difference in the results may corroborate the
hypothesis, similar results would show that the hypothesis is not true.
(g) Bubbling stopped or no more carbon dioxide gas was given off
(h) To test for the presence or absence of alcohol. [This specific question should not have been asked because these
chemicals are not specified in the syllabus and there are other ways to test for alcohol.]
(i) Water
[Aerobic Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Glucose + Oxygen → 6CO2 + Water + Energy
[Fermentation: Glucose → 2Alcohol + 2CO2 + Energy
Glucose → 2Lactic Acid + Energy
You are not required to know the chemical formula for ethanol (alcohol) or lactic acid.

Alcohol is a family name for many similar chemicals, the alcohol produced by yeast fermentation is ethanol. ]
(j) Iodoform Test or Potassium Iodide with Sodium Hypochlorite or Acidified Potassium Dichromate.
23. (a) To deoxygenate the water or to sterilize the water so yeast would be the only living organism present when
added after the water cooled to 25°C.
(b) To prevent re-oxygenation of the water or to maintain anaerobic conditions in the water by preventing
oxygen in the air dissolving in the water.
(c) No
Explanation: the experiment is to demonstrate anaerobic respiration in yeast – therefore the control should be
an identical set up but without the factor under test and so it is only the yeast that should not be present.
(d) 1. Alcohol (ethanol) for beer, wine, spirits or fuel.
2. Carbon Dioxide for fizzy drinks, refrigeration or fire extinguishers.
[This question was from the 2004 Sample Paper from the State Examinations Commission – it is not an accurate question
to the new syllabus, it should have read ‘to prepare and show the production of alcohol by yeast’. The boiling of the water is
not an essential step and neither is the use of an oil layer because at the beginning aerobic respiration by the yeast will
deoxygenate the water and also deoxygenate the air trapped in the apparatus above it. The test tube of water to the left in
the diagram is to prevent air getting into the apparatus and if limewater is used will indicate that the gas escaping from the
fermentation flask is carbon dioxide – the limewater goes milky.]
24. (a) 1. Set up the apparatus for the experiment and the control as in the labelled diagram – see answer to Q. 22 (a)
2. Maintain the conditions for at least a week. Nothing is observed to happen in the control.
3. A sample from each flask is then tested for alcohol with orange acidified potassium dichromate – the
control remains orange but the experiment turns green indicating the presence of alcohol.
4. The yeast produced the alcohol.
[The water in the experiment goes cloudy, gas bubbles are seen rising in the water, a froth develops on the surface, a
colourless gas escapes through the air lock and the flask gives off a sweet smell; eventually the bubbling stops, the water
starts to clear and a sediment forms on the bottom.]
(b) Glucose or Sucrose
(c) Boiled: to deoxygenate the water or to sterilise the water
Cooled: so as not to kill the yeast – high temperatures would kill the yeast by denaturing the enzymes
(d) Air is excluded by the use of an air lock (fermentation lock) that acts like a valve allowing the waste carbon
dioxide gas out but not allowing the air into the apparatus or
Air can be excluded by immersing the end of the delivery tube into a beaker of water – this will act like a
valve allowing the waste carbon dioxide gas escape into the air but the air cannot get into the delivery tube.
(e) A 5 cm3 sample from the flask is placed in a test tube and a few drops of sulfuric acid is added. Then 1 cm3
of orange potassium chromate solution is added. A colour change from orange to green indicates the presence
of alcohol.
(f) Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
(g) The bubbling stops or The water clears or A sediment forms on the bottom.
(h) All the yeast are dead (killed by the high level of alcohol) or All the sugar has been used up.
Chapter 12. DA

1. (a) 1. Adenine

2. Guanine
(b) Hydrogen Bonding
[Two hydrogen bonds between Adenine and Thymine (A=T); three hydrogen bonds between Guanine and Cytosine (G ≡ C).]
2. (a) Labelled Diagram of a ucleotide
[An RNA nucleotide would be the same arrangement of phosphate, 5C sugar and a base except the sugar would be ribose
and the bases could be adenine, uracil, guanine, cytosine but not thymine.]
(b) The base.
(c) Genetic Code:
A gene is a sequence of bases on the DNA that contains the information for a particular protein or RNA.
A gene for a particular protein is made up of a specific sequence of consecutive base triplets or codons –
therefore the number of bases in the gene must be divisible by 3.
The 64 possible triplets, as a group, represent the genetic code in which each triplet on mRNA specifies a
particular amino acid in a protein or a signal to start or stop protein synthesis during the translation phase.
[There is one start codon and three stop codons. The other 62 codons and the start codon specify particular amino acids.
The sequence of bases on the coding or template strand of DNA determines the sequence of bases on the mRNA; the
sequence of triplets on the mRNA determines the sequence of tRNAs which determines the sequence of amino acids which
determines the type of protein.]
(d) DNA that does not carry information for the synthesis of protein or RNA or DNA that is not a part of a gene.
(e) Structural Differences any one
1. DNA is double stranded, RNA is a single polynucleotide strand.
2. DNA contains thymine but not uracil, RNA does not contain thymine but has uracil.
3. DNA contains deoxyribose sugar, RNA has ribose sugar in place of deoxyribose.
4. DNA is a much bigger molecule than RNA containing many more nucleotides.
(f) Mitochondrion or Chloroplast
3. (a) A: Adenine, C: Cytosine.

(b) X: Triplet of Nucleotides or Triplet of Bases or Codon or Unit of information in a gene or Nucleotide Triplet
or Genotype for an amino acid
(c) Nucleus

(d) Genetic
[Part (b) does not make sense – it is not a recognised structure in a DNA molecule; it may make sense if it was part of
mRNA or the anticodon section of a tRNA.]
4. (a) Completed Diagram + (b) Other Parts Labelled
5. Replication: making an identical copy of the DNA with exactly the same sequence of nucleotides.
Transcription: the copying of the sequence of bases in the gene template strand of DNA into a complementary
single strand of messenger RNA (mRNA).
[Translation: at the ribosome the use of the specific triplet base sequence of the mRNA in a specific sequence of amino
acids resulting in the synthesis of a specific protein.]
[Protein synthesis is an energy requiring process: the energy from the breakdown of 3ATPs needed for the addition
of each amino acid.]
6. DNA is the genetic material and is present in the nucleus of a cell.

The cells of the rat’s liver, heart, pancreas and muscles are somatic cells – they are not gametes.
The somatic cells of an animal are the mitotic cell cycle descendents of the original zygote cell.
In preparation for mitosis the DNA is replicated – an exact copy of the DNA is made.
During mitotic cell division the two identical sets of DNA are separated into the nuclei of two daughter cells –
the daughter cells have an identical amount of DNA as each other and as the parent cell.
Therefore all mitotic descendents of the zygote have the same amount of DNA as the zygote had.
or
DNA is present in the chromosomes which become visible under the microscope during mitosis.
Mitosis produces two daughter nuclei with the same chromosome number, and therefore DNA content, as the
parent nucleus.
Therefore all nuclei that are direct mitotic descendents of the original nucleus have the same amount of DNA.
The somatic cells of the rat are the direct mitotic descendents of the zygote (fertilised egg) and so have the same
amount of DNA as the zygote had and so the same amount of DNA as each other.
[Gametes (eggs, sperm) are produced by meiotic cell division resulting in the reduction of the chromosome number by a half,
from diploid to haploid, and so therefore the gametes contain only half the DNA that is present in the somatic cells.]
7. (a) DNA Profiling: forming a ‘genetic fingerprint’ from a sample of a person’s DNA by producing a unique
pattern of DNA fragments that can be used to solely identify that particular person.
(b) Applications of DNA Profiling any two
1. Crime investigation: identify the people whose DNA was found at the scene of the crime.

2. Parenthood Determination: are the two individuals parent and child?
3. Genetic Screening: is the person carrying a gene connected with a genetic disease?
4. Identification of individuals by comparing their profile to others that may be family relations.
5. Identify the tribe/race/origin of human remains found at archaeological sites.
6. Classification of organisms i.e. establish the evolutionary closeness or distance of different species.
7. Test the supermarkets claim for the source of the food they sell e.g. meat, soya beans.
8. Test the pedigree claims made by the owners for their animals e.g. pets, racehorses, bulls.
(c) Enzymes or Restriction Enzymes or DNAases or Nucleases
(d) Size or Length or Mass or The Strength of their Negative Electric Charge
(e) DNA Profiling Stages
1. The DNA is extracted from the cells of the biological sample removed from the individual e.g. blood.
2. The DNA is broken down into a unique set of fragment lengths using a particular restriction enzyme.
3. The fragments are separated, on the basis of size, by forcing them to travel through a gel.
4. The positions of the different size fragment groups are highlighted chemically or radioactively.
5. The pattern of banding is recorded – the pattern is unique to that person.
8. (a) Genetic Screening: testing a person’s DNA for the presence or absence of a particular form of a gene.
(b) To determine if the embryo carries the normal or disease-causing allele and so guide their decision regarding
embryo selection for implantation and/or the need for specialized medical treatment or environmental
conditions for the success of the ‘baby’ during pregnancy and after birth.
9. (a) In the isolation of DNA from plant tissue.

(b) To extract the DNA as an insoluble solid from its solution in based on the fact that DNA is insoluble in
freezer-cold ethanol.
10. (a) Onion
(b) To break the plant cell walls releasing the membrane bound cells so their DNA can enter into solution in the
external liquid.
(c) 3 seconds [This question should not have been asked as it is not essential to use a blender to break the plant cell
walls, crushing with a glass rod is just as effective – there is no particular method mentioned in the syllabus.]
(d) To break down the cell membrane and nuclear membrane releasing the chromatin into solution – the
chromatin contains the DNA along with proteins.
(e) Protects the DNA from the phosphates released when the cell membranes break down.
(f) An enzyme that breaks down or digests protein.
(g) To break down the proteins of the chromatin and so pure DNA in free in solution.
(h) The ethanol is freezer-cold, minus 18 °C, as a separate layer above the solution of DNA.
11. Isolating DNA From Plant Tissue

1. Chop the thick leaves of the onion bulb into small pieces.
2. Add the chopped onion to a salt solution containing detergent e.g. washing up liquid.
3. Mash the onion in the mixture with a blender (3 seconds) or glass rod.
4. If you warm the mixture to 60°C for 15 minutes you must then cool it to below 40°C – step 4 is not essential.
5. Separate the chromatin solution from the pulp by decanting or filtration.
6. Add a few drops of protease solution to the chromatin solution stirring it gently.
7. Gently add freezer-cold ethanol forming a separate layer on top of the DNA solution.
8. Using a glass rod collect the white wispy DNA that falls out of solution at the base of the ethanol layer.

Chapter 13. Protein Synthesis
1. (a) The locus of the gene is recognised on the particular chromosome or DNA molecule.
An enzyme unzips the DNA of the gene exposing the template strand that contains the ‘code’ for the protein.
A complementary copy, called mRNA, of the template strand is made but using uracil in place of thymine.
On completion the mRNA separates from the DNA and passes out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm.
(b) (i) A triplet is a set of three nucleotides forming a unit of code on a mRNA – the triplets are arranged in a
consecutive but non-overlapping sequence along the mRNA.
(ii) The role of each triplet is that is carries the code for a particular amino acid i.e. the sequence of triplets in
the mRNA determines the sequence of amino acids making up the specific protein.
(c) Role of tRNA
Each tRNA is linked to a specific amino acid depending on the sequence of its exposed triplet of bases.
The tRNA carries the specific amino acid to a ribosome.
The tRNA binds to a complementary triplet on the mRNA that is in direct contact with the ribosome.
The sequence of triplets on the mRNA determines the sequence of tRNAs which determines the sequence of
amino acids making up the specific protein.
2. (a) 1. Name: mRNA:

The purpose of mRNA is to form a complementary copy of the genetic information for a particular protein.
mRNA is formed from the template strand of the DNA in the locus of the gene for the protein.
The triplet sequence on the mRNA carries the information for a specific sequence of amino acids.
mRNA passes out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm and a ribosome attaches to its ‘start’.
The ribosome translates the triplet sequence on the mRNA into a specific sequence of amino acids.
2. Name: rRNA
rRNA makes up about 50% of the structure of a ribosome.
rRNA binds the mRNA to the ribosome holding it the mRNA in a suitable position for tRNA to link to it.
Some of the rRNA function as enzymes in the translation of triplet sequence of mRNA into a specific
sequence of amino acids in protein synthesis.
3. Name: tRNA
Each tRNA is linked to a specific amino acid depending on the sequence of its exposed triplet of bases.
The tRNA carries the specific amino acid to a ribosome.
The tRNA binds to a complementary triplet on the mRNA that is in direct contact with the ribosome.
The sequence of triplets on the mRNA determines the sequence of tRNAs which determines the sequence of
amino acids making up the specific protein.

Chapter 14. Genetics Crosses
1. (a) Variation
(b) Genetics or Environment or Age any two
(c) Yes
Body weight is also influenced by genetics and environment just as is height.
2. (a) Species: 1 a group of living organisms that can interbreed producing living fertile offspring.
Variation: the range of differences, genetic and phenotype, between the individuals of a species.
(b) (i) Causes of Genetic Variation any one
1. Mutation, 2. Meiosis (independent assortment), 3. Sexual Reproduction.
3. (a) Chromosome: a thread-like coloured (when stained) structure of condensed chromatin (DNA + Protein) that
can be seen in the nuclei of cells during mitosis or meiosis and carries genes in linear sequence in its DNA.
(b) Haploid [Greek: Haplous = Single, Eidos = Form.]
The nucleus contains only one set of unpaired chromosomes. or
The nucleus has one copy of each chromosome. or
The chromosomes in the nucleus are represented singly i.e. unpaired.
[Diploid means two sets of chromosomes or two copies of each chromosome or paired chromosomes. Greek: dis = twice.]
4. (a) The marks for definitions can often be gained by giving an appropriate example.
Gene: a section of DNA or chromosome that has the information, in the form of a code, governing a particular
characteristic or protein e.g. the section of DNA that governs the height of pea plants.
Allele: an alternative form of a gene with information for a different quality of the characteristic or protein e.g.
The gene governing the height of pea plants has two alleles, T for tall plant, t for small plant.
Dominant: the allele that is fully expressed in the heterozygous genotype e.g. the allele for tall, T, is dominant
because the heterozygous genotype Tt leads to a tall plant not an intermediate size or small size plant.
Homozygous: in a diploid organism the pair of genes governing the characteristic are identical alleles e.g. TT or tt.
Genotype: the genetic makeup of an individual or the pair of genes governing a particular characteristic e.g. Tt,
or the pairs of genes governing two different characteristics e.g. TtRr.
Phenotype: the observable feature of the organism determined by its genotype and the influence of the
environment on the genotype.
Recessive: the allele that only determines the quality of the characteristic in the homozygous condition
e.g. the allele for small pea plant (t): tt = small, TT = Tall, Tt = Tall.
Heterozygous: in a diploid organism the pair of genes governing a trait are different alleles e.g. Tt.
Incomplete Dominance: in a heterozygous genotype neither allele is dominant or recessive and the resultant
phenotype is intermediate between the phenotypes produced by the two homozygous genotypes e.g. Pink Flowers
in Snapdragons has the genotype Rr (CRCW), red flowers are RR (CRCR), and white flowers rr (CWCW).
(b) The genes are carried by the DNA of the chromosomes.
5. (a) heredity or transfer of genes from one generation to the next or genes or DNA or
(b) XY
(c) 23 [Diploid = 2n, Haploid = n; if 2n = 46 therefore n = 23]
(d) RNA
(e) Mutation
(f) Genotype

6. Parent Phenotypes (Heterozygous) Polled Bull x Horned Cow
Parent Genotypes Pp x pp
Segregation
Gamete Genotypes P p p p
Punnett Square
all possible random fertilisations
p p
P Pp 1 2 Pp
p pp 3 4 pp
Offspring Genotypes
(genotypes of calves) 1. Pp 2. Pp 3. pp 4. Pp
Offspring Phenotypes
(phenotypes of calves) 1. Polled 2. Polled 3. Horned 4 Horned
[Phenotype Ratio 1:1 ]
7. Parent Phenotypes (Heterozygous) Brown Eyes x Brown Eyes (Heterozygous)

Parent Genotypes Bb x Bb
Segregation
Gamete Genotypes B b B b
Punnett Square
B b
B BB 1 2 Bb
b Bb 3 4 bb
Offspring Genotypes 1. BB 2. Bb 3. Bb 4. bb
Offspring Phenotypes 1. Brown 2. Brown 3. Brown 4. Blue
[Phenotype Ratio 3:1 ]
8. (a) 1. Seán’s Hair: Brown. 2. Máire’s Hair: Red
(b) Parent Phenotypes (Seán) Brown Hair x Red Hair (Máire)

Parent Genotypes Bb x bb
Segregation
Gamete Genotypes B b b b
Punnett Square
b b
B Bb 1 2 Bb
b bb 3 4 bb
Offspring Genotypes 1. BB 2. Bb 3. Bb 4. bb
Offspring Phenotypes 1. Brown 2. Brown 3. Red 4. Red
Phenotype Ratio (Brown:Red) 1:1

(c) Red Hair Probability: 50% or 1:1
9. (a) The cystic fibrosis allele, n, is recessive. The normal allele, N, is dominant. A heterozygous individual has the
genotype Nn and so will be normal as the N is dominant over n.
The only genotype to give cystic fibrosis is nn i.e. homozygous recessive as the individual only has
‘information’ of cystic fibrosis. The other two possible genotypes NN and Nn result in a normal phenotype.
(b) (i) 25%
(ii) Explanation
Parent Phenotypes (Heterozygous) Normal x Normal (Heterozygous)
Parent Genotypes Nn x Nn
Segregation
Gamete Genotypes N n N n
Punnett Square
N n
N NN 1 2 Nn
n Nn 3 4 nn
Offspring Genotypes 1. NN 2. Nn 3. Nn 4. nn
Offspring Phenotypes 1. Normal 2. Normal 3. Normal 4. Cystic Fibrosis
Phenotype Ratio 3:1
Therefore cystic fibrosis will occur in 1 of every 4 offspring i.e. 25% of the offspring.
(c) Genetic Screening: testing a person’s DNA for the presence or absence of a particular form of a gene.
(d) To determine if the embryo carries the normal or disease-causing allele and so guide their decision regarding
embryo selection for implantation and/or the need for specialized medical treatment or environmental
conditions for the success of the ‘baby’ during pregnancy and after birth.
10. (a)
Parent Phenotypes (Heterozygous) Pink x Pink (Heterozygous)
Parent Genotypes Rr x Rr
Segregation
Gamete Genotypes R r R r
Punnett Square
R r
R RR 1 2 Rr
r Rr 3 4 rr
Offspring Genotypes 1. RR 2. Rr 3. Rr 4. rr
Offspring Phenotypes 1. Red 2. Pink 3. Pink 4. White
Phenotype Ratio 1:2:1
(b) 60
Explanation: The phenotype ratio of the offspring red:pink:white is 1:2:1 (see completed cross in (a) above) –
therefore pink flowered plants would be expected to make up 50% or half of the offspring.
11. (a) Male Sex Chromosomes: XY or Female Sex Chromosomes: XX or

12. The Inheritance of the Sex in Humans
Parent Phenotypes Male x Female
Parent Genotypes (Sex Chromosomes) XY x XX
Segregation
Gamete Genotypes (sperm) X Y X X (eggs)
Punnett Square
X X
X XX 1 2 XX
Y XY 3 4 XY
Offspring Genotypes 1. XX 2. XX 3. XY 4. XY
Offspring Phenotypes 1. Female 2. Female 3. Male 4. Male
Phenotype Ratio 1:1
Therefore 50% of the children will be female and 50% male.
13. (a) (i) Segregation: the separation of the pair of genes governing a factor into different gametes during meiosis
so each gamete only receives one of the pair e.g. Tt
meiosis
T (gamete) t (gamete)
(ii) A and a [Heterozygous individual is Aa.

(b) (i) A and a
(ii) AB, Ab, aB, ab [(b) (ii) was asked at Ordinary Level which should not have happened as dihybrid crosses
are not on the syllabus for Ordinary Level students – dihybrid means a study of the inheritance of two different
characteristics governed by genes at different loci i.e. by different pairs of genes.]

14. (a) Sex Linkage: genes on the X sex chromosome but not on the Y sex chromosome and so the recessive
phenotype occurs more often in males than in females.
(b) Parent Phenotypes Colour Blind Male x Normal Female (heterozygous)

Parent Sex Chromosomes X Y x X X
Parent Genotypes
c c C
Gamete Genotypes
(sperm) (eggs)
c c C
c C
c c c c C
1 2
3 4
c C
F1 1. 2. 3. 4.
c c c C c C
Phenotypes:
Sex female female male male
Vision Colour-blind ormal Colour blind ormal
[The Punnett Square was put in as extra to show how the genotypes of the offspring can be derived.]

15. (a) Independent Assortment: during the formation of gametes the segregation of one pair of genes occurs freely
of another pair because they are on different chromosomes.
[When explaining scientific terms never use the words of the term so here do not use ‘independent’ and do not use ‘assort’
or ‘assortment’. Below is just a simple demonstration of independent assortment in an individual heterozygous for both
characteristics.]
A a
Parent Genotype
AaBb B b
Independent
Assortment
AB, Ab, aB, ab

A A a a
B b B b
(b) 1. Genotype of Red Straight Bull: RrSs

Genotype of curly black cow: rrss
2. Phenotypes of the calves: 1. Red Straight, 2. Red black, 3. curly Red, 4. curly black.
[On retyping this question I made a mistake and (b) 2 should read ‘State the phenotypes of the calves’.]
3. Red black and curly Red [these are phenotypes different to those of the parents, each is a combination of both
parents i.e. non-parental phenotypes, and indicate that the heterozygous dominant parent, Red Straight (RrSs), must have
undergone independent assortment to form four genetically different gametes in the ration 1:1:1:1]
4. Yes – different phenotypes would be expected.
Explanation: genes on the same chromosome are described as ‘linked genes’ and do not undergo
independent assortment and so the only phenotypes expected would be the same as the parents, Red Straight
and curly black.
16. (a) Genotypes of Parents: PpCc and ppcc

[The phenotype ratio is 1:1:1:1. This is a classic genetic dihybrid non-linked cross ratio discovered by Gregor Mendel when
he crossed a F1 heterozygote (AaBb) with the homozygous recessive (aabb). Learn the parental genotypes that produce the
famous classic ratios – see the last two pages of the ‘book’ you received on the revision day.]
(b) Yes.
Explanation:
The phenotype ratio 1:1:1:1 indicates that the pairs of genes in the dominant parent segregated freely – the
distribution of the pair of alleles for Purple Stem was not influenced by the distribution of the other pair of
alleles Cut Stem.
The recessive parent could only produce gametes with the recessive alleles i.e. pc. Therefore the phenotypes
of the offspring, and their ratio, indicates the genotypes of the gametes, and their ratio, produced by the
dominant parent.
The dominant parent (Purple Cut) therefore produced four genetically different gametes in equal numbers –
PC, Pc, pC, pc. This shows that all combinations of the alleles for the two traits were produced in equal
proportions indicating independent assortment i.e. free mixing of any allele of one pair with any allele of the

other pair – the different allele of the two traits were randomly distributed.
17. (a) Linked

[This question does not make sense – alleles are different forms of the same gene; the question should have read ‘the two
pairs of alleles that lie on the same chromosome’ or ‘genes that lie on the same chromosome’.]
[Linked genes are genes governing different traits that lie on the same chromosome. Linked genes are inherited together and
do not undergo independent assortment. Crossing-over is not on the syllabus so the exceptions to the last statement do not
apply to us at Leaving Certificate.]
(b) Genes located on different chromosomes are described as non-linked and so will undergo independent
assortment during meiosis (gamete formation) producing greater genetic variation in the offspring when
compared to those that would be produced if the genes were linked.
(c) Offspring Genotypes: 1. BbSs 2. Bbss 3. bbSs 4. bbss
Offspring Phenotypes: 1.Black, Long 2. Black, Short 3. Brown, Long 4. Brown, Short
Calculation of the Results: not required by the marking scheme

Parent Phenotypes Brown, Short (Hetero) x (Hetero)Black, Long
Parent Genotypes bbSs x Bbss
Independent Assortment
Gamete Genotypes bS bs bS bs Bs Bs bs bs
(shortcut) bS bs Bs bs
Punnett Square
all possible Bs bs
bS BsSs 1 3 bbSs
random fertilisations
bs Bbss 2 4 bbss
Offspring Genotypes 1. BbSs 2. Bbss 3. bbSs 4. bbss
Offspring Phenotypes 1.Black, Long 2. Black, Short 3. Brown, Long 4. Brown, Short
[The question asked you to ‘determine all the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring’ so would have expected a
calculation as part of the answer but the making scheme only gave marks for the results not the calculation.]
Try it without a shortcut.

bS bs bS bs Bs Bs bs bs
Bs Bs bs bs
bS
bs
bS
bs

18. (a) Progeny Genotypes: 1.GgLl 2. Ggll 3. ggLl 4. ggll
Progeny Phenotypes: 1.Grey, Long 2. Grey, vestigial 3. ebony, Long 4. ebony, vestigial

Parent Phenotypes (Hetero) Grey, Long( Hetero) x ebony, vestigial
Parent Genotypes GgLl x ggll
Independent Assortment
Gamete Genotypes GL Gl gL gl gl gl gl gl
gl (all)
Punnett Square gl
all possible GL GgLl 1
random fertilisations Gl Ggll 2
gL ggLl 3
gl ggll 4
Progeny Genotypes: 1.GgLl 2. Ggll 3. ggLl 4. ggll

Progeny Phenotypes: 1.Grey, Long 2. Grey, vestigial 3. ebony, Long 4. ebony, vestigial
(b) The two allelic pairs will undergo independent assortment because they are on different chromosomes and
the heterozygous individual therefore produces a greater genetic variety of gametes – four genetically
different gametes instead of two if the genes were linked. This greater genetic variety of gametes leads to a
greater genetic variety in the offspring and a greater variety of phenotypes.
[If the genes were linked, independent assortment would not occur, the heterozygous parent would only produce two
genetically different gametes (GL, gl) leading to only two genotypes and phenotypes in the offspring identical to that of the
parents.]
.19. (a) Linkage: genes governing different traits on the same chromosome and as a result they do not undergo
independent assortment during meiosis.
(b) Explanation Why Linked Genes Do Not Undergo Independent Assortment
The genes for the different characteristics are physically part of the same chromosome and so will be
transferred together into the gametes during meiosis. They linked genes can only be separated if the
chromosome physically breaks between. But since chromosomes are transmitted intact to the daughter cells
the linked genes stay together – just like your heart and stomach travel everywhere together as part of your
body, linked organs.
(c) 1. Mother’s Genotype: XCXc or XXCc
Father’s Genotype: XcY or XYc-
[Colour-blind Daughter is XcXc so she received the recessive alleles from mother and father. The father has to
be colour blind (XcY) as he gave the recessive allele to this daughter and the gene for vision type is on the X sex
chromosome and not on the Y sex chromosome. The mother is either homozygous recessive (XcXc) or heterozygous
dominant (XCXc). Since the other sister has normal colour vision she must have received the normal allele from her
mother because her father gave her a recessive allele. The mother gave Xc to one daughter and XC to the other
daughter and so the mother’s genotype must be XCXc.]

[The marking scheme only gave half marks for the genotypes Cc and c-. For full marks the sex chromosomes had to be
included – the sex chromosomes govern a very important phenotype, the sex of the individual. The question was not limited
to the genotype of the type of vision.]
2. Mother’s Genotype: XcXc or XXcc
Father’s Genotype: XCY or XYC-
[All the sons are colour blind – since sons get their X sex chromosome from the mother then it would appear that the
mother only has the recessive allele i.e. she is homozygous recessive (XcXc). All the daughters are normal, but since the
mother is homozygous recessive all the daughters receive the recessive allele from the mother so the father must have
supplied the dominant allele for normal vision. Therefore the father’s genotype must be XNY as the gene is not on the Y sex
chromosome.] [Again the marking scheme only gave half marks for the genotypes cc and C-. The question was not limited to
the genotype of the type of vision.]
20. Progeny Genotypes 1. XN Xn 2. Xn Xn 3. XNY 4. XnY

Progeny Phenotypes 1. Female 2. Female 3. Male 4. Male
Normal Haemophiliac Normal Haemophiliac

Parent Phenotypes Haemophiliac Male Normal Female (heterozygous)
Parent Genotypes (Sex Chromosomes) XnY x XNXn
Segregation
Gamete Genotypes (sperm) Xn Y XN Xn (eggs)
Punnett Square
XN Xn
n
X X Xn
N
1 2 Xn Xn
Y XN Y 3 4 XnY
Progeny Genotypes 1. XN Xn 2. Xn Xn 3. XNY 4. XnY

Progeny Phenotypes 1. Female 2. Female 3. Male 4. Male
Normal Haemophiliac Normal Haemophiliac
[XnY and XNXn are not chromosome diagrams of the X and Y chromosome, X and Y are the symbols used for the sex
chromosomes. If asked to show a cross calculation using chromosome diagrams these symbols may at best only get you 50%
of the marks. Must use something like the following to guaranteed full marks for chromosome diagrams.
X Y X X
N N n
The X sex chromosome is much longer than the Y sex chromosome. Make sure you mark the locus of the gene
otherwise the allele symbol will appear as a chromosome label. Make sure also that you label each chromosome as an X or
a Y.]
21. (a) Female [The nucleus has two X sex chromosomes: XX = female.]
(b) Four or Eight [Locus or gene locus is the position on paired chromosomes occupied by a gene that governs a
particular characteristic; therefore the more correct answer to this question is 4. Paired chromosomes are similar
chromosomes having the same linear sequence of genes (loci) but not necessarily the same alleles.]

(c) Yes
Explanation: A and B are on the same chromosome, A and C are not on the same chromosome.
[Linked genes are genes on the same chromosome, non-linked genes are on different chromosomes.]
(d) No
Explanation: linked genes must be on the same chromosome and must govern different traits; D and d are not
on the same chromosome and they govern the same trait. D and d are on different chromosomes of the same type.
(e) Heterozygous
(f) Diagram
[Homozygous for A, B and C therefore the genotypes must be AA, BB, CC; apologies again – when retyping the question I
put in A, G and C instead of A, B and C – B and G are beside each other on the keyboard.]
22. (a) Causes of Mutation any two

1. Exposure of living cells to ultra violet light.
2. Exposure of living cells to chemicals e.g. tars of cigarette smoke, nitrate food preservatives.
3. Exposure of living cells to nuclear radiation.
4. Exposure of living cells to X-rays.
5. Virus infection.
6. Chance: mistakes made during the replication of DNA or allocation of chromosomes during cell division.
(b) Mutation: a random inheritable change in the genetic makeup or DNA of a cell.
[Inheritable in that it will be passed on to the daughter cells of the mutated cell.]
(c) Condition Due To Mutation any one
Cancer or brown copper spots in a blue iris or Down’s Syndrome or bacterial resistance to antibiotic.

Chapter 15. Genetic Engineering
1. Genetic Engineering: the use of special scientific laboratory procedures to produce genetically modified cells or
organisms; the genetic changes are brought about by the specific alteration of the base sequence of an existing
gene or by the transfer of a ‘new’ gene from a different species or an ‘artificial’ gene made in the lab.
2. Processes Involved In Genetic Engineering e.g. genetically modifying a bacterium any three
1. Isolation: [the removal of the DNA containing the target gene and the DNA vector (plasmid) that will carry it.]
2. Cutting: [the vector DNA and the DNA containing the target gene are cut with the same restriction enzyme.]
3. Ligation: [the DNA fragment containing the target gene inserts into the DNA vector at the cut site.]
4. Transformation: [the vector DNA with the target gene is taken up by the now genetically modified host cell.]
5. Gene Expression: [the target gene become active resulting in the formation of a new protein by the host cell.]
6. Gene Cloning: [many new genetically modified cells are made when the host cell multiplies by cell division.]
3. (a) Transgenic Micro-organism: bacteria genetically engineered to produce human insulin as a result of the
transfer of the human insulin gene into them.
(b) Transgenic Animal: sheep genetically modified to produce a human blood clotting protein in their milk as a
result of the transfer of the human gene for that that specific protein.
(c) Transgenic Plant: crop plants genetically modified with a bacterial gene making them resistant to a herbicide.
Chapter 16. Evolution

1. (a) Species: a group of living organisms that can interbreed producing living fertile offspring.
(b) Variation: the range of differences, genetic and phenotype, between the individuals of a species.
(c) (i) Causes of Variation any two
1. Mutation, 2. Meiosis (independent assortment), 3. Sexual Reproduction, 4. Environment
[Mutation, meiosis and sexual reproduction produce genetic differences i.e. produces new genotypes. The environment can
influence the expression of genes producing non-inheritable changes in the phenotype.]
(ii) Inherited variation is the genetic differences that can be passed to the next generation in DNA.
The processes leading to the transfer of DNA into the next generation produces many new genotypes.
Individuals with the genotypes most suited to the particular environmental conditions will have a better
Chance of surviving and of producing more offspring.
As a result of the de-selection of the less suitable genotypes the next generation is more like the ‘best of the
best’ of the previous generation.
As a result the species may evolve i.e. a change in the general characteristics of the species may take place.
(d) Evidence In Support Of Evolution any one
1. Missing Link Fossils e.g. Archaeopteryx which has reptilian and bird characteristics indicating that birds
have descended from reptiles.
2. Comparative Anatomy: the variation in the limb structure and function of vertebrate animals indicates that
they have descended from a common ancestor with a pentadactyl limb.
3. Comparative Embryology: the similarity in structure of the early embryos of fish, amphibians, reptiles,

birds and mammals indicates that they have descended from a common ancestor.
4. The development of antibiotic resistance in the populations of many different pathogenic bacteria.
5. The rise in herbicide resistance in the populations of many pest weed species.
6. Comaparative Anatomy: the wide variety of flower type in the flowering plants indicate a common
ancestor as they are all modifications of a terminal bud.
7. Fossil Record: indicates change through time from the earliest ‘simple organisms’ to the more complex
types similar to today’s living organisms.
8. The fossil record parallels modern classification of living organism and this connection is supported by
DNA analysis indicating that all living organisms are genetically connected sharing a common ancestor.
9. Fossil Record: in North America fossils indicate the changes that took place leading to the modern horse,
a large grassland grazer, from a small woodland browser.
10.Molecular Biology: all living organisms use DNA and RNA for the synthesis of proteins.
[The syllabus only asks for one source of evidence; the question mistakenly asked for two but the marking scheme corrected
the mistake by only awarding marks for one item of evidence.]
2. (a) Evolution: the gradual change in the characteristics and genetic makeup of a species over time frequently
leading to the formation of new species e.g.Kaibab and Abert squirrels on the north and south rims of the
Grand Canyon from the parent species before the formation of the Grand Canyon split the population
or birds arose from a group of reptiles
(b) Scientists: Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace
Observation any one
1. There is a great range of variation among the offspring.
2. There is a much greater number of offspring than the number of parents.
3. The adult population tends to remain constant despite the massive production of offspring.
4. The death rate among the young is very high.
5. The young die due to predation, disease and competition for limited resources especially food.
(c) Natural Selection: individuals best adapted to the environment have a better chance of survival to reproduce
and contribute more offspring to the next generation or survival of the fittest followed by the greater
reproduction by the best of the survivors.
(d) Causes Of Mutation any two
1. Exposure of living cells to ultra violet light.
2. Exposure of living cells to chemicals e.g. tars of cigarette smoke, nitrate food preservatives.
3. Exposure of living cells to nuclear radiation.
4. Exposure of living cells to X-rays.
5. Virus infection.
6. Chance: mistakes made during the replication of DNA or allocation of chromosomes during cell division.
(e) Natural Selection
1. The number of offspring is much higher than the number of parents.
2. There is great variation in the population.
3. There are many obstacles to survival e.g. predation, disease and competition.
4. Individuals with the better adapted set of characteristics have a better chance of survival – the less well
adapted are eliminated from the population and fail to pass on their inheritable characteristics.
5. The better adapted of the survivors will have a greater role in reproduction passing on their inheritable
characteristics in a much greater proportion .
6. The next generation will be better adapted to the environment if the conditions remain unchanged.
[Just to remind you that a theory is a hypothesis that has been tested vigorously and has not yet been shown to be false.]
(f) (i) One Source of Evidence for Evolution: missing links fossils with the characteristics of two distinct
groups of modern day organisms.
(ii) Outline Of Evidence

Archaeopteryx fossils are dated at around 150 million years old.
The fossil shows a mixture reptilian and bird characteristics.
Reptilian features include reptilian teeth in its jaws, long reptilian tail and claws on three forelimb digits.
Bird features include feathers, wings, reduced digits and a ‘wishbone’.
This fossil indicates the evolution of birds from reptilian ancestors.
[The type Archaeopteryx fossil is in the Natural History Museum in Berlin, Germany – it has pride of place in a small alcove
in the main hall that has the world’s largest dinosaur fossil.]
Chapter 17. Classification
1. (a) Named Dicotyledonous: the plant embryo in the seed has two leaves.
(b) Name: dandelion or daisy or buttercup or clover or oak
2. Most monocot seeds have their reserve food as endosperm outside the plant embryo –most dicot seeds store
their food reserve inside the plant embryo usually in the cotyledons which are therefore greatly enlarged.
or most monocot seeds are endospermous, most dicot seeds are non-endospermous.
3. (a) Cotyledon: a leaf of the plant embryo in the seed.

(b) Named Monocot: grass or wheat or rye or barley or corn (maize) or onion or orchid.
(c)
Monocotyledon Dicotyledon
Distribution of veins in leaf Parallel Branching or Netted
Leaf shape Narrow or strap-like or ribbon-like Broad as wide or Hand-shape
Distribution of vascular tissue in stem Scattered vascular bundles Vascular bundles in a ring
4. Kingdom Monera or Prokaryota
5. (a) 1. Membrane Bound Nucleus or Nucleus

2. Membrane organelles other than nucleus present or mitochondria present.
[If chloroplasts are present the organism is eukaryotic, but not all eukaryotic have chloroplasts e.g. animal and fungi..]
(b) Prokaryotic [The prokaryotes have their own kingdom – the Monera commonly known as the bacteria.]
Chapter 18. Microbiology

1. (a) 1. Bacillus 2. Coccus [3. Spirillum]
[Bacillus = Rod, Coccus = Sphere, Spirillum = Spiral]
(b) (i) Binary Fission [Binary = 2, Fission = Split]
(ii) Endospores [resistant dormant cell that can survive adverse growth conditions]

(iii) Pathogenic: disease-causing
2. (a) A: Flagellum, B: DNA or Nucleoid or Bacterial Chromosome or Nucleus [not 100% safe to call it a nucleus
even though is now becoming more common to accept it – traditionally a nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a
membrane]
C: Cell Wall or Cell Membrane [not easy to tell where the label line ends – the cell wall is much thicker than the
cell membrane which is so thin that it cannot be seen with a light microscope and so the syllabus only asks you to indicate its
position which in a normal bacterium cell is in contact with the cell wall.]
D: Capsule or Slime Layer or Mucilage
[Looks more like a slime layer or mucilage as it does not appear to be solid]
(b) Monera or Prokaryota [Monera is the safer answer.]
(c) (i) Locomotion or Movement
(ii) 1. Bacillus 2. Coccus [3. Spirillum]
(iii) Binary Fission
(iv) Anaerobic Bacteria: can grow and reproduce without free oxygen or respiration without free oxygen
supplies enough ATP to allow them to grow and reproduce or do not need free oxygen for energy
supply.
(v) Disease-causing.
(vi) Economic Importance: any two
1. Dairy Industry e.g. cheese, yoghurt.
2. Energy: methane gas from the breakdown of waste organic matter.
3. Pharming (Biotechnology): production of human hormones e.g. insulin
4. Crop diseases: economic damage
5. Livestock diseases: economic damage
6. Human diseases: days lost from work
7. Food spoilage: economic loss.
3. (a) (i) Layer A: Capsule or Slime Layer or Mucilage

Function: protection against competitors or protection against host immune system or protection
against dying out or protection against abiotic chemical in the environment
(ii) Flagellum or Plasmid
(b) (i) Autotrophic: organisms able to make their own food from inorganic materials.
(Autos = self, Trophos = nourishment; i.e. self-nourishing)
Heterotrophic: organism that are not able to make their own food from inorganic materials, they feed
on food made by other organisms. (Heteros = Another)
(ii) Saprophytic: bacteria and fungi that feed on detritus (dead organic matter).
(iii) Recycling of mineral nutrients or Recycling of carbon in the carbon cycle or Recycling of nitrogen
in the nitrogen cycle or food for other organisms or decomposition of dead organic matter
(iv) Chemosynthesis: making food using the energy released by physical chemistry e.g. the oxidation of
ammonia to nitrite and nitrite to nitrate by nitrifying bacteria of the nitrogen cycle.
(v) Host
(vi) 1. Bacteria that cause tooth decay. any two
2. Pathogenic bacteria causing human diseases e.g. tuberculosis, cholera, ulcers, tetanus.
3. Bacteria that cause farm livestock diseases e.g. mastitis
4. Crop diseases
5. Bacteria that cause food spoilage e.g. lactobacillus causes the souring of milk.
4. (a) Labelled Diagram of Bacterium Cell

(b) 1. Bacterium cell has a surrounding cell wall, a human cell is not surrounded by a cell wall. any two
2. Bacterial cells are much smaller than human cells (about a thousand times smaller).
3. Bacterial cells carry plasmids, human cells do not have plasmids.
4. Flagella are common among bacteria, sperm are the only flagellate cells in humans.
5. Many bacteria have a capsule covering over the wall, human cells are not protected by a capsule.
(c) The bacterium forms a highly resistant dormant endospore.
(d) Antibiotic: a chemical substance produced by bacteria or fungi that inhibits the growth and/or
reproduction of bacteria or fungi.
(e) The possible danger is the evolution of antibiotic-resistant strains of pathogenic micro-organisms.
An environment where an antibiotic is a feature will favour the survival and reproduction of micro-
organisms resistant to the antibiotic or micro-organisms not resistant to the antibiotic have a reduced
chance of survival and reproduction. As a result the succeeding generations will have an increasing
percentage of antibiotic-resistant micro-organisms.
5. (i) Photosynthetic Bacteria: use the energy of sunlight to make their food from inorganic materials e.g. green
sulphur bacteria or purple sulphur bacteria.
Chemosynthetic Bacteria: use the energy given off by physical chemical reactions (not biological) to
make their food from inorganic materials e.g. nitrifying bacteria in the soil oxidising ammonia to nitrite
and nitrite to nitrate.
(ii) 1. Saprophytic 2. Parasitic
3. Mutualistic (our gut bacteria, symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the roots of peas, beans and clover)
[Mutualism was not part of the marking scheme in 2006 higher exam paper – the mutualistic bacteria receive food from
their host as a ‘reward/payment’ for the benefits they bring to the host.]
(iii) In medicine antibiotics are used to treat infection by pathogenic bacteria and/or fungi e.g. penicillin.
[Antibiotics do not work against viruses.]
(iv) Antibiotic Resistance: bacteria and/or fungi whose growth and reproduction is not inhibited by the
antibiotic.
Develops: bacteria or fungi can acquire antibiotic resistance by mutation, by the uptake of antibiotic
resistant genes from their environment from plasmids, virus infection or from other resistant bacteria.
Natural selection will result in the population becoming more and more resistant in each generation as
long as antibiotics remain part of the environment – misuse of antibiotics contributes greatly to increased
antibiotic resistance.

6. (a) Decomposition: the chemical breakdown of detritus (dead organic matter) by saprophytes.
[Decomposition is commonly known as rotting or decay.
(b) (i) Bacteria, (ii) Fungi
[Sapros = rotting, Phyton = Plant: in old biology the bacteria and fungi were placed in the Plant Kingdom because their cells
were surrounded by a rigid wall just as in plant cells although their walls were of different chemical composition.]
7. (a) A:Vacuole, B: Cytoplasm

(b) Budding
(c) Mitosis
(d) Anaerobic: free oxygen (O2) is not present or lack of oxygen or lack of air
(ii) Carbon dioxide (ATP: was accepted as an answer but CO2 is what was really expeted.)
[Glucose → 2Ethanol + 2CO2 + Energy (2 ATPs)]
8. (a) Fungi
(b) Production of alcohol (ethanol) in beer, wine and spirits industry or production of CO2 for soft drinks
industry or baking of bread (CO2 from yeast as the raising agent) or production of B vitamins in health
industry or food industry e.g. marmite and vegemite. any one
[Should not have limited the question to yeast as the syllabus just wants the economic importance of fungi in general.]
(c) Cells have a membrane bound nucleus and other membrane bound organelles such as mitochondria.
9. (a) (i) Rhizopus

(ii) It is a saprophyte and so plays an important role in recycling of C, N and other minerals from dead
organic matter or important role in the formation of humus maintaining soil fertility.
(iii) Destroys fruit and stored food.
(b) Rhizopus is composed of thread-like filaments called hyphae whereas yeast is unicellular or
Rhizopus is multicellular and multinucleate whereas yeast is unicellular and uninucleate or
Rhizopus reproduces asexually by spores whereas yeast reproduces asexually by budding.
Rhizopus is visible to the eye much larger than microscopic yeast.
Rhizopus reproduces sexually forming diploid zygospores, yeast does not form zygospores.
(c) Hypha: a thread-like filament of a fungus.
Mycelium: the full vegetative body of the fungus composed of all the hyphae.
10. (a) Rhizopus

(b) Fungi
(c) A: Sporangiophore B: Sporangium C: Spore
[Greek: sporos = seed, anggeion = vessel, pherein = to bear → the hypha that bears the vessel that contains ‘seeds’.]
(d) 1. (i) Feeding on the food source or (ii) spreads colonising the food source.
2. (i) Secretes digestive enzymes on the food and absorbs the products of digestion.
(ii) Spreads by branching as it grows.
(e) Saprophytic
(f) 1. Nuclei present in the cells.
2. Mitochondria are present or membrane-bound organelles are present.
[There are many other membrane bound organelles besides nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts but they are not on the
leaving certificate biology syllabus.
(g) Prokaryotic [Their cells do not have nuclei or other membrane-bound organelles.]

11. (a) Anchor the fungus to the food source or feeding by secreting digestive enzymes followed by the
absorption of the products of digestion.
[A: stolon hypha, B: rhizoids or rhizoidal hyphae, C: sporangium.]
(b) Asexual reproduction by the formation of haploid spores which will be wind dispersed.
[The Rhizopus vegetative structure is haploid so the spores are produced by mitosis and genetically identical.]
(c) (i) Saprophytic or feeds on detritus (dead organic matter)
(ii) Recycles C, N and other minerals back into the abiotic environment making them available to living
organisms especially to plants or decomposes detritus.
12. (a) Labelled Diagram of Rhizopus Vegetative Structure
(b) Presence of hyphae or body made up of a ‘fluffy’ mycelium or presence of sporangia

(c) A: gametangium or progametangium B: Zygospore
(d) Survival of unfavourable growth conditions or dispersal or produce genetic variation on germination or
reproduction by producing many haploid spores on germination.
[The zygospore is diploid and to produce haploid spores it must undergo meiosis – meiosis introduces great genetic variation
because all the daughter nuclei will be genetically different due to independent assortment.]
13. (a) Fungi

(b) (i) Labelled Diagram of Sexual Reproduction in Rhizopu

(ii) Germinates absorbing water and its metabolic rate greatly increases.
Meiosis occurs within the diploid zygospore forming many genetically different haploid nuclei.
A haploid hypha grows out of the zygospore forming a sporangium of many haploid spores.
The spores are released and dispersed by the wind.
If a haploid spore reaches a favourable location it germinates by mitosis forming a new haploid
mycelium
(c) Beneficial: 1. Yeast – production of ethanol for the alcohol drinks industry. or
2. Penicillium – production of penicillin which is a valuable medical antibiotic. or
3. Edible mushroom – flavouring of food.
Harmful: 1. The yeast that causes athlete’s foot. or
2. Potato blight fungus that destroys potato plants. or
3. Dry rot fungus that destroys timber.
14. (a) Saprophytic: a micro-organism that feeds on dead organic matter (detritus).
Parasitic: a living organism that lives with and feeds off another living organism causing it harm.
(b) Saprophytic Role: cause the breakdown of detritus and recycle mineral nutrient back into the abiotic
environment from organic matter.
Parasitic Role: major factor in the control of the host population and the evolution, by natural selection,
of a host population more resistant to the parasite or evolution of a mutually beneficial realationship for
both host and parasite
15. (a) Rhizoidthe rhizoidal hyphae have an anchoring function and a feeding function; the rhizoids of fungi
secrete digestive enzymes onto the food and absorb the soluble nutrient products of digestion.
(b) Sporangium: functions in asexual reproduction by producing haploid asexual spores by mitosis and so
all the spores are genetically identical to their successful parent fungus, the spores are released and
dispersed by the wind.
(c) Gametangium: functions in sexual reproduction - it is a that contain haploid gametes that fuse with the
haploid gametes of an adjacent gametangium of the opposite strain forming a diploid zygospore.
(d) Zygospore: functions as a resistant and dispersal agent plus has a role in genetic variation as a result of
undergoing meiosis during its germination.
16. (a) Viruses have many characteristics of non-living matter such as

1. Viruses are non-cellular i.e. they are not composed of cell.
2. Viruses do not have organelles e.g. ribosomes.
3. Viruses do not show independent metabolic behaviour - only active when in contact with a host cell.
4. Viruses cannot reproduce independently – can only reproduce with the help of their host cell.
5. Viruses only have one form of nucleic acid; other living organisms have both DNA and RNA.
6. Can be crystallised from a suspension.
(b) 1. Nucleic Acid or DNA or RNA
2. Protein
(c) 1. Attachment: the virus makes contact with its host cell and sticks to its surface.
2. Penetration: the nucleic acid of the virus gains entry into the host cell.
3. Replication: using the materials and the organelles of the host cell the nucleic acid of the virus directs
the formation of new viral proteins and nucleic acid.
4. Assembly: the viral nucleic acid and protein automatically become organised into new virus particles.
5. Release: the new virus particles escape from the host cell and are dispersed to locate new host cells.
(d) (i) Flu Virus or Influenza Virus
(ii) 1. Droplet infection or inhaling droplets containing the virus from an infected person that has
sneezed or coughed or by direct contact with an infected person’s secretions or by handling
items that have picked up the virus from an infected person.
2. Causes fever, headache, felling of being unwell, inflammation of the airways and can kill.
3. By vaccination or isolation of infected individuals.
(e) Common cold or Measles or Flu or Chicken Pox or Hepatitis or AIDS or Polio or Cancer any two
(f) Making vaccines or Genetic Engineering to transfer novel genes into host cell or Control of
pathogenic bacteria or Biological control of pest species or Medical research any one
(g) Crop diseases e.g. tobacco mosaic disease or Livestock diseases e.g. foot and mouth of cattle or
17. [There was five minutes to answer this question in the 2009 exam: only three points were required for a full answer
but if all three were from the same category, economic or medical, then 3 out of the 10 marks was lost; you
should try to cover each category equally in your answer.]
Economic Importance
1. Viruses cause diseases of livestock and animal pets such as food and mouth disease of cattle and
distemper in dogs.
2. Viruses cause crop diseases such as tobacco mosaic disease and potato leaf roll virus (PLRV).
4. Pharming: viruses are used to make genetically modified organisms to produce biochemicals of great
commercial value.
Medical Importance
1. Viruses cause many human diseases including cancer e.g. flu, common cold, AIDS.
2. Viruses can be used to control pathogenic bacteria.
3. Viruses are used to make vaccines the main attack against the spread of viral diseases.
18. Antibiotics do not work against viruses.
19. (i) The original rabbit population did not have general immunity to the virus and conditions were suitable
for the rapid spread of the virus such as a suitable agent to transfer the virus to new host and a host
population of high density.
[Be careful, never be satisfied with just one correct piece of information – full marks here demanded two items; in the
answer given above there are four (can you spot them?).]
(ii) By natural selection the rabbit population has evolved a resistance to the virus or by natural selection the
virus has evolved a less harmful effect on rabbits.

(iii) Advan tage any one
1. Targeted to one specific pest species and does not kill innocent bystander species like many chemical
control agents.
2. More natural and so more ‘environmentally friendly’.
3. Can be relatively cheaper than other methods of control.
Disadvantage any one
1. By reducing the population of one species the populations of other species will change and this could
lead to a major change in the natural community of organisms – the balance of nature can be upset.
Its predator population could be greatly reduced resulting in its loss from the community by death or
migration or the predator may switch to prey on other species upsetting their populations; its prey
population may undergo a population explosion.
2. The biological control agent may attack other species in the community.
3. The biological control agent may ‘feed’ on other more suitable species and not on the pest leading to
more trouble than before e.g. cane toads in Australia.
4. Could be very expensive method of control.
(iv) Yes
Since there is no suitable vaccine the human population cannot be perfectly protected so the death rate
will be high eliminating those who do not possess a natural immunity and so by natural selection the
succeeding generations will have a higher percentage of HIV resistant individuals. or
No
Medical science and education inform the public of how the virus is transmitted and by a change in
behaviour this will prevent the spread of HIV eliminating it from the population – by this route the
death rate is greatly reduced but there will not be evolution of a HIV-resistant population.
20. (a) A: population of live bacteria or number of live bacteria [Logarithm scale to the base 10 otherwise the y-axis
would reach nearly half way to the moon.]
B: time in days
(b) (i) Lag Phase
(ii) The bacteria are adjusting to the new nutritional environment or low population increase as their
metabolic and /or reproductive rate is slow.
(c) (i) Log Phase or Exponential Phase
(ii) The rate of reproduction is increasing much faster and the death rate is insignificant.
(d) (i) Continuation of the Growth Curve
(ii) 1. Flat Section (Stationary Phase): reproduction rate is now equal to the death rate – conditions are
not as favourable as before maybe due to lack of food, lack of oxygen, lack of space or a build

up of toxins.
2. Dipping Section (Decline Phase): death rate is faster than the reproductive rate – conditions have
become unfavourable for the reasons outlined in 1 above.
(e) Batch: the nutrients are added only at the beginning and there is no resupply during the production of
the product and the product is only collected from the bioreactor at the end of the processing operation.
Continuous: there is a steady constant supply of nutrients during the entire processing operation and
the product stream is removed steadily from the bioreactor.
21. (a) A:contractile vacuole or Vacuole, B: Cytoplasm or Endoplasm

C: Pseudopod or False Foot D: Nucleus
(b) Protista or Protoctista
22. (a) A material that and supplies water and suitable food for the growth and reproduction of leaf yeast.
(b) Nutrient Agar
(c) To supply water and food for the growth and reproduction of yeast as yeast cannot make their own food
but are heterotrophic saprophytes.
(d) Live micro-organisms or their dormant spores are not present.
(e) Ash or Sycamore or Privet or Oak or Elm [any named flowering tree or bush and at any time of the year as long
as the leaves are green and living]
(f) Using a sterile scissors and forceps the leaves were cut and placed in an airtight sterile container – this
was done to prevent contamination of the leaves with other micro-organisms.
(g) 1. Placed nutrient agar plate was placed upside down and removed the base placing it upside down on
the bench preventing it becoming contaminated by micro-organisms in the air.
2. Petroleum jelly was smeared on the inside of the lid.
3. Leaves or leaflets not as wide as the plate (avoids having to cut the leaf) were stuck to the jelly on the
lid by their lower surface.
4. The base was then placed on the lid.
(h) The plate was left right way up for a day for yeast spores to fall from the leaf onto the nutrient agar.
(i) The plate was then incubated upside down for a week at room temperature to allow the yeast to
reproduce and form colonies.
(j) The control plate was clear – no growth of micro-organisms, it had remained sterile.
The experiment plate had small pink-red pimple-like colonies in a pattern identical to the shape of the
leaf directly below the leaf.
(k) The plates were put into a disposable autoclave bag and sterilised in an autoclave (pressure cooker) and
then discarded with the general waste from the lab or the plates were sterilise by pouring vinegar or
sterilising fluid, e.g. Milton’s, into them and then discarded with the general waste from the lab.
23. (a) Labelled Diagrams of the Procedure
(b) The control plate was clear – no growth of micro-organisms, it had remained sterile.
The experiment plate had small pink-red pimple-like colonies in a pattern identical to the shape of the
leaf directly below the leaf.
Labelled Diagram of Result

24. (a) By autoclaving – heating in a pressure cooker or By flaming – placing it in a Bunsen flame and then
allowing it to cool or By placing it in an antiseptic fluid e.g. Milton’s
[Some sterilising methods may not be suitable for certain types of apparatus e.g. flaming is not suitable for plastic petri
dishes.]
(b) (i) Petri Dish
(ii) Nutrient Agar
(iii) 1. Placed nutrient agar plate was placed upside down and removed the base placing it upside down on
the bench preventing it becoming contaminated by micro-organisms in the air.
2. Petroleum jelly was smeared on the inside of the lid.
3. Leaves or leaflets not as wide as the plate (avoids having to cut the leaf) were stuck to the jelly on
the lid by their lower surface.
4. The base was then placed on the lid.
(iv) Four days at 25°C or 7 days at room temperature.
(v) The experiment plate had small pink-red pimple-like colonies in a pattern identical to the shape of
the leaf directly below the leaf.
Plant Biology: Unit 3
Chapter 19. Plant Structure

1. (a) B: Flower, C: Stem, E: Fruit [A: Leaf, D:Root]
(b) Main Function of A any one
1. Photosynthesis for the production of food (carbohydrate).
2. Transpiration for transport of water up the plant.
3. Gas exchange for photosynthesis – uptake of carbon dioxide from the air and the excretion of waste
oxygen into the air through the stomata.
4. Food storage e.g. the leaves of cabbage.
Main function of D any one
1. Absorption of water from the soil.
2. Absorption of mineral nutrients from the soil.
3. Anchorage/support of the plant in the soil.

4. Food storage.
5. Vegetative reproduction e.g. root tubers.
(c) Role of E any one
1. Protect the seeds as they develop inside the ovary of the carpel.
2. Seed dispersal by wind, water, animals or mechanical methods.
(d) Tube-like Water Transport Tissue: xylem [Phloem is the tube-like food transport tissue.]
[Xylem and phloem are vascular tissues.]
2. (a) (i) Diagram From Question: Stomata labelled A and main photosynthetic region labelled B
(ii) Stoma [Stomata is the pleural of stoma – about 20,000 per square centimetre of leaf surface.]
(b) Gas Lost From Leaf: oxygen or water vapour
(c) Leaf Part of Most Photosynthesis: see diagram – upper layer of ground tissue just below upper dermal
tissue (palisademesophyll – palisade mesophyll is not in the syllabus.).
(d) Photosynthetic Plant Cell Organelles: Chloroplasts
(e) Water [Although chlorophyll was accepted it is not a safe answer it is a very large molecule.]
3. (a) A: Stoma or stomatic pore, B: Guard Cell C: Dermal Cell or Epidermal Cell
(b) Function of A:
1. Gas exchange for photosynthesis – entry of carbon dioxide gas into the leaf from the air and the exit of
waste excess oxygen from the leaf into the air.
2. Rapid transpiration to move water up the plant from the roots to the leaves.
(c) Carbon dioxide concentration in the air spaces of the leaf.
(d) Lenticels [The lenticels are gas exchange structures for aerobic respiration – oxygen diffuses from the air through
the porous lenticels into the living plant tissue below the cork layer and waste carbon dioxide diffuses into the atmosphere
through the lenticels.]
4. (a) Tissue; a group of structurally identical cells modified to perform a particular task for the organism.
(b) Vascular Tissues: 1. Xylem, 2. Phloem.
(c) Non-vascular Tissues: 1.Dermal, 2. Ground, 3. Meristematic. any two

5. (a) A: Xylem, B: Phloem
(b) A group of specialised cells modified for the efficient transport of materials within the organism.
(c) X: Sieve Plate, Y: Companion Cell
(d) Function of A: transport of water and mineral nutrients up the plant or mechanical support.
(e) Function of B: transport of ‘food’ in the plant in all directions.
(f) Leaf Location of A and B: leaf veins or midrib or vascular bundles
(g) Lignin
6. (a) Xylem
(b) A: Vessel member B: Tracheid
(c) Lignin
(d) In the vascular bundles that are arranged in a circle in the ground tissue of the young dicot stem.
7. (a) A: Xylem B: Phloem

(b) Vascular
(c) L: Companion Cell, M: Sieve Element or Sieve Tube, N: Sieve Plate
(d) Substance Transported in A: water or mineral nutrients
(e) Substance Transported in B: food or sucrose or sugar or amino acids
(e) Other Function of A: Mechanical support.
(f) Tissues A and B in a Young Root: both will be in the central vascular bundle – xylem in the very centre
and the phloem between the arms of xylem. [Could also use a labelled diagram to answer this part.]
8. (a) Diagram: Part of a Root of a Young Plant
(b) Main Function of a Rooe any three

1. Absorption of water from the soil.
2. Absorption of mineral nutrients from the soil.
3. Anchorage/support of the plant in the soil.
4. Food storage.
5. Vegetative reproduction e.g. root tubers.
(c) Origin of Root: radical of the plant embryo
(d) Root Meristem Location: at the tip of the root just beneath the root cap.
9. (a) T.S. of Young Root: Diagram 2

(b) Root Features

1. Hair-like extensions from the dermal tissue (root hairs).
2. Only one vascular bundle, the vascular bundle is in the centre of the plant organ,
3. The vascular tissue is not within ground tissue but is separated from it by the endodermis.
4. The presence of an endodermis (‘internal skin’) surrounding the vascular tissue.
5. The xylem tissue is shaped like a star, the phloem is between the arms of the xylem.
(c) A: Ground Tissue, B: Vascular Tissue, C: Dermal Tissue
(d) Vascular Tissues: xylem and phloem.
(e) Difference between Xylem and Phloem any one
1. Xylem is dead tissue made of dead cells, phloem is living tissue made of live cells.
2. Xylem cell walls are lignified (thickened with lignin), phloem cells walls are not thickened.
3. Xylem transports water and mineral nutrients, phloem transports food.
4. Transport is upwards in xylem, transport is up and down in phloem.
5. Xylem tissue cells are tracheids and vessel members, phloem has sieve elements and companion cells.
(f) Ground Tissue: fills the interior of the plant lying between the dermal and vascular tissue
(g) Function of Ground Tissue any one
1. Food Storage, 2. Mechanical Support of non-woody plant parts e.g. leaves,
3. Photosynthesis. 4.Waste Storage.
10. (a) (i) Meristem: a special group of plant cells that have the ability to divide indefinitely by mitosis or
a plant region that contributes to growth by forming new cells by mitotic cell division.
(ii) Meristem Location any one
1. Root tip, 2. Stem tip, 3. Bud tip, 4. Between xylem and phloem of dicot stems, 5. Just below cork.
(b) (i) Root
Reasons for Root Identification any two
1. Hair-like extensions from the dermal tissue (root hairs).
2. Only one vascular bundle, the vascular bundle is in the centre of the plant organ,
3. The vascular tissue is not within ground tissue but is separated from it by the endodermis.
4. The presence of an endodermis (‘internal skin’) surrounding the vascular tissue.
5. The xylem tissue is shaped like a star, the phloem is between the arms of the xylem.
(ii) Diagram: X: vascular tissue, Y: ground tissue.
11. (a) A: Terminal Bud or Apical Bud, B: Leaf Scar, C: Girdle Scar or Ring Scar or Terminal Bud Scar ,
D: Lateral Bud or Axillary Bud
(b) At the tip of the terminal bud or at the tip of the lateral buds or just below the cork layer of the bark or
at the base of the bark at its junction with the wood.
(c) 3 years or three and a bit years
(d) The terminal bud marks the end of this present year’s growth.
From terminal bud to first girdle scar is one year, to the next girdle scar down is a second year, to the
next girdle scar is 3 years and there is a small bit of stem shown below the third girdle scar.
(e) Stem Function any two
1. The exposure of leaves to light or flowers to pollinating agents or fruit to seed dispersal agents.
2. Transport of water, mineral nutrient and food between the roots and leaves.
3. Vegetative reproduction e.g. stem tubers of potato.
4. Food storage e.g. potato tuber.
5. Support the plant to resist gravity.
6. Green non-woody stems carry out photosynthesis.

[Parts (a), (c) and (d) should not have been asked as the winter twig is not on the syllabus – but again, never refuse to
answer any part of a question – any reasonable attempt was given the marks.]
Again apologies for the incorrect ‘lettering’ of the different parts of the question.
12. (a) Disgram

(b) Phloem or P
(c) The vascular bundles in a monocotyledonous stem are scatter but in the young dicot stem the vascular
bundles are arranged in a circle.
13. Diagram
14. (a) Herbaceous stems are non-woody and so are softer making it easier to cut a thin section. Or
Herbaceous stems are usually much thinner and a section across the entire stem will fit on a microscope
slide and give a full display of the distribution of the tissues in the stem.
(b) An internode region of the stem is cut free, the soft stem is supported in a split length of pith, with a
sharp blade thin slices are cut perpendicular to the length of the stem from the top, slice away for safety
reasons – avoids danger to the hands, place the stem sections in a dish of water.
(c) The thinner the slice the more light that can pass through it and the cells will be seen more clearly.
(d) 1. An internode region of the stem is cut free.
2. The soft stem is supported in a split length of pith.
3. A sharp blade is used to cut thin slices perpendicular to the length of the stem from the top.
4. Slice away for safety reasons – avoids danger to the hands.
5. Place the stem sections in a dish of water – this will keep the tissues turgid and in good shape.
6. Choose the thinnest complete section and place it in the centre of a glass slide.
7. Place a couple of drops of water on the section using a dropper and cover with a cover slip.
The slide of a young dicotyledonous stem section is now ready for microscopic examination.
(e) 1. The slide is placed on the stage and held in position by the stage clips.
2. The slide is moved so the stem section is directly over the hole in the stage that allows the light up.
3. The low power objective is ‘clicked’ into position and brought as close as possible to the stage.
4. The course focus wheel is turned to bring the stem section in clear view.

5. The fine focus wheel may then be used to bring the stem section into clearer view.
6. The slide is moved so the part of the section of most interest in the centre of the field of view.
7. Click the medium-power objective into position.
8. Carefully with the coarse focus wheel and then the fine focus wheel bring the section into clear view.
9. Move the slide to place the main part of interest into the centre of the field of view.
10. Click the high-power objective into position, use the fine focus wheel to bring the section into view.
11. Draw diagrams of the tissue distribution as seen with the low and medium power plus details of the cell
types as seen under the high power.
(f) Diagram: Transverse Section of a Young Herbaceous Dicotyledonous Stem
(g) 1. Xylem Function any one

(a) Transport of water up the plant from the roots.
(b) Transport of mineral nutrients up the plant from the roots.
(c) Mechanical support of roots, stems and leaves.
2. Phloem Function
Transport of food from leaves to all parts and from storage areas to growth areas.
15. (a) Cut the section with a sharp blade – single edge blade or scalpel.
(b) The stem is placed in a split pith or in a split carrot or held firmly in the fingers
(c) Lifted the sections out of the water to the slide using a small artist’s paintbrush or forceps or needle.
16. (a) Stem not a Root any one

1. A root has one large vascular bundle – many small vascular bundles are present as in a young stem.
2. The young dicot stem has vascular bundles in a circle around the middle – the young root has its
vascular bundle in the centre.
3. A root has an endodermis surrounding the vascular tissue, an endodermis is not present here – young
stems do not have an endodermis.
4. There is a large area of ground tissue in the centre typical of a young root – a young root has vascular

tissue in the centre.
5. There is only a small area of ground tissue between the dermal tissue and the vascular tissue – in a
young root there is a wide area of ground tissue between dermal and vascular tissues.
(b) A: Xylem [The xylem points into the centre of the stem, the phloem is closest to the outside.]
B: Phloem
(c) Longitudinal Section of Phloem (Tissue B)
(d) Function of Dermal Tissue any one

1. Protection e.g against water loss, pathogens, chemical agents, physical agents.
2. Gas exchange for photosynthesis – stomata on green herbaceous stems.
3. Gas exchange for aerobic respiration – lenticels in the cork of the bark of woody plant parts.
4. Mechanical support e.g. leaves with turgid ground tissue.
Function of Ground Tissue any one
1. Food storage.
2. Mechanical support - when turgid gives strength to non-woody plant parts.
3. Photosynthesis e.g. the ground tissue of the leaf and young non-woody green stems.
4. Water movement e.g. across the root from the dermal tissue to the vascular tissue in the centre.
5. Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide e.g. through the air spaces between the cells.
6. Waste storage.
(e) 1. Water Transport Tissue; xylem
2. Adaptation any one
(i) The cells are very long.
(ii) The cells are dead so they are hollow and so water can flow through them is freely.
(iii) Xylem vessels cells do not have cross walls and so flow from one to the other is free.
(iv) The walls are lignified – this strengthens the walls keeping the cells fully open keeping the

water flowing freely up the xylem.
(v) Pits (non-lignified areas) allow for the lateral transfer of water to neighbouring cells.
Chapter 20. Gas Exchange in Plant

1. (a) (i) Diagram From Question: Stomata Labelled A and main photosynthetic layer labelled B
(ii) Stoma [Stomata is the pleural of stoma – about 20,000 per square centimetre of leaf surface.]
(b) Gas Lost From Leaf: oxygen or water vapour
(c) Leaf Part of Most Photosynthesis: see diagram – upper layer of ground tissue just below upper dermal
tissue (palisade mesophyll – palisade mesophyll is not in the syllabus.).
(d) Photosynthetic Plant Cell Organelles: Chloroplasts
(e) Water [Although chlorophyll was accepted it is not a safe answer it is a very large molecule.]
2. (a) A: Stoma or stomatic pore, B: Guard Cell C: Dermal Cell or Epidermal Cell
(b) Function of A:
1. Gas exchange for photosynthesis – entry of carbon dioxide gas into the leaf from the air and the exit of
waste excess oxygen from the leaf into the air.
2. Rapid transpiration to move water up the plant from the roots to the leaves.
(c) Carbon dioxide concentration in the air spaces of the leaf.
(d) Lenticels [The lenticels are gas exchange structures for aerobic respiration – oxygen diffuses from the air through
the porous lenticels into the living plant tissue below the cork layer and waste carbon dioxide diffuses out into the
atmosphere through the lenticels.]
3. (a) Labelled Diagram: T.S. of Leaf

(b) Control the opening and closing of the stoma plus control the size of the stoma or control gas exchange
for photosynthesis or regulate transpiration.
(c) Carbon Dioxide, Oxygen, Water Vapour any two
(d) Diffusion
4. (a) Stomata
(b) Carbon Dioxide concentration of the air spaces in the leaf or light intensity or light quality or availability
of soil water or air movement
[CO2 concentration is the only factor mentioned in the syllabus; any threat to supply of water will automatically stimulate a
closure of the stomata.]
5. (a) Stomata
(b) Stomata
[Gas exchange apertures in stems are lenticels – they function in aerobic respiration permitting the entry of oxygen into the
woody parts and exit of carbon dioxide.]
Chapter 21. Transport in Plants

1. (a) Osmosis: the flow of water through a semi-permeable membrane from a region of higher water
concentration to a region of lower water concentration or the flow of water through a semi-permeable
membrane from a dilute solution to a more concentrated solution.
(b) Xylem
(c) Adaptation any one
(i) The cells are very long – less barriers to cross to get from roots to leaves.
(ii) The cells are dead so they are hollow and so water can flow through them is freely.
(iii) Xylem vessels cells do not have cross walls and so flow from one to the other is free.
(iv) The walls are lignified – this strengthens the walls keeping the cells fully open keeping the
water flowing freely up the xylem.
(v) Pits (unlignified areas) allow for the lateral transfer of water to neighbouring cells.
(vi) The open ended cells are aligned one after the other forming open tubes.

(d) Tissue: phloem
Transported Substance: sucrose or sugar or food
2. (a) root hairs or dermal tissue of young roots or root epidermis

(b) osmosis [osmosis is a special case of water diffusion and so is a passive method]
(c) (i) No or Yes
(ii) No Explanation: The minerals are in higher concentration in the xylem than in the soil water and so
mineral absorptio is against the concentration difference and so can’t be by diffusion so must by active
transport.
Yes Explanation: many minerals are in higher concentration in the soil water and so will move by
diffusion into the dermal cells of the young root.
(d) Plants Raising Water Against Gravity
1. There is a continuous column of water in a plant from leaves to root and extending into the soil.
2. The water is ‘glued’ very strongly cell walls, adhesion, which prevents the water falling down under its
own weight.
3. Water molecules also ‘glue’ very strongly to each other, cohesion, preventing the water column from
breaking under tension (stretching force).
4. Loss of water by evaporation from the leaves through the stomata, transpiration, pulls water from the
xylem setting up tension in the water column.
5. This tension pulls water up the xylem, also pulling water from the ground tissue in the root into the
xylem plus pulling water from the soil into the root – a ‘transpiration stream’.
6. Therefore transpiration sets up a flow of water from the soil into the roots up the stem into the leaves.
7. This transport of water is passive as it does not use ATP – external heat causing evaporation is the
energy source.
8. This cohesion-tension explanation was first proposed by two Irish scientists Dixon and Joly.
[Note that the question said ‘great heights’ so therefore it must be Transpiration Pull – capillary action and root pressure
only move water a short distance up a plant.]
3. (a) Water Absorption by Root Hair

1. Water absorption is by osmosis.
2. Soil water is much more dilute (higher water concentration) than the cell sap of the root hair cell.
3. The external wall of the root hair cell fully permeable as it is not covered with a cuticle.
4. The cell membrane of the root hair cell is semi-permeable allowing water to pass through.
5. Water diffuses, through the cell membrane, into the root hair cell.
6. The root hair greatly increases the surface area for water absorption by the dermal tissue of young roots.
(b) (i) No
(ii) Explanation any one
osmosis only applies to the movement of a solvent, e.g. water, it does not apply to the movement of
solutes (dissolved substances) such as minerals or
minerals do not enter root hairs by diffusion or
minerals enter the root hairs by active transport
[Active Transport only appears in the syllabus in connection withthe kidneys; active transport can only asked and expected
as an answer in relation to selective reabsorption of important nutrients in the renal tubule (nephron); but you have to be
awarded marks if you correctly use active transport in your answers to questions in other areas of biology.]
(c) Raising Water To Great Heights (Attractive Forces Between Water Molecules)
1. There is a continuous column of water in a plant from leaves to root and extending into the soil.
2. Water molecules also ‘glue’ very strongly to each other, cohesion, preventing the water column from
breaking under tension (stretching force).
3. Loss of water by evaporation from the leaves through the stomata, transpiration, pulls water from the

xylem setting up tension in the water column.
4. This tension pulls water up the xylem, also pulling water from the ground tissue in the root into the
xylem plus pulling water from the soil into the root – a ‘transpiration stream’.
5. The tension force is so strong that it could pull water up to a height of at least 150 metres.
4. (a) 1. Water from the soil enters the roots by osmosis – the root hairs are the major absorbing sites.
2. The water passes across the ground tissue of the root, from cell to cell, into the xylem of the large
central vascular bundle.
3. The water then moves up the stem into the leaves by
(i) capillary action – if it is a small plant – passive movement due to water’s adhesion to xylem walls.
(ii) root pressure – if it is a small plant – active process relying on ATP .
(iii) transpiration pull – if it is a tall plant – passive process relying on external heat evaporating water
from the leaves setting up a strong tension force in the water of the xylem.
(b) Water Molecules At The Sites of Photosynthesis
1. The water molecules undergo photolysis splitting into electrons, hydrogen ions (protons) and oxygen.
2. Some of the oxygen is then used for aerobic respiration and the remainder is passed out of the plant.
3. The hydrogen ion and eventually the electrons pass into the dark stage reacting with carbon dioxide
Forming carbohydrate i.e. food, such as glucose.
5. (a) The cell sap is more concentrated than the soil water. or
The cell sap has a higher solute concentration than soil water. or
The cell sap has a lower concentration of water than soil water.
(b) Mineral Absorption By Roots

By diffusion – only minerals dissolved in soil water are absorbed, some minerals are in higher
concentration in the soil water may move down their concentration
gradient into the root where they are in lower concentration or
By active transport – many minerals are in higher concentration in the root cells than in soil water,
therefore the plant has to use energy from ATP to take in these minerals.
[The marking scheme never mentioned active transport but it is the main method of mineral absorption; in fact no
mechanism for mineral absorption is mentioned in the syllabus or Guidelines For Teachers.]
Chapter 22. Flowering Plant Responses

1. (a) Tropism: a growth response by a plant to an external stimulus.
(b) Types of Tropisms: 1. Phototropism – direction of light stimulus.
2. Geotropism – direction of gravity stimulus.
any three 3. Hydrotropism – presence of water stimulus.
4. Thigmotropism – physical contact stimulus.
5. Chemotropism – specific chemical substance. other than water, stimulus.
2. (a) Phototropism
(b) Greater rate of photosynthesis – the stem grows towards the light placing the leaves into positions where
the light intensity is higher.
(c) Growth regulators e.g. auxin.

(d) Phloem or Vascular Tissue
(e) Geotropism or Hydrotropism or Thigmotropism or Chemotropism
3. (a) Radicle
(b) Hydrotropism
(c) Ethene or Abscisic Acid [The ‘old’ name for Ethene is ethylene, it is the only gaseous plant growth regulator.]
(d) Horticultural Uses of Growth Regulators any two
1. Rooting powder, 2. Selective Weedkiller, 3. Producing seedless fruit. 4. Ripening of fruit,
5. Micropropagation 6. Control the timing of leaf fall. 7. Control the timing of flowering.
4. (a) Light
(b) Thigmotropism is the growth response of a plant to the external stimulus of physical contact.
Chemotropism is the growth response of a plant to the external stimulus of a specific substance other than
water.
5. (a) Tips of stems or Apical Meristems or Young Leaves

(b) Synthetic Growth Regulator Use Example
2,4-D: used as a selective weedkiller.
NAA or IBA: in rooting power to promote the formation of new roots in cuttings.
6. (a) Example of Growth Promotion any one

Auxin: stimulates the elongation of cells in the elongation zone of stems.
Gibberellin: stimulates seed germination
Cytokinin: stimulates cell division in meristematic tissue.
(b) Example of Growth Inhibition any one

Abscisic Acid: stimulates leaf aging and fall or stimulates bud dormancy or stimulates seed dormancy
Ethene: stimulates fruit fall or inhibits the growth promotion action of auxin.
7. (a) Auxin: auxin is a plant growth regulator particularly involved in the promotion of growth principally by
stimulating the expansion of cells.
(b) Secretion Site: the tips of stems or apical meristems
(c) Similar Action to Human Hormones
Auxin and human hormones cause a change in the activity of specific target tissues that are distant from
their site of secretion.
Auxin and human hormones bind to special complementary receptors on the cell membrane of the target
cells forming a complex stimulating a slow but long-lasting response
Auxin and human hormones act as chemical messengers transported in vascular tissue to the target sites –
auxin in phloem and human hormones in the blood.
(c) Named Tropism: phototropism of young stems.
1. Auxin is made in the tip of the stem.
2. The stem tip is not in uniform (diffuse) light – light is stronger on one side.
3. Auxin in the tip moves from on the brighter side to the more shaded side.
4. Auxin is moves away from the stem tip – higher concentration on the shaded side.
5. Auxin stimulates the lengthening of the cells in the elongation zone.
6. The higher the auxin concentration the greater the lengthening of the cells.
7. Cells on the shaded side (higher auxin conc.) elongate more causing the stem to bend towards the light.
[The above description can also be given as a detailed labelled diagram.]
8. (a) Between 10-5 and 10-4 parts per million

(b) Between 1 and 10 parts per million
(c) Inhibits root growth.
(d) 2,4-D: used as a selective weedkiller.
NAA or IBA: in rooting power to promote the formation of new roots in cuttings.
(e) Plant Protective Measures any three
1. Toxic Substances: to repel herbivores and insect pests.
2. Thorns: to repel herbivores.
3. Stinging Cells: to repel herbivores.
4. Produce Bad Tasting Substances: to repel herbivores.
5. Cuticle: to reduce leaf transpiration to conserve water in dry conditions.
6. Leaf Hairs: to reduce transpiration to conserve water in dry conditions.
7. Sunken Stomata: to reduce transpiration to conserve water in dry conditions.
8. Needle-shaped leaves: to reduce transpiration to conserve water in dry conditions.
9. Closure of Stomata when soil water is low: water conservation by reducing transpiration.
10. Resin and Latex: to prevent insects feeding on them by clogging their mouth parts.
11. Seeds: the dormant plant embryo, within the seed, is protected against unfavourable conditions.
12. Leaf Fall: to reduce transpiration water loss during dry and/or cold conditions.
9. (a) Investigate the effect of I.A.A. growth regulator on plant tissue.

(b) Uses in the experimental procedure to determine if its presence influences plant growth.
10. (a) Radish or Pea

(b) Description of Procedure
Method A: Radish Roots
1.Ten petri dishes are set up as follows.
(i) Filter paper is place in the base.
(ii) Ten cress seeds place in a straight line on the filter paper – when wet the seeds will stick to the
filter paper – ten makes sure there are many replicates not just one seed.
(iii) Each dish is receives a different concentration of IAA solution – each in the sequence is 10 times
more concentrated than the previous from 10-6 parts per million to 1,000 parts per million.
(iv) An acetate grid may be placed in each dish to make length measurement easy.
2. A control is set up – another dish but distilled water instead of IAA solution.
3. Leave for 5 days at room temperature – theromostatically-controlled room.
4. Measure the lengths of the radish roots in each dish and calculate the average – graph the results
putting IAA concentration on the x-axis..
5. Compare the average lengths to the average length in the control – draw a horizontal line across the
graph from the length of the control on the y-axis.
6. Compare your results to those of other groups in your class.
Method B: Young Pea Stems

1. A hundred pea seeds were allowed to germinate until the young stems are about 1.5 cm long.
The stem tip is removed – use a sharp blade – and each young stem is cut to about 1 cm long.
2.Ten petri dishes are set up as follows.
(i) Filter paper is place in the base.
(ii) Ten decapitated stems are placed into each petri dish using a forceps - ten makes sure there are
many replicates not just one stem section.
(iii) Each dish is receives a different concentration of IAA solution – each in the sequence is 10 times
more concentrated than the previous from 10-6 parts per million to 1,000 parts per million.

(iv) An acetate grid may be placed in each dish to make length measurement easy.
3. A control is set up – another dish but distilled water instead of IAA solution.
4. Leave for 5 days at room temperature – theromostatically-controlled room.
5. Measure the lengths of the pea stems in each dish and calculate the average – graph the results
putting IAA concentration on the x-axis..
6. Compare the average lengths to the average length in the control – draw a horizontal line across the
graph from the length of the control on the y-axis.
7. Compare your results to those of other groups in your class.
(c) Safety Precaution:
Wear disposable safety gloves to ensure your hands do not make contact with the IAA
solution which may be dangerous to your health or
Wear a protective paper face mask to prevent inhaling IAA solution droplets or
Do not open the dishes to measure the root lengths and so prevent inhaling IAA solution droplets.
11. (a) Measuring Grid or Acetate Grid or Graticule

[Graticule:fine lines in an optical instrument for use as a measuring scale.]
(b) Measure the length of the young radish roots or length of the young pea stems.
(c) The different concentrations are made up by serial dilution of the original stock IAA solution.
Use ten small screw cap clean glass bottles.
Place 10 cm3 of stock IAA solution 1,000 parts per million in the first bottle.
Put 9 cm3 of distilled water into the other nine bottles.
Remove 1 cm3 of stock solution from the first bottle and place into the second bottle.
Remove 1 cm3 of solution from the second into the third and so on until the last bottle.
Then discard 1 cm3 of solution from the last bottle.
Each bottle has 9 cm3 of IAA solution each successively 10% as concentrated as the previous –
from 1,000 parts per million to 10-6 parts per million.
(d) So that the roots grow straight and so their length are easy to measure without opening the dish or
[Grow down straight because of the positive geotropic response of plant roots.]
[This techniques is only used if using germinating seeds and you do not want to open the dishes.]
Chapter 23. Reproduction in Flowering Plants

1. (a) Cotyledon: a leaf of a plant embryo in a seed.
(b) Named Monocotyledon:grass, onion, orchid, banana any one
(c) Named Dicotyledon: buttercup, daisy, dandelion, clover any one
(d)
Characteristics Monocotyledon Dicotyledon
Distribution of veins in leaf parallel branching or net like or reticulate
Leaf shape ribbon like or narrow broad
Distribution of vascular tissue in stem scattered vascular bundles arranged in a circle
umber of cotyledons one two
[In a young dicot stem the vascular bundles are arranged in a ring, in woody stems the vascular tissue is a continuous ring of
xylem just inside a continuous ring of phloem.]
(e)
1. Monocot leaves have parallel veins, dicot leaves have branching veins.

2. Monocot leaves are narrow in comparison to their length, dicot leaves are as wide as they are long.
3. Monocot stems have scattered vascular bundles, young dicot stems have vascular bundles in a circle.
4. Monocot flower parts are in 3 or multiples of 3, dicot flower parts are in 4 or 5.
5. Monocots seeds are mostly endospermous, dicot seeds are mostly non-endospermous.
2. (a) Petal: attract animal pollinators

Sepal; protect the flower bud during flower development or support the petals in the open flower
Anther: production and release of pollen
(b) (i) Pollination: transfer of pollen from the anther of a stamen to the stigma of a carpel.
(ii) Self-pollination: transfer of pollen to a stigma of the same plant.
Cross-pollination: transfer to pollen to a stigma of a different plant.
(c) 1. Wind 2. Animal or named animal e.g. insect
[Greater genetic variation makes the population more resistant to environmental change greatly improving the population’s
chances of survival, allows populations to become better adapted to their environment and greatly increases the chances of
the evolution of new species.]
(e) 1. Insect-pollinated Flower Characteristics:
(i) brightly coloured petals, (ii) anthers within petals, (iii) nectarines
[Other Features: food reward e.g. nectar, pollen, odour, shape of petals.]
2. Wind-pollinated Flower Characteristics
(i) feathery stigmas, (ii) anthers outside petals, (iii) petals reduced or absent
[Other Features: very large anthers - production of a huge quantity of pollen.]
(f) Fertilisation follows pollination.
[Pollination → Fertilisation → Seed Formation Seed Dispersal → Germination etc.]
3. (a) A: petal, B: Anther, C: Filament, D: Receptacle, E: Sepal, F: Carpel

(b) (i) Function of A: to attract insect pollinators to collect and deliver pollen.
(ii) Adaptations of A for Pollination any two
1. Brightly coloured
2. Food reward in the form of nectar.
3. Odour – volatile chemicals that the insect can smell.
4. Shape
(c) Function of E: to protect the flower bud during flower development or support petals in the open flower.
(d) Pollen Production: B or Anther
(e) Seed Formation: F or Carpel or Ovary or Ovule
(f) 1. Wind, 2. Animal or Named Animal e.g. insect
(g) Formed In F: seed [Note that the question said in not what does F become.]
(h) Develops into Fruit: Carpel or Ovary [Note that the question asked for a name.]
(i) Nectaries
How Flowers Pollinated: animal or named animal e.g. insect
Explanation: nectarines secrete a sweet sugar rich liquid called nectar – nectar can be used by animals as
food and so animals visiting flowers to feed increases the chances of pollination.
4. Adaptations of Wind-pollinated Flowers

The stigmas are adapted to increasing the chances of capturing pollen from the wind – the stigmas
are outside the flower in the flowing air plus they are very large and feathery offering a large surface area and
catchment space to intercept pollen.
The stamens are adapted to deliver pollen directly into the wind – the filaments are very long and so the
anthers are outside the flower. The anthers are very large producing great amounts of pollen overcoming the

low rate of success. The pollen produced is smooth and easily removed from the anthers by the wind. The
anthers produce small sized pollen and so remain suspended in the air for a longer time than large pollen.
[The absence of a feature is not an adaptation and will not be given marks e.g. petals are absent or small.]
5. (a) A: Anther [A + B = Stamen}

(b) B: Filament
(c) A or Anther
(d) Stigma or Carpel or Stigma of Carpel
6. (a) D
(b) Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of a stamen to the stigma of a carpel.
Fertiisation is the fusion of haploid gametes (egg cell and male gamete nucleus) forming a diploid zygote.
(c) Seed Develops From: Ovule
(d) (i) Food stored in the cotyledon (leaf of plant embryo) of the plant embryo e.g. broad bean or pea. or
Food stored outside the embryo in the endosperm.
(ii) Food Storage Carbohydrate: starch
(e) (i) Germination: the renewal of rapid metabolism and growth by the plant embryo in the seed up until it is
relying entirely on the food it makes by photosynthesis.
(ii) Dormancy
(f) Germination Factors: 1. Water, 2. Oxygen, 3. Suitable Temperature or Warmth
7. (a) Endospermic Seed: the food reserve for germination is stored in the seed outside the plant embryo in the
Specialised triploid (3n) tissue called endosperm.
Non-endospermous Seed: the food reserve for germination is stored inside the plant embryo in the
cotyledons – endosperm is not in the seed.
(b) (i) Labelled Diagram of the Longitudinal Section of a ‘Seed’ of Maize (Corn)
Named Endospermic Seed: corn or maize any three below

A: radicle – formation of the root system.
B: cotyledon – digestion of food reserve in the endosperm and absorption of the products of digestion for
distribution to the growing points of the plant embryo.
C: plumule – formation of the shoot system.
D: coleoptile – protect the growing point of the plumule in its passage through the soil.
E: coleorhizae - protect the growing point of the radicle in its passage through the soil.

[Note that the question is limited to the plant embryo so endosperm and testa are not included.]
8. (a) A: stigma, B: Ovary, C: Embryo Sac, D: Polar Nuclei, E: Integument or Ovule

(b) The two haploid polar nuclei fuse with a male gamete nucleus forming a triploid endosperm nucleus.
(c) Fate of B: massive growth takes place and it becomes the fruit.
Fate of E: resumes growth closing off the micropyle and then forms the protective testa on the outside of
the seed.
(d) Labelled Diagram: Pollen Tube and uclei
9. (a) Stigma Role: to collect pollen from the pollinating agent and stimulate its germination.
Ovary: forms the fruit that protects the developing seeds and disperses the seeds or produces the ovules
or produces the embryo sac or produces the female gamete or site of fertilisation
(b) (i) Mitosis
(ii)The generative nucleus is hapoid so therefore it cannot divide by meiosis, it can only divide by mitosis
or the generative nucleus is haploid and the male gamete nuclei are haploid and only mitosis conserves the
chromosome number (meiosis reduces the chromosome number by a half).
(c) 1. One haploid male gamete nucleus fuses with the haploid egg cell forming a diploid zygote.T
2. The second haploid gamete nucleus fuses with the two haploid polar nuclei forming the triploid
endosperm nucleus.
10. (a) Ovule
(b) Seed Food Storage Locations: 1. Cotyledon, 2. Endosperm
(c) Non-food Storage Seed Parts and Function
1. Radicle – formation of the root system.

2. Plumule – formation of the shoot system.
3. Testa – protection of the dormant plant embryo in the seed.
4. Cotyledon of endospermous seeds – digestion of food reserve in the endosperm and absorption of the
products of digestion for distribution to the growing points of the plant embryo.
11. (a) Ovary or Carpel or Receptacle (the swollen tip of the stem forming false fruit of apple, pear etc.)
(b) Seed Dispersal Examples any three
1. Wind e.g. parachute-like structure of dandelions or very small light seeds of orchids.
2. Animal e.g. blackberry seeds dispersed by blackbirds eating the edible fruit.
3. Water e.g. seeds of the water lily float as they have a spongy air-filled outer covering.
4. Mechanical or Self e.g. the drying pod fruits of gorse ‘explode’ on drying expelling the seeds.
(c) Dispersal Advantages any two
1. Reduces competition between the seedlings themselves and also with the parent plant and so their
chances of success are greater.
2. Can result in the colonisation of new suitable places increasing the range and population of the species.
3. Increases the chances of survival of the species as it population and range is greater.
4. May lead to the formation of new species as the colonists of new places may evolve new
characteristics in adaptation to the new conditions – increased biodiversity.
(d) (i) Dormancy: a period of very low metabolic rate during which seed germination is not possible even
though the external conditions are favourable.
(ii) Advantages any two
1. Greater seed dispersal as there is more time for dispersal.
2. The plant embryo is able to survive on its small food reserve during the long non-growing season.
3. Prevents germination during short term favourable conditions in the non-growing season.
4. Increases the chances of seed germination at the proper time in the growing season.
5. In some seeds it gives extra time for the embryo to mature and become more viable.
(iii) After Dormancy: germination
(iv) Seedless Fruit Development any one
1. Plant breeding to produce plants that are genetically incapable of making seeds but can form fruit.
2. Spraying the flowers before pollination with growth regulators such as auxin or gibberellin.
12. (a) Vegetative Propagation: a form of asexual reproduction whereby new plants are made from multicellular
structures that become separated from the parent plant and grow by mitotic cell division.
(b) Yes
Explanation: the structures that separated from the parent plant are genetically identical to the parent
plant as all their cells are the mitotic descendents of the original zygote cell; the identical genetic
makeup is maintained because these structures grow into new plants by mitotic cell division.
(c) Example of Natural Vegetative Propagation any two
1. Stem Tuber: a potato plant makes many large swollen underground stem tips during the growing
season – these are stem tubers which store food and they survive the winter in a dormant
condition. At the start of the next growing season each tuber germinates forming a new plant.
2. Root Tuber: a Dahlia plant makes many large swoollen underground roots during the
growing season – these are root tubers which store food and they survive the winter in a dormant
condition. At the start of the next growing season each tuber germinates forming a new plant.
3. Bulb: a bluebell or onion plant towards the end of the growing season stores food in some of its
lateral buds each becoming a bulb with thick leaves swoolen with stored food. The roots shorten
burying the bulbs underground where they survive the winter in a dormant condition. Next
growing season each bulb grows into a new plant.
4. Leaf plantlets: small plantlets form on the margins of the foliage leaves of Bryophyllum (‘Mother

of Thousands’). The plantlets fall off and are many are dispersed. The plantlets then have the
opportunity to grow into mature plants.
(d) Artificial Vegetative Propagation two other methods are describe in the answer to Q.14
1. Cuttings: healthy side branches are cut at a steep angle just below where a leaf is attached to the
branch, the cut end may be dipped in rooting powder and then each is inserted into a well its own
watered but well aerated compost; some of the foliage leaves may be removed and the cutting
covered in a clear plastic bag. Each cutting grows into a new mature plant e.g. Geranium.
2. Grafting: scions are cut from healthy branches of the plant to be propagated with the cut end a
complementary shape to the cut end of the rootstock stem stump. The scion and rootstock are
joined and grow together forming a new plant.
(e) Artificial Propagation Benefit any one
1. Faster than natural methods of reproduction.
2. Higher success rate – lower mortality rate among the offspring.
3. Can produce plants of a desired size.
4. Can produce plants at a particular time of the year outside the natural season.
5. Can produce new plants that are difficult to produce naturally.
6. Can produce disease-free offspring.
7. Can produce many plants from only a small amount of original plant material.
8. Especially good for multiplying genetically engineered plants
13. Tuber: a tuber is a large swollen underground stem or root in which a lot of food is stored and at the
beginning of the next growing season each will grow into a new plant e.g. stem tubers of potato and root
tubers of Dahlia.
Bulb: a bulb is really a modified lateral bud with a very short stem surrounded by leaves of which have
become very fleshy with lots of stored food, many small roots will grow from the base of the stem
e.g. onion, bluebell and daffodil.
14. (a) Same as answer to Question 12 (e).

(b) 1. Layering: a healthy young stem is bent in a U-shape and pegged to the ground at the U-bend. A root
system will develop at the U-bend and a shoot from the stem tip; and when well established the stem
can be cut from the parent plant the separated part is a new plant e.g. Hazel.
2. Micro-propagation: small piece of the tips of the stems, each containing the apical meristem, are
removed. The small tissue samples are then grown, in small glass containers, on sterile nutrient agar to
which growth regulators have been added. Each tissue sample grows into a new plant which can then
be transplanted into larger containers or in soil e.g. orchids.
(c) Vegetative Propagation Different to Propagation By Seed any two
1. Less genetic variation by vegetative propagation.
2. Dispersal by seed is much further and more widespread.
3. Much greater number of offspring by seed formation.
4. Better success rate by vegetative propagation.
5. Reproduction by seed is much more complex – involves meiosis, pollen transfer and seed dispersal.
6. The offspring of vegetative propagation have much more food reserve for germination.
7. Seed propagation is wasteful e.g. nectar, pollen, fruit and high failure rate of seeds.
15. (a) To show that oxygen is needed for seed germination.

(b) To remove oxygen from the air in the control procedure of this mandatory practical activity.
[Alkaline pyrogallol and anaerobic jars are not the easiest way to deoxygenate the air – specific method of deoxygenating
the air should not have been asked as there is no prescribed method in the syllabus.]

16. (a) Pea
(b) Water Control: procedure without water – dry pea seeds on dry cotton wool exposed to the air in
darkness.
Oxygen Control: procedure without oxygen – water-soaked peas seeds on wet cotton wool in
deoxygenated air in darkness.
Temperature Control: procedure with an unfavourable low temperature – water-soaked pea seeds on wet
cotton wool exposed to the air but at 4°C in a closed dark fridge.
[Too often the ‘control’ for this practical activity is misunderstood – the procedure that has water, oxygen and a favourable
temperature is not the control, it is the experiment; the other three set-ups are separate controls for each of the seed
germination factors.]
(c) The seeds were placed in a air tight container with moist iron filings; the rusting of the iron filings
deoxygenated the air.
(d) The seeds were placed in a fridge at 4°C.
(e) Investigation Result: germination in the setup of water, oxygen and room temperature.
Control Result: no germination in any of the three controls.
17. (a) Germination: the renewal of rapid metabolism and growth by the plant embryo in the seed up until it is
relying entirely on the food it makes by photosynthesis.
(b) Digestion: the chemical breakdown of complex food biomolecules into their smaller simple soluble
absorbable transportable subunits e.g. proteins into amino acids.
(c) Digestion Necessary in Germinating Seeds: the food reserve of seeds is in the form of complex insoluble
starch, protein and lipid (it requires less space and water). The food must be digested into a soluble
format for transport to the growing point of the germinating plant embryo for respiration and growth.
(d) Digestion Sites: in the endosperm outside the plant embryo of endospermous seeds and in the
cotyledons of the plant embryo of non-endospermous seeds.
18. (a) Starch

(b) A petri dish containing a layer of sterile solid clear jelly of seaweed origin – the jelly is about 98% water.
(c) Pea
(d) Treated Seeds: they were killed by boiling them in water to act as a control.
(e) Investigative Procedure
1. Soak the pea seeds in water to stimulate germination.
2. Kill 50% of the seeds by boiling them in water.
3. Gently open the seeds by separating the cotyledons .
4. Place four live seeds on the agar ensuring that the radicle and plumule of the plant embryo are in full
contact with the starch agar – experimental plate.
5. Repeat step 4 with dead seeds in a second plate – control plate.
6. A third plate of starch agar is left unopened to act as a second control.
7. Incubate the plates upside down at room temperature for three days.
8. Remove the seeds from the plates and flood agar with iodine solution to test for starch.
9. Iodine stain is then used to test for the absence of starch (clear agar that does not stain blue-black)
which would indicate starch digestion.
(f) Experimental Plat Results: plate with live seeds – the agar under and around the seeds is clear or
yellow brown (it is not blue-black), everywhere else the agar is blue-black.
Control Plate Result:
1. unopened plate is uniformly blue-black showing equal distribution of starch – this then indicates
that the results in the other two plates can be accepted.

2. plate with dead seeds - uniformly blue-black showing equal distribution of starch, no starch digestion.
[Conclusion: starch is digested during seed germination.]
19. Use Of Starch Agar Plates
(a) To show digestive activity during seed germination
(b) To test if germinating seeds produce digestive enzymes that breakdown starch.
Chapter 24. The Human Circulatory System

1. (a) (i) Plasma: the pale yellow solution, making up 55% of the blood, in which the red blood cells, white
blood cells and platelets are suspended.
(ii) 1. Transports nutrients e.g. glucose, amino acids, to all the cells of the body. any one
2. Communication: transports hormones to their target tissues.
3. Immunity: transports antibodies, lymphocytes and macrophages throughout the body.
4. Transports wastes e.g. carbon dioxide and urea, to excretory organs for excretion.
5. Osmo-regulation: maintains the tissue cells at the correct concentration for efficient metabolism.
6. Temperature Regulation: mainly achieved by controlling the flow of blood through the skin.
7. Oxygen Supply: carries the red blood cells from the lungs to the tissues.
8. pH regulation: maintains the tissue cells at the correct pH for efficient metabolism.
9. Transports mineral ions e.g. Na+, Ca2+, to tissue cells for specific functions.
10. Blood Vessel Repair: carries platelets and other clotting agents to seal breaks in blood vessels.
(b) 1. Red Blood Cell: collect oxygen at the lungs, transport it to the tissue cells and release oxygen to the
tissue cells at the capillaries i.e. oxygen transport. [The red blood cells also transport about 20% of the waste
carbon dioxide to the lungs for excretion.]
2. White Blood Cell: role in immunity – protection against pathogens, cancer cells and toxins.
3. Platelet: function in blood clotting sealing any breaks in the blood vessels. [Platelet was accepted in 2008
but may not be in the future as the platelets does not satisfy the definition of a cell – it is really a cell fragment, many
produced by the fragmentation of special cells in the bone marrow.]
(c) 1. A 2. B 3. AB 4. O
[The other blood group system is Rhesus; the two blood groups in this system are Rhesus Positive (Rh+) and Rhesus
Negative (Rh-).]
(d) 1. For blood transfusion to avoid kidney damage and loss of life. any one
2. To find out if the developing baby in the womb may be in danger from the mother’s immune system –
if the mother is Rh- and the embryo is Rh+.
3. For organ transplantation.
2. (a) Plasma
(b) 1. Glucose 2. Glucose 3. Amino Acids 4. Vitamins 5. Salts or Minerals 6. Proteins
7. CO2 8. Urea 9. Antibodies 10. Hormones any two
(c) 1. ABO system. 2. Rhesus system.
3. (a) Red Bone Marrow or Bone Marrow or Marrow of [any one of the following] Cranium, Ribs, Sternum,
Vertebrae, Pelvis or Long Bones of Young.
(b) 1. Red Blood Cell (RBC) does not have a nucleus; cheek cell has a nucleus. any three
2. RBC contains a lot of haemoglobin, cheek cell does not have haemoglobin.
3. RBC does not have mitochondria, cheek cell does.
4. RBC is much smaller.
5. RBC has a biconcave disc shape, cheek cell is cushion shaped.
(c) Red Blood Cell: pick up oxygen at the lungs and transport it to the cells of the body or transport about

20% of the waste carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs for excretion.
White Blood Cells: defence against pathogens, cancer cells and toxins.
Platelets: seal breaks in the blood vessels by clotting.
4. (a) Valve Function: to prevent the backflow of blood and so the blood flows only in one direction which is
away from the tissues and towards the heart.
(b) Because the blood pressure in the arteries is very high as the artery is in direct contact with the heart which
pumps blood with a strong force and the elastic recoil of the arteries maintains the high pressure.
(c) Vein [the wall of the artery is much thicker with a thicker layer of connective tissue and a thicker mixed layer of
muscle and elastic tissue; the lining layer is the same in both artery and vein being just one cell thick.]
(d) The function of the capillaries is exchange with the tissue cells and the thinner the wall the easier it is for
for materials to pass between the blood and the tissue cells plus the distance between them is very
short and so diffusion will be much faster.
5. (a) A portal vein has a set of capillaries at each end or a portal vein takes blood from the capillaries of one
organ to the capillaries of another organ e.g. hepatic portal vein collects blood, rich in absorbed nutrients,
from the capillaries of the villi of the small intestine to the capillaries of the liver.
(b) 1. Renal arteries.
2. Coronary arteries or cardiac arteries.
3. Pulmonary vein.
4. Hepatic portal vein.
6. (a) Diagram: label A on artery and B on Vein
(b) 1. The lumen of the artery is much narrower than that of the vein.
2. The wall of the artery is much thicker than that of the vein.
(c) 1. Connective Tissue: makes the wall strong and prevents it bursting under high pressure. any two
2. Muscle Tissue: raise the blood pressure by contracting or reduces the volume of blood flowing in the
vessel or control the flow of blood into the capillaries or close tears in blood vessel by causing a spasm
in the wall.
3. Elastic Tissue: maintain the push on the blood by elastic recoil.
4. Endothelium: reduces friction.
(d)
Vessel A B C
ame Artery Vein Capillary
Lumen Small Large Microscopically Small
Wall Thick Thin Microscopic Thin
Direction of Blood Flow Away from heart Towards heart
Valves present No No No
7. (a) Pulmonary vein.

(b) (i) Oxygen
(ii) In combination with the iron of haemoglobin as oxyhaemoglobin in red blood cells.
8. (a) 1. Pulmonary. 2. Systemic

(b) Systemic [left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to all the tissues of the body and the deoxygenated blood is brought
back to the right atrium of the heart in the veins called the vena cavae.]

[The pulmonary circuit pumps deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs for excretion of carbon dioxide and
collection of oxygen and then the blood is brought back to the left atrium of the heart in the pulmonary veins.]
9. (a) Aorta
(b) Oxygenated [The aorta carries oxygenated blood to all the different systems of the body in the systemic circuit.]
(c) Left Ventricle
(d) The left ventricle has to pump the blood against a much greater resistance than the right ventricle or it has
to pump the blood a greater distance or it has to pump the blood against a much greater resistance or it has
to pump the blood at a much greater pressure or it has to push the blood with four times the force.
(e) When the left ventricle contracts the bicuspid valve will stop the backflow of oxygenated blood from the
left ventricle into the left atrium and so all the blood will pass into the aorta.
10. (a) SA Location: in the wall of the right atrium close to where the superior vena cava opens into the heart.
AV Location: in the septum between the atria and the ventricles or in the septum between the atria just
above the tricuspid valve.
(b) SA Function: starts each heart beat or generates impulses that cause the heart to contract or determines
the heart rate or acts as a pacemaker dictating the rhythm of the heart rate.
AV Function: to limit the entry of impulses from the SA node to this site only or to delay the impulses
passing into the ventricles allowing topping up of the ventricles with extra blood before the ventricles
contract.
11. (a) (i) Left Atrium

(ii) Pulmonary Veins
(b) (i) Contractile: capable of shortening [Do not use ‘contract’ to explain contractile – if you use a word to explain
itself you will lose all the marks.]
(ii) Left Ventricle [it is three to four times thicker than the wall of the right ventricle which is much thicker than
the walls of the atria.]
12. (a) A: Left Ventricle B: Bicuspid Valve or Mitral Valve C: Left Atrium D: Aorta
E: Pulmonary Artery F: Vena Cava or Inferior Vena Cava or Superior Vena Cava
(b) To the lungs.
(c) When the left ventricle contracts the bicuspid valve (B) will stop the backflow of oxygenated blood from
the left ventricle into the left atrium and so all the blood will pass into the aorta.
(d) Coronary Arteries or Cardiac Arteries
[The correct name for the arteries are ‘coronary arteries’ but the correct name for the veins is ‘cardiac veins’.]
13. (a) In the thoracic cavity (chest) between the lungs.

(b) Ribs or Rib Cage or Ribs plus sternum
(c) Atria or Auricles [Although auricles were accepted in 2008 they may not always be accepted as the auricles are
just the upper roof of the atria.]
(d) Bicuspid Valve or Mitral Valve [Mitral is the medical name from the name given to a bishop’s hat since that is
what it looks like.]
(e) 72 or between 69 and 75. [The answers in the marking scheme are not correct as they just apply to the ‘average
person’ but these answers do not apply to the normal person who is physically fit and whose heart rate will be below 60 and
could be below 30.]
(f) 1. Physical exercise. 2. Mental Stress. 3. Infection. 4. Mental Excitement. 5. Smoking
6. Increased body temperature. 7. Certain drugs. 8. Anger any two
(g) Coronary Arteries [Cardiac Arteries was also accepted in 2009.]

14. (a) Human Pulse Rate
(b) 72 or between 69 and 75
(c) Increases the pulse rate.
(d) Diet: diet high in salt raises the blood pressure or diet lacking in iron cause anaemia (reduction in red
blood cell number) or diet rich in fat and/or cholesterol increases the risk of heart disease and/or
narrowing of the coronary arteries or diet lacking in protein leads to low blood pressure.
Exercise: lowers the resting heart rate or heart grows bigger or major arteries become wider or heart
become more efficient pumping more blood per beat.
15. Pulse: a pulse is a shock wave running down an artery caused by the sudden drive of blood into the systemic
arteries by the contraction of the heart; the heart rate is therefore equal to the pulse rate; measuring the pulse
rate is an easy way to detect the effect of physical activity, postural changes or emotions on the heart rate.
Blood Pressure: this is the force per unit of the blood against the wall of the blood vessels; the force is
generated by the heart, the blood pressure is highest at the start of each pulmonary circuit and systemic
circuit and decreases reaching its lowest at the end of the pulmonary veins and vena cava; the pressure causes
leakage of ‘tissue fluid’ from the capillaries and this leakage is especially high in the glomeruli of the kidneys.
16. True [Pulmonus = Lung, Artery = away from: blood carried away from the heart to the lungs.]
17. (a) Structure of Lymphatic System: written or by labelled diagram.

Like a river system of vessels beginning as microscopic blind-ending lymphatic capillaries, weaving
between tissue cells and blood capillaries, that join forming successively larger and thicker walled
channels resulting in two large ducts that join with the left and right subclavian veins.
Valves are present along the length of the lymphatic vessels and clustered along the lymphatic vessels
are bean-shaped lymph nodes about 2.5 cm in length.
Lymph is the liquid transported in the lymphatic system; 3 litres a day delivered back to the blood.
Labelled Diagram of Lymphatic System
(b) 1. Circulatory Role

(i) Collects the absorbed lipids from the villi of the small intestine and transports them to the blood at
the left subclavian vein.
(ii) Collects the excess tissue fluid and transports it back to the blood at the subclavian veins keeping
blood volume and pressure constant.
(iii) Returns the proteins that leaked from the blood capillaries to the blood at the subclavian veins and
so keeps the blood at the correct concentration.
(iv) By removing the excess tissue fluid exchange between the blood capillaries and the tissue cells is
kept efficient.
2. Defence Role
(i) The lymph nodes filter out pathogens, cancer cells, cell debris and toxins.
(ii) Specialised immune cells in the lymph nodes detect antigens i.e. non-self chemicals.
(iii) The lymph nodes produce B and T lymphocytes along with antibodies.d
(iv) Delivers lymphocytes and antibodies to the blood from lymph nodes for their distribution
throughout the body.

[The two major roles of the lymphatic system are in keeping the blood circulatory system in good working order and in
defence. It would not be advisable to just concentrate your answer on just one role – best to do two from one and one
example from the other.]
18. (a) Blade or Scalpel or Knife or Scissors any one

(b) Before dissecting wash the heart with cold water to remove the film of bacteria on its surface.
Use dissecting gloves to protect against possible infection; wear a white lab coat to prevent
contamination of your clothes and goggles to protect the eyes.
Squeeze the ventricle of the heart – the soft side is the right ventricle.
Place the heart on the dissecting board pointed end towards you and its right side on your right – the
ventral side of the heart is now uppermost.
Squeeze the ventricles with your thumbs to locate the septum position.
Using a blade cut down along to the right of the septum to expose the interior of the right ventricle.
Repeat the cut on the left side of the septum to expose the interior of the left ventricle.
Using a scissors, remove the auricles to expose the interior of the atria.
[It is a good idea to include at least one safety precaution in a mandatory practical activity account.]
or
Labelled Diagram of Dissection Technique
(c) Labelled Diagram of Dissected Heart
(d) Cut back along the aorta or pulmonary artery into the ventricle (or cut up along the pulmonary artery or
aorta from the ventricle) and then using your thumbs flatten out the artery to expose the three thin
pinkish pockets near the beginning of the artery.
(e) To prevent the backflow of blood into the ventricle from the artery and so the blood only flows in one
direction which is away from the heart.
(f) Using a needle or seeker pull back each of the three pockets of the semilunar valve in the aorta –
behind two of these you will see a black hole – each is the origin of a coronary artery.
19. Pulse Rate is the Option Chosen for this Answer

(a) The resting heart rate will act as a control to compare the pulse rate during physical exercise.
(b) Located the radial pulse at the inside of the wrist, recorded the number of pulses in 15 seconds and
multiplied by 4 to calculate pulse rate i.e. the pulses per minute. This was repeated twice more and the
average calculated and used as the normal resting pulse rate.
(c) Gentle physical exercise was taken e.g. cycling on an exercise bicycle, after two minutes the pulse
rate was measured (while cycling) and recorded. Rested until the heart rate returned to normal resting
rate and repeated twice more and took the average.
The whole procedure was repeated again but at a much higher level of intensity.
The pulse rates of rest, gentle exercise and strenuous exercise were then compared.
(d) Exercise increases the pulse rate and the more intense the exercise the higher the pulse rate. Resting
after exercise lowers the heart rate.
(e) Graph

[Note that the graph line does not start at zero, it should start at the resting rate which in the average person is about 75 –
the heart rate will rise with the intensity of exercise and it is not considered safe if it rises above 200 for someone below the
age of 20: maximum heart rate = 220 – your age.]
This is part of a series of answers that is

almost complete.

Joe Reville - (100 Pages) Answers To Lecture Worksheeets

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Joe Reville - (100 Pages) Answers To Lecture Worksheeets

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology Lecture Day Book Answers

Chapter 1. Scientific Method and Characteristics of Life

Chapter 2. utrition and Food Chemistry

Joe Reville © Page 1

Joe Reville © Page 2

10. (a) Water

Joe Reville © Page 3

13. (a) Benedict’s Reagent Test.

Joe Reville © Page 4

2. (a) Autotroph or Producer

Joe Reville © Page 5

7. Predator: fox Prey: rabbit

8. (a) A practical study to identify the species living in the ecosystem.

10. (a) Sun or Sunlight

Fox Hawk Fox Hawk

Rabbit Field Mouse or Rabbit Field Mouse

Grass Buttercup Grass Buttercup

Joe Reville © Page 6

5,000 Rabbit Second Trophic Level

Joe Reville © Page 7

(e) Nitrogen Cycle

denitrification Lightning Biological Nitrogen Fixation

Ammonia (H3) Detritus

Joe Reville © Page 8

itrogen Cycle in Words

17. (a) Grassland

18. (a) Nitrogen Cycle

Joe Reville © Page 9

20. (i) An abiotic factor is a non-living components or aspects of the environment.

Joe Reville © Page 10

23. (a) Stimulus: ‘increase in day length pass an initial threshold’.

Joe Reville © Page 11

26. (a) Predator

Joe Reville © Page 12

28. (a) 1. Occupy a territory.

More Successful: Rural Foxes

Joe Reville © Page 13

2. (a) (i) Fauna: all the animal species of the ecosystem.

3. (a) Named Ecosystem: Grassland

Joe Reville © Page 14

5. (a) Ecosytem: Grassland

Joe Reville © Page 15

7. Named Animal: field mice

Joe Reville © Page 16

Joe Reville © Page 17

10. (a) Field Mouse

= 110 Field Mice

Joe Reville © Page 18

11. (a) 1 Quadrat = 0.5 m x 0.5 m

2.5 m2 = 30 clover plants [6+2+2+2+4+0+2+5+5+2 = 30]

= 300 clover plants

= 300,000 clover plants

Joe Reville © Page 19

= 320 Field Mice

Population Density = Population of Field Mice

= 320 field mice

= 3200 field mice

= 128 field mice per hectare

12. Named Ecosystem: Grassland

Joe Reville © Page 20

Joe Reville © Page 21

(c) Pollution Control/Prevention see also the answer to question 2 (c)

4. (a) Waste Disposal Problems any three

Chapter 2. utrition and Food Chemistry

Ammonia (H3) Detritus

itrogen Cycle in Words

Structure Cytoplasm Cell Wall Chloroplast ucleus Vacuole

Chapter 12. DA