Happy Deepavali

(Diwali or Deepavali as per Wikipedia)

Diwali, or Deepawali (in Hindi - or ), is a major Indian festival, significant in
Hinduism and Jainism. Celebrated by Hindus and Jains across the globe, as the "Festival of Lights," where the
lights or lamps signify the uplighting of darkness and victory of good over the evil within.

The day also commemorated the homecoming of King Rama of Ayodhya, after a 14-year exile in the forest[1],
and thus the people of Ayodhya (the capital of his kingdom) welcomed him back by lighting up rows of lamps
(deepa-wali), thus its name, Deepawali, or simply shortened as Diwali.

The celebrations focus on lights and lamps, particularly traditional dîpa or deeya (earthen lamp), and fireworks.
Though colloquially called Diwali in North India, in South India it is called Deepavali.

Diwali is celebrated for five consecutive days at the end of Hindu month of Ashwayuja (amanta). It usually
occurs in October/November, and is one of the most popular and eagerly awaited festivals in India. Diwali
comes exactly twenty days after Dussehra. Hindus, Jains and Sikhs alike regard it as a celebration of life and
use the occasion to strengthen family and social relationships. For Hindus it is one of the most important
festivals, and beginning of the year in some Hindu calendars, especially in North India.

There are several beliefs regarding the origin of the holiday. The most repeated version is that Hindus celebrate
Diwali to mark the time when Lord Rama achieved victory over Ravana. Some also view it as the day Krishna
defeated the demon Narakasura or in honor of the day Bali went to rule the nether-world, obeying the order of
Vishnu. In Jainism it marks the nirvana of Lord Mahavira, which occurred on Oct. 15, 527 B.C. It is also a
significant festival for the Sikh faith. In India, Diwali is now considered to be more of a national festival, and
the aesthetic aspect of the festival is enjoyed by most Indians regardless of faith.

Dates in various calendars

The festival is celebrated for a differing number of days by different communities. In Maharashtra and
Karnataka, the celebrations start from Vastubaras, 12th day of the second fortnight of Ashvin (going on for 6
days) while in northern India the celebrations start from Lakshmi Puja the no moon day of the same month
(going on for 2-3 days). Though the core days are common and fall on exactly the same set of days across India,
they fall in different Gregorian months depending on the version of the Hindu calendar being used in the given
region.

The Amanta ("ending on the no-moon") version of the Hindu Calendar has been adopted as the Indian national
calendar. According to this calendar, which is prevalent in southern India and Maharashtra, the 6-day
celebration is spread over the last four days of the month of Ashwayuja (Ashwin in Marathi) and the first two
days of the new month of Kartika. According to the Purnimanta ("ending on the full-moon") version prevalent
in northern India, it falls in the middle of the month of Ashwayuja/Ashvin. In the Gregorian calendar, it falls
generally in the months of October or November. In 2006, it was celebrated on October 21, a Saturday. In 2007
it will be celebrated on November 9, a Friday.

Significance in Hinduism

Diwali is also known as festival of lights. Shown here is the view of Jaipur city on Diwali day.
A Gurgaon office building decorated with lights.The festival marks the victory of good over evil, and uplifting
of spiritual darkness. Symbolically it marks the homecoming of goodwill and faith after an absence, as suggest
by the story of Ramayana.

The Sanskrit word Deepavali means an array of lights that stands for victory of brightness over darkness. As the
knowledge of Sanskrit diminished, the name was popularly modified to Diwali, especially in northern India.
On the day of Diwali, many wear new clothes, share sweets and snacks. Some North Indian business
communities start their financial year on Diwali and new account books are opened on this day.

Stories related to Diwali

Hindus have several significant mythological events associated with it:

The Killing of Narakasura: Celebrated as Naraka Chaturdasi, two days before Diwali day, it commemorates the
killing of Narakasura, an evil demon who created havoc, by Lord Krishna's wife Satyabhama. This happened in
the Dwapara Yuga during this time of Lord Krishna's avatar. In another version, the demon was killed by Lord
Krishna himself. Before Narakasura's death, he requested a boon from his mother, Satyabhama (believed to be
an Avatar of Bhudevi - Narakasura' mother), that everyone should celebrate his death with colorful light.
Return of Lord Rama to Ayodhya: Diwali also celebrates the return of Lord Rama, King of Ayodhya, with his
wife Sita and brother Lakshmana to Ayodhya after a 14 year exile, and a war in which he killed the demon king
Ravana. It is believed that the people of Ayodhya, lit oil lamps along the way to light their path in the darkness.
This is the reason, why the festival is celebrated a day earlier in South India since Lord Rama travelled from the
south to his kingdom in the north. In North India, the festival is held on the final day of the Vikram calendar.
The following day marks the beginning of the North Indian new year, and is called Annakut.
Austerities of Shakti: According to the Skanda Purana, the goddess Shakti observed 21 days of austerity starting
from ashtami of shukla paksha (eighth day of the waxing period of moon) to get half of the body of Lord Shiva.
This vrata (austerity) is known as kedhara vrata. Deepavali is the completion day of this austerity. This is the
day Lord Shiva accepted Shakti into the left half of the form and appeared as Ardhanarishvara. The ardent
devotees observe this 21 days vrata by making a kalasha with 21 threads on it and 21 types of offerings for 35
days. The final day is celebrated as kedhara gauri vrata.
Krishna defeating Indra: Govardhan Puja is celebrated the day after Diwali. It is the day Lord Krishna defeated
Indra, the deity of thunder and rain. As per the story, Krishna saw huge preparations for the annual offering to
Lord Indra and questions his father Nanda about it. Why was this necessary? Why should human beings offer
anything to some unknown being in the sky? He debated with the villagers about what their 'dharma' truly was.
They were farmers, they should do their duty and concentrate on farming and protection of their cattle. He
continued to say that all human beings should merely do their 'karma', to the best of their ability and not pray
for natural phenomenon. The villagers were convinced by Krishna, and did not proceed with the special puja
(prayer). Indra was then angered, and flooded the village. Krishna then lifted Mt Govardhan and held it up as
protection to his people and cattle from the rain. Indra finally accepted defeat and recognized Krishna as
supreme. This aspect of Krishna's life is mostly glossed over - but it actually set up the basis of the 'karma'
philosophy later detailed in the Bhagavat Gita.
Bali's return to the nether world:In Bhavishyottara and Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Diwali is associated with the
Daitya king Bali, who is allowed to return to earth once a year. However in Kerala this is the reason 'Onam' is
celebrated. 'Onam' festival falls around the month of August-September.

The Five days of Diwali

Diwali celebrations are spread over five days in most of North India. All the days except Diwali are named
acoording to their designation in the Hindu calendar.

Diwali being festival of lights, across India people celebrate it via symbolic diyas or kandils (colorful paper
lanterns) as an integral part of Diwali decorations.Dhanatrayodashi or Dhan teras: Dhan means "wealth" and
Trayodashi means "13th day". Thus, as the name implies, this day falls on the 13th day of the second half of the
lunar month. It is an auspicious day for shopping of utensils and gold.
Naraka Chaturdashi: Chaturdashi is the fourteenth day on which demon Narakasura was killed. It signifies the
victory of good over evil and light over darkness (Gujarati: Kali Chaudas).
In south India, this is the actual day of festivities. Hindus wake up way before dawn as early as 2:00 in the
morning, have a fragrant oil bath and wear new clothes. They light small lamps all around the house and draw
elaborate kolams /rangolis outside their homes. They perform a special puja with offerings to Lord Sri Krishna
or Lord Sri Vishnu, as he liberated the world from the demon Narakasura on this day. It is believed that taking a
bath before sunrise, when the stars are still visible in the sky is equivalent to taking a bath in the holy Ganges.
Hence, when people greet each other in the morning, they ask "Have you performed your Ganga Snaanam?".
After the puja, children burst firecrackers heralding the defeat of the demon. As this is a day of rejoicement,
many will have very elaborate breakfasts and lunches and meet family and friends. In the evening, lamps are
again lit and Goddess Lakshmi is worshipped and offered special dishes. This being a no moon d"ay, many will
offer special tarpana (offerings of water and sesame seeds) to their ancestors.
Laxmi Pujan: is the most important day of Diwali. It is celebrated on the third day of the festival, when the
moon completely wanes and total darkness sets in the night sky. It is marked by Lakshmi Puja which is the
worship of the goddess of wealth Laxmi, and lighting of lamps all across the streets and homes, to welcome
prosperity and well being in.
Govardhan Puja : Also called Annakut, is celebrated as the day Krishna defeated Indra. For Annakut a mountain
of food is decorated symbolizing Govardhan mountain lifted by Lord Krishna. In Maharashtra it is celebrated as
Padva or BaliPratipada. The day commemorates King Bali. Men present gifts to their wives on this day.
Bhaiduj (also Bhayyaduj, Bhaubeej or Bhayitika) : on this day, brothers and sisters meet to express their love
and affection for each other (Gujarati: Bhai Bij, Bengali: Bhai Phota). Most Indian festivals bring together
families, Bhaiduj brings together married sisters and brothers, and is a significant festive day for them. This
festival is ancient, and pre-dates 'Raksha Bandhan' another brother-sister festival being celebrated today.
The celebrations vary in different regions:

In Southern India, naraka chaturdashi is the main day, with firecrackers at dawn.
The main festival in North India is on Amavasya(No moon) evening with Lakshmi Puja which is followed by
lighting of oil lamps around the house.

Lakshmi Puja
There are two legends that associate the worship of Goddess Lakshmi on this day. According to first one, on
this day, Goddess Lakshmi emerged from Kshira Sagar, the Ocean of Milk, during the great churning of the
oceans, Samudra manthan. The second legend relates to the Vamana avatar of Vishnu, the incarnation he took
to kill the demon king Bali, thereafter it was on this day, that Vishnu came back to his abode, the Vaikuntha, so
those who worship Lakshmi (Vishnu's consort) on this day, get the benefit of her benevolent mood, and are
blessed with mental, physical and material well-being.[3]

As per spiritual references, on this day "Lakshmi-panchayatan" enters the Universe. Sri Vishnu, Sri Indra, Sri
Kuber, Sri Gajendra and Sri Lakshmi are elements of this "panchayatan" (a group of five). The tasks of these
elements are...

Vishnu: Happiness (happiness and satisfaction)

Indra: Opulence (satisfaction due to wealth)
Kubera: Wealth (one who gives away wealth)
Gajendra: Carries the wealth
Lakshmi: Divine Energy (Shakti) which provides energy to all the above activities.[4]

Diwali in Maharashtra
A circular arrangement of diyas.In Maharashtra, Diwali starts from Vasubaras which is the 12th day of the 2nd
half of the month of Ashwin. This day is celebrated by performing an Aarti of the cow and its calf- which is a
symbol of love between mother and her baby.

The next day is Dhanatrayodashi (tra-3 dashi-10 i.e. 10+3=13th day) or Dhanteras. This day is of special
importance for traders and business people.

The 14th day of Ashwin is Narakchaturdashi. On this day before sunrise, people wake up and bathe after
rubbing scented oil on their body (they also bathe using Utna). After this the entire family visits a temple and
offers prayers to their God. After this visit, everyone feasts on Faral which is a special Diwali preparation
consisting of delectable sweets such as "karanji", "ladoo", "shankarpale" and "mithai" as well as some spicy
eatables like "tschakli", "sev" and "chivda".

Then comes Laxmi- poojan. It occurs on Amavasya i.e. no moon day. The dark night is illuminated by lamps
and at dusk crackers are burst. New account books are opened after a pooja. The stock exchange performs a
token bidding called Muhurta bidding. Generally the traders do not make any payments on that day (according
to their belief Laxmi should not be given away but must come home). In every household, cash, jewellery and
an idol of the goddess Laxmi is worshipped. Friends, neighbours and relatives are invited over and celebrations
are in full swing. The broom used to clean one's house is also worshipped as a symbol of laxmi in some places .

Pad' is the 1st day of the new month - Kartik in the Hindu calendar.

Bhaubeej - it is the time where in the bond of love between a brother and sister is further strengthened as the
sister asks God for her brother/s long and successful life while she receives presents from her beloved brother/s.

Homes are cleaned and decorated before Diwali. Offices perform pooja. Bonuses and holidays are granted to
employees on these auspicious days. People buy property and gold on these days too. Children bulid replica
forts in memory of the founder of Maratha empire, Shivaji Maharaj. For children, Fire works, new clothes and
sweets make Deepavali the most eagerly awaited festival of the year.

Holi

c
, or c

 (Sanskrit: â
), is a spring religious festival celebrated by Hindus. It is primarily observed in
India, Nepal, Sri Lanka,[1] and countries with large Indic diaspora populations, such as Suriname, Guyana,
South Africa, Trinidad, United Kingdom, United States, Mauritius, and Fiji. In West Bengal and Orissa of India
it is known as |
 (Doul Jatra) or  
 ("spring festival"). The most celebrated Holi is that of
the Braj region, in locations connected to the god Krishna: Mathura, Vrindavan, Nandagaon, and Barsana.
These places have become tourist destinations during the festive season of Holi, which lasts here to up to
sixteen days.[2]

The main day, Holi, also known as |
 in Sanskrit,also |


, |
 or |
 , is
celebrated by people throwing coloured powder and coloured water at each other. Bonfires are lit the day
before, also known as Holika Dahan (burning of Holika) or  
  (little Holi). The bonfires are lit in
memory of the miraculous escape that young Prahlad accomplished when Demoness Holika, sister of
Hiranyakashipu, carried him into the fire. Holika was burnt but Prahlad, a staunch devotee of god Vishnu,
escaped without any injuries due to his unshakable devotion. Holika Dahan is referred to as |  in
South India.

Holi is celebrated at the end of the winter season on the last full moon day of the lunar month Phalguna
(February/March), (Phalgun Purnima), which usually falls in the later part of February or March. In 2009, Holi
(|
) was on March 11 and Holika Dahan was on March 10. In 2010, Holi was on March 1 and Holika
Dahan was on February 28.

ð   occurs a few days later on a Panchami (fifth day of the full moon), marking the end of
festivities involving colours.

  

In Vaishnava Theology, Hiranyakashipu is the great king of demons, and he had been granted a boon by
Brahma, which made it almost impossible for him to be killed. The boon was due to his long penance, after
which he had demanded that he not be killed "during day or night; inside the home or outside, not on earth or on
sky; neither by a man nor an animal; neither by astra nor by shastra". Consequently, he grew arrogant and
attacked the Heavens and the Earth. He demanded that people stop worshipping gods and start praying to him.

Despite this, Hiranyakashipu's own son, Prahlada, was a devotee of Lord Vishnu. In spite of several threats
from Hiranyakashipu, Prahlada continued offering prayers to Lord Vishnu. He was poisoned but the poison
turned to nectar in his mouth. He was ordered to be trampled by elephants yet remained unharmed. He was put
in a room with hungry, poisonous snakes and survived. All of Hiranyakashipu's attempts to kill his son failed.
Finally, he ordered young Prahlada to sit on a pyre on the lap of his demoness sister, Holika, who could not die
because she also had a boon which would prevent fire from burning her. Prahlada readily accepted his father's
orders, and prayed to Vishnu to keep him safe. When the fire started, everyone watched in amazement as Holika
burnt to death, while Prahlada survived unharmed, the burning of Holika is celebrated as Holi.

Later Lord Vishnu came in the form of a Narasimha (who is half-man and half-lion) and killed Hiranyakashipu
at dusk (which was neither day nor night), on the steps of the porch of his house (which was neither inside the
house nor outside) by restraining him on his lap (which is neither in the sky nor on the earth) and mauling him
with his claws (which are neither 
 nor  
).

In Vrindavan and Mathura, where Lord Krishna grew up, the festival is celebrated for 16 days (until
Rangpanchmi) in commemoration of the divine love of Radha for Krishna. Lord Krishna is believed to have
popularized the festival by playing pranks on the gopis here. Krishna is believed to have complained to his
mother about the contrast between his dark skin complexion and Radha's (Shakti or energy that drives the
world) fair skin complexion. Krishna's mother decided to apply colour to Radha's face. The celebrations
officially usher in spring, the celebrated season of love.

There is alternative story detailing the origin of Holi. This story is about Kamadeva, a god of love. Kama's body
was destroyed when he shot his weapon at Shiva in order to disrupt his meditation and help Parvati to marry
Shiva. Shiva then opened his third eye, the gaze of which was so powerful that Kama's body was reduced to
ashes. For the sake of Kama's wife Rati (passion), Shiva restored him, but only as a mental image, representing
the true emotional and spiritual state of love rather than physical lust. The Holi bonfireieved to be celebrated in
commemoration of this event.

ð
 c


The earliest textual reference to the celebration of Holi is found in the 7th century Sanskrit drama, ð
.[3]
Certainly there are perennial rituals attached to Holi: the first is smearing of coloured powder on each other, and
throwing coloured and scented water at each other using pichkaris (shaped like giant syringes or squirt guns).
Though the festival really begins many days in advance, with 'Holi Milan' or Baithaks, musical soirees, where
songs related to the festival, and the epic love story of Radha Krishna are sung; a special type of folk songs,
known as "Hori," are sung as well. Some classical ones like     have been traditional
for many generations.

Food preparations also begin many days in advance, with assemblage of gujia, papads, kanji and various kinds
of snack items including malpuas, mathri, puran poli, and dahi badas, which are served to Holi guests. The night
of Holi, the baithak take turns churning bhang (cannabis) into intoxicating milk shakes and they make sweet
laddoos mixed with bhang.

4c
| c
 

The main emphasis of the festival is on the burning of the holy fire or Holika. The origin of the traditional
lighting of Holi is attributed by some to the burning of demonesses like Holika, Holaka and Putana who
represent evil, or to the burning of Madan according to others.
Traditionally a bonfire on the day of Holi, marks the symbolic annihilation of Holika the demoness as described
above.[3]

This is akin to other festivals where effigies are burned, such as Ravana Dahan on Vijayadashami (Dusshera)
day or those in many other religions across the world, signifying the end of dark or demonic forces. With
Holika Dahan, the effigy has now all but vanished or is only present in a symbolic form, except in a few areas in
the Braja region, where effigies are still seen on street corners and public squares, piled on top of assembled
wood. This is set fire to after ritualistic worship, and people make   of the bonfire. The next day this
victory is celebrated as the day of Dulhendi.

In some practices, particularly in the UK, coconuts are thrown into the fire and then pulled out. The burnt husk
of the coconut represents Holika who died in the pyre. The white inside represents Prahlad, who was still alive
and unaffected by the pyre. The pyre is also known as a mark of the Sanskrit transition, which was called
Ranaara 0.

4|
 

Principal ingredients of the celebration are Abeer and Gulal, in all possible colours. Next comes squirting of
coloured water using pichkaris. Coloured water is prepared using Tesu flowers, which are first gathered from
the trees, dried in the sun, and then ground up, and later mixed with water to produce orange-yellow coloured
water. Another traditional Holi item now rarely seen is a red powder enclosed in globes of Lakh, which break
instantly and cover the party with the powder.[4]

GANESH CHATURTHI

  also known as   is the Hindu festival of Ganesha, the son of Shiva and
Parvati, who is believed to bestow his presence on earth for all his devotees in the duration of this festival. It is
the birthday of Ganesha who is widely worshipped as the god of wisdom, prosperity and good fortune.

The festival is observed in the Hindu calendar month of Bhaadrapada, starting on the shukla chaturthi (fourth
day of the waxing moon period). The date usually falls between 20 August and 22 September. The festival lasts
for 10 days, ending on Anant Chaturdashi (fourteenth day of the waxing moon period).

While celebrated all over India, it is most elaborate in western and southern India. Outside India, it is celebrated
widely in Nepal and by Hindus in the United States, Canada and Fiji.

c 

It is not known when and how Ganesh Chaturthi was first celebrated. But according to the historian Shri
Rajwade, the earliest Ganesh Chaturthi celebrations can be traced back to the times of the reigns of dynasties as
Satavahana,[!

  ] Rashtrakuta[!

  ] and Chalukya.[!

  ] Historical records reveal that Ganesh
Chaturthi celebrations were initiated in Maharashtra by Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaja, the great Maratha ruler, to
promote culture and nationalism. And it had continued ever since. There are also references in history to similar
celebrations during Peshwa times. It is believed that Lord Ganapati was the family deity of the Peshwas. After
the end of Peshwa rule, Ganesh Chaturthi remained a family affair in Maharashtra from the period of 1818 to
1892.

In 1893, Indian freedom fighter and social reformer Lokmanya Tilak transformed the annual festival into a
large, well-organized public event.[1]
Tilak recognized the wide appeal of the deity Ganesh as "the god for everybody",[2][3] and popularized Ganesh
Chaturthi as a national festival in order "to bridge the gap between Brahmins and 'non-Brahmins' and find a
context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them", and generate nationalistic fervor among people
in Maharashtra against the British colonial rule.[4][5]

Tilak encouraged installation of large public images of Ganesh in pavilions, and also established the practice of
submerging in rivers, sea, or other pools of water all public images of the deity on the tenth day after Ganesh
Chaturthi.[6]

Under Tilak's encouragement, the festival facilitated community participation and involvement in the form of
intellectual discourses, poetry recitals, performances of plays, musical concerts, and folk dances. It served as a
meeting ground for people of all castes and communities in times when, in order to exercise control over the
population, the British discouraged social and political gatherings.

4|

The festival is observed in the Hindu calendar month of Bhaadrapada, starting on the shukla chaturthi (fourth
day of the waxing moon period). The date usually falls between 20 August and 15 September. The festival lasts
for 10 days, ending on Anant Chaturdashi. This festival is observed in the lunar month of  

 ! 


  
 . If Chaturthi prevails on both days, the first day should be
observed. Even if chaturthi prevails for the complete duration of    on the second day, if it prevails
on the previous day's madhyahana period even for one  
 (24 minutes), the previous day should be
observed.[7]

4
 
  

! ! 

Two to three months prior to Ganesh Chaturthi, artistic clay models of Lord Ganesha are made for sale by
specially skilled artisans. They are beautifully decorated & depict Lord Ganesh in various poses. The size of
these statues may vary from 3/4th of an inch to over 25 feet.

Ganesh Chaturthi starts with the installation of these Ganesh statues in colorfully decorated homes and specially
erected temporary structures  () in every locality. The pandals are erected by the people or a
specific society or locality or group by collecting monetary contributions. The  are decorated
specially for the festival, either by using decorative items like flower garlands, lights, etc. or are theme based
decorations, which depict religious themes or current events.

The priest, usually clad in red silk dhoti and shawl, then symbolically invokes life into the statue by chanting
mantras. This ritual is the Pranapratishhtha. After this the ritual called as Shhodashopachara (16 ways of paying
tribute) follows. Coconut, jaggery, 21 modakas, 21 durva (trefoil) blades of grass and red flowers are offered.
The statue is anointed with red unguent, typically made of Kumkum & Sandalwood paste . Throughout the
ceremony, Vedic hymns from the Rig Veda, the Ganapati Atharva Shirsha Upanishad, and the Ganesha stotra
from the Narada Purana are chanted.

For 10 days, from Bhadrapad Shudh Chaturthi to the Ananta Chaturdashi, Ganesha is worshipped. On the 11th
day, the statue is taken through the streets in a procession accompanied with dancing, singing, and fanfare to be
immersed in a river or the sea symbolizing a ritual see-off of the Lord in his journey towards his abode in
Kailash while taking away with him the misfortunes of his devotees, this is the ritual known as   
. At individual homes the Visarjan is also done on 3rd, 5th or 7th day as per the family tradition. All
join in this final procession shouting "Ganapathi Bappa Morya, Pudhachya Varshi Laukar ya" (O lord Ganesha,
come again speedily next year). After the final offering of coconuts, flowers and camphor is made, people carry
the idols to the river to immerse it.

The main sweet dish during the festival is the modak (modagam or modakam in South India). A modak is a
dumpling made from rice flour/wheat flour with a stuffing of fresh or dry-grated coconut, jaggery, dry fruits and
some other condiments. It is either steam-cooked or fried. Another popular sweet dish is the karanji (karjikaiin
Kannada) which is similar to the modak in composition and taste but has a semicircular shape.

Public celebrations of the festival are hugely popular, with local communities () vying with each other
to put up the biggest statue & the best pandal. The festival is also the time for cultural activities like singing and
theater performances, orchestra and community activities like free medical checkup, blood donation camps,
charity for the poor, etc.

Today, the Ganesh Festival is not only a popular festival, it has become a very critical and important economic
activity for Maharashtra. Many artists, industries, and businesses survive on this mega-event. Ganesh Festival
also provides a stage for budding artists to present their art to the public. The same holds true for Hyderabad
and Chennai too.

4"   


The most serious impact of the Ganesh festival on the natural environment is due to the immersion of icons
made of Plaster of Paris into lakes, rivers and the sea. Traditionally, the Ganesh icon was sculpted out of earth
taken from nearby one¶s home. After worshipping the divinity in this earth icon, it was returned back to the
Earth by immersing it in a nearby water body. This cycle represented the cycle of creation and dissolution in
Nature.

However, as the production of Ganesh icons on a commercial basis grew, the earthen or natural clay (shaadu
maati in Marathi) was replaced by Plaster of Paris. Plaster is a man made material, easier to mould, lighter and
less expensive than clay. However, plaster takes much longer to dissolve and in the process of dissolution
releases toxic elements into the water body. The chemical paints used to adorn these plaster icons themselves
contain heavy metals like mercury and cadmium.

On the final day of the Ganesh festival thousands of plaster icons are immersed into water bodies by devotees.
These increase the level of acidity in the water and the content of heavy metals.[9] The day after the immersion,
shoals of dead fish can be seen floating on the surface of the water body as a result of this sudden increase.[10]

Several non governmental and governmental bodies have been addressing this issue. Amongst the solutions
proposed by various groups some are as follows:

Ê Return to the traditional use of natural clay icons and immerse the icon in a bucket of water at home.[11]
Ê Use of a permanent icon made of stone and brass, used every year and a symbolic immersion only.
Ê Recycling of plaster icons to repaint them and use them again the following year.
Ê Ban on the immersion of plaster icons into lakes, rivers and the sea.[12]
Ê Creative use of other biodegradable materials such as paper mache to create Ganesh icons.
Ê Encouraging people to immerse the icons in tanks of water rather than in natural water bodies.[13]

To handle religious sentiments sensitively, some temples and spiritual groups have also taken up the cause.[14]
"

" (Old English: È

 ; Greek: ȆȐıȤĮ,  ; Hebrew: ʧʔʱ ʓ̋ ,   , "Passover") is the central
religious feast in the Christian liturgical year.[1] According to Christian scripture, Jesus was resurrected from the
dead on the third day after his crucifixion. Some Christians celebrate this resurrection on "| or "
 [2] (also ð | or ð  ), two days after Good Friday and three days after
Maundy Thursday. The chronology of his death and resurrection is variously interpreted to be between AD 26
and 36.

Easter also refers to the season of the church year called Eastertide or the Easter Season. Traditionally the
Easter Season lasted for the forty days from Easter Day until Ascension Day but now officially[!

  ] lasts
for the fifty days until Pentecost. The first week of the Easter Season is known as Easter Week or the Octave of
Easter. Easter also marks the end of Lent, a season of fasting, prayer, and penance.

Easter is a moveable feast, meaning it is not fixed in relation to the civil calendar. The First Council of Nicaea
(325) established the date of Easter as the first Sunday after the full moon (the Paschal Full Moon) following
the northern hemisphere's vernal equinox.[3] Ecclesiastically, the equinox is reckoned to be on March 21
(regardless of the astronomically correct date), and the "Full Moon" is not necessarily the astronomically correct
date. The date of Easter therefore varies between March 22 and April 25. Eastern Christianity bases its
calculations on the Julian Calendar whose March 21 corresponds, during the twenty-first century, to April 3 in
the Gregorian Calendar, in which calendar their celebration of Easter therefore varies between April 4 and May
8.

Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by much of its symbolism, as well as by its position in the calendar. In
most European languages the feast called Easter in English is termed by the words for passover in those
languages and in the older English versions of the Bible the term Easter was the term used to translate
passover.[4][5]

Relatively newer[!

  ] elements such as the Easter Bunny and Easter egg hunts have become part of the
holiday's modern celebrations, and those aspects are often celebrated by many Christians and non-Christians
alike. There are also some Christian denominations who do not celebrate Easter.

Popular modern depictions of Easter can be viewed as a celebration of spring.



  

Orthodox Icon of the Resurrection of Jesus.

The New Testament teaches that the resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is a foundation of the
Christian faith.[10] The resurrection established Jesus as the powerful Son of God[11] and is cited as proof that
God will judge the world in righteousness.[12] God has given Christians "a new birth into a living hope through
the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead".[13] Christians, through faith in the working of God[14] are
spiritually resurrected with Jesus so that they may walk in a new way of life.[15]

Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper
and crucifixion that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a
new meaning, as he prepared himself and his disciples for his death in the upper room during the Last Supper.
He identified the loaf of bread and cup of wine as symbolizing his body soon to be sacrificed and his blood soon
to be shed. 1 Corinthians 5:7 states, "Get rid of the old yeast that you may be a new batch without yeast²as you
really are. For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed"; this refers to the Passover requirement to have
no yeast in the house and to the allegory of Jesus as the Paschal lamb.[16]
One interpretation of the Gospel of John is that Jesus, as the Passover lamb, was crucified at roughly the same
time as the Passover lambs were being slain in the temple, on the afternoon of Nisan 14.[17][18] This
interpretation, however, is inconsistent with the chronology in the Synoptic Gospels. It assumes that text
literally translated "the preparation of the passover" in John 19:14 refers to Nisan 14 (Preparation Day for the
Passover) and not necessarily to Yom Shishi (Friday, Preparation Day for Sabbath)[19] and that the priests' desire
to be ritually pure in order to "eat the passover" in John 18:28 refers to eating the Passover lamb, not to the
public offerings made during the days of Unleavened Bread (Leviticus 23:8).

4" 


The first Christians, Jewish and Gentile, were certainly aware of the Hebrew calendar (Acts 2:1; 12:3; 20:6;
27:9; 1 Cor 16:8), but there is no direct evidence that they celebrated any specifically Christian annual festivals.
The observance by Christians of non-Jewish annual festivals is believed by some to be an innovation postdating
the Apostolic Age. The ecclesiastical historian Socrates Scholasticus (b. 380) attributes the observance of Easter
by the church to the perpetuation of its custom, "just as many other customs have been established," stating that
neither Jesus nor his Apostles enjoined the keeping of this or any other festival. However, when read in context,
this is not a rejection or denigration of the celebration²which, given its currency in Scholasticus' time would
be surprising²but is merely part of a defense of the diverse methods for computing its date. Indeed, although
he describes the details of the Easter celebration as deriving from local custom, he insists the feast itself is
universally observed.[20]

Perhaps the earliest extant primary source referencing Easter is a mid-2nd century Paschal homily attributed to
Melito of Sardis, which characterizes the celebration as a well-established one.[21] Evidence for another kind of
annual Christian festival, the commemoration of martyrs, begins to appear at about the same time as evidence
for the celebration of Easter.[22] But while martyrs' "birthdays" were celebrated on fixed dates in the local solar
calendar, the date of Easter was fixed by means of the local Jewish lunisolar calendar. This is consistent with
the celebration of Easter having entered Christianity during its earliest, Jewish period, but does not leave the
question free of doubt.[23]

| "

Easter and the holidays that are related to it are    

, in that they do not fall on a fixed date in the
Gregorian or Julian calendars (both of which follow the cycle of the sun and the seasons). Instead, the date for
Easter is determined on a lunisolar calendar similar to the Hebrew calendar.

In Western Christianity, using the Gregorian calendar, Easter always falls on a  # $%% 
&
%', inclusively.[43] The following day, Easter Monday, is a legal holiday in many countries with
predominantly Christian traditions. In Eastern Orthodox churches ² which continue to use the Julian calendar
for religious dating ² Easter also falls on a Sunday between March 22 and April 25, inclusive, of the Julian
calendar. (The Julian calendar is no longer used as the civil calendar of the countries where Eastern Christian
traditions predominate.) In terms of the Gregorian calendar, due to the 13 day difference between the calendars
between 1900 and 2099, these dates are between April 4 and May 8, inclusive. Among the Oriental Orthodox
some churches have changed from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar and the date for Easter as for other fixed
and moveable feasts is the same as in the Western church.[44]

The precise date of Easter has at times been a matter for contention. At the First Council of Nicaea in 325 it was
decided that all Christian churches would celebrate Easter on the same day, which would be computed
independently of any Jewish calculations to determine the date of Passover. It is however probable (though no
contemporary account of the Council's decisions has survived) that no method of determining the date was
specified by the Council. Epiphanius of Salamis wrote in the mid-4th century: Š
   !  
!
!  
!
! 
 ! 
 !! 
!!

!
!   


 
  !  

 


 

  

!!

!  
! 
   "!  
 #
$
    .[45]

In the years following the council, the computational system that was worked out by the church of Alexandria
came to be normative. It took a while for the Alexandrian rules to be adopted throughout Christian Europe,
however. The Church of Rome continued to use an 84-year lunisolar calendar cycle from the late third century
until 457. It then switched to an adaptation by Victorius of the Alexandrian rules. This table was so inaccurate
that the Alexandrian rules were adopted in their entirety in the following century. From this time, therefore, all
disputes between Alexandria and Rome as to the correct date for Easter cease, as both churches were using
identical tables. Early Christians in Britain and Ireland also used a late third century Roman 84-year cycle. They
were suspected of being quartodecimans, unjustly because they always kept Easter on a Sunday, although that
Sunday could be as early as the fourteenth day of the lunar month. This was replaced by the Alexandrian
method in the course of the 7th and 8th centuries. Churches in western continental Europe used a late Roman
method until the late 8th century during the reign of Charlemagne, when they finally adopted the Alexandrian
method. Since 1582, when the Catholic Church adopted the Gregorian calendar whilst the Eastern Orthodox and
most Oriental Orthodox Churches retained the Julian calendar, the date on which Easter is celebrated has again
differed.

The recommended World Council of Churches changes would have side-stepped the calendar issues and
eliminated the difference in date between the Eastern and Western churches. The reform was proposed for
implementation starting in 2001, but it was not ultimately adopted by any member body.

A few clergymen of various denominations[$ %] have advanced the notion of disregarding the moon altogether
in determining the date of Easter. Their proposals include always observing Easter on the second Sunday in
April, or always having seven Sundays between the Epiphany and Ash Wednesday, producing the same result
except that in leap years Easter could fall on April 7.[!

  ] These suggestions have not attracted significant
support, and their adoption in the future is considered unlikely.[!

  ]

In the United Kingdom, the Easter Act 1928 set out legislation to allow the date of Easter to be fixed as the first
Sunday after the second Saturday in April (or, in other words, the Sunday in the period from April 9 to April
15). However, the legislation has not been implemented, although it remains on the Statute book and could be
implemented subject to approval by the various Christian churches.[57]

ð
   
" 

"  

        (    "

Along with Christmas celebrations, Easter traditions were among the first casualties of some areas of the
Protestant Reformation, being deemed "pagan" by some Reformation leaders.[!

  ]

Other Reformation Churches, such as the Lutheran, Methodist, and Anglican, retained a very full observance of
the Church Year. In Lutheran Churches, not only were the days of Holy Week observed, but also Christmas,
Easter, and Pentecost were observed with three day festivals, including the day itself and the two following.
Among the other Reformation traditions, things were a bit different. These holidays were eventually restored
(though Christmas only became a legal holiday in Scotland in 1967, after the Church of Scotland finally relaxed
its objections). Some Christians (usually, but not always fundamentalists[!

  ]), however, continue to
reject the celebration of Easter (and, often, of Christmas), because they believe them to be irrevocably tainted
with paganism and idolatry. Their rejection of these traditions is based partly on their interpretation of
2 Corinthians 6:14-16. Additionally, some Christians who do celebrate the event prefer to call it "Resurrection
Sunday" or "Resurrection Day", as a way of distinguishing the religious celebration from more secular or
commercial aspects of the holiday such as the Easter Bunny.

This is also the view of Jehovah's Witnesses, who instead observe a yearly commemorative service of the Last
Supper and subsequent death of Christ on the evening of Nisan 14, as they calculate it derived from the lunar
Hebrew Calendar. It is commonly referred to, in short, by many Witnesses as simply "The Memorial".
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that such verses as Luke 22:19-20 and 1 Cor 11:26 constitute a commandment to
remember the death of Christ (and not the resurrection, as only the remembrance of the death was observed by
early Christians), and they do so on a yearly basis just as Passover is celebrated yearly by the Jews.

Members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) traditionally do not celebrate or observe Easter (or any
other Church holidays), believing instead that "every day is the Lord's day", and that elevation of one day above
others suggests that it is acceptable to do un-Christian acts on other days²they believe that every day is holy,
and should be lived as such. This belief of Quakers is known as their



  .

Some groups feel that Easter is something to be regarded with great joy: not marking the day itself, but
remembering and rejoicing in the event it commemorates²the miracle of Christ's resurrection. In this spirit,
these Christians teach that each day and all Sabbaths should be kept holy, in Christ's teachings. Hebrew-
Christian, Sacred Name, and Armstrong movement churches (such as the Living Church of God) usually reject
Easter in favor of Nisan 14 observance and celebration of the Christian Passover. This is especially true of
Christian groups that celebrate the New Moons or annual High Sabbaths in addition to seventh-day Sabbath.
This is textually supported by the letter to the Colossians: "Let no one...pass judgment on you in matters of food
and drink or with regard to a festival or new moon or sabbath. These are shadows of things to come; the reality
belongs to Christ." (Col. 2:16-17, NAB)

Critics charge that such feasts are meaningless in light of the end of the Old Testament sacrificial system and
the destruction of the Second Temple in AD 70. Televangelist Larry Huch (Pentecostal) and many Calvary
Chapel churches have adopted Hebrew-Christian practices, but without rejecting Easter.

Other seventh-day Sabbatarian groups, such as any Sabbatarian Church of God, celebrate a Christian Passover
that lacks most of the practices or symbols associated with Western Easter and retains more of the presumed
features of the Passover observed by Jesus Christ at the Last Supper.

È


  

$, Aramaic, Hebrew: ʭʩ ʸʮ, $), $; Arabic:````, $, more commonly referred to as
 $, $ $,   $ or *$ was a Jewish woman of Nazareth in Galilee. She is
identified in the New Testament as the mother of Jesus Christ through divine intervention.[Mt 1:16,18±25] [Lk 1:26±56]
[2:1±7][3]

The canonical gospels of Matthew and Luke describe Mary as a virgin (Greek «
 
&).[6]
Christians believe that she conceived her son, Jesus Christ, miraculously by the agency of the Holy Spirit. This
took place when she was already betrothed (engaged) to Joseph and was awaiting the concluding rite of
marriage, the formal home-taking ceremony.[7] She married Joseph and accompanied him to Bethlehem, where
Jesus was born.[3][4]

The New Testament begins its account of Mary's life with the Annunciation, where angel Gabriel appeared to
her and announced her divine selection to be mother of Jesus. Church tradition and early non-biblical writings
state that her parents were an elderly couple named Joachim and Anne. The Bible records Mary's role in key
events of the life of Jesus from his virgin birth to his crucifixion. Other apocryphal writings tell of her
subsequent death and bodily assumption into heaven.

Christians of the major ancient traditions including the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the
more recent Anglican Communion believe that Mary, as mother of Jesus, is the È
 (ȂȒIJȘȡ ĬİȠ`)
and the Theotokos, literally, '
 . Mary has been an object of veneration in the Christian church
since the Apostolic Age. Throughout the ages she has been a favorite subject in Christian art, music, and
literature.

There is significant diversity in the Marian beliefs and devotional practices of major Christian traditions. The
Catholic Church has a number of Marian dogmas such as the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption of
Mary, and venerate her as the Queen of Heaven and Mother of the Church, most Protestants do not share these
beliefs.[8][9]

Islam regards Mary as the virgin mother of Jesus who they believe was one of the prophets. In the Qur'an, Mary
has one of the biggest chapters. She is treated in the Sura È (Arabic: ````````) and '
.

=
  



The New Testament tells little of Mary's early history. Early non-biblical writings name her parents as Joachim
and Anne.[12] However, in the canonical New Testament the gospel of Luke suggests that Mary's father to be
Heli the son of Matthat, although many argue that the genealogy is of Joseph's family.[Lk 3:23] In Luke 3:23 the
words "as was supposed" are used in the King James translation. The Koine Greek preceding the translation "as
was supposed" is ȞȠȝȓȗȦ pronounced nom-i-zo meaning practice or consider coming from the root word ȞȩȝȠȢ
pronounced nom'-os meaning law.[13] Here Heli is shown as the father-in-law or according to practice of the law
of Joseph, the husband of Mary. This is in staunch contrast to Matthew 1:16 which speaks of Joseph's natural
father as being Jacob.[14] Mary was a relative of Elizabeth, wife of the priest Zechariah of the priestly division of
Abijah, who was herself part of the lineage of Aaron and so of the tribe of Levi.[15]:p.134 [Lk 1:5] [1:36] In spite of
this, some speculate that Mary, like Joseph to whom she was betrothed, was of the House of David and so of the
tribe of Judah, and that the genealogy presented in Luke was hers, while Joseph's is given in Matthew.[16] She
resided at Nazareth in Galilee, presumably with her parents and during her betrothal±the first stage of a Jewish
marriage±the angel Gabriel announced to her that she was to be the mother of the promised Messiah by
conceiving him through the Holy Spirit.[17] When Joseph was told of her conception in a dream by "an angel of
the Lord", he was surprised; but the angel told him to be unafraid and take her as his wife, which Joseph did,
thereby formally completing the wedding rites.[18][Mt 1:18±25]

Since the angel Gabriel had told Mary (according to Luke)[1:19] that Elizabeth, having previously been barren,
was now miraculously pregnant, Mary hurried to visit Elizabeth, who was living with her husband Zechariah in
a city of Judah "in the hill country".[Lk 1:39] Once Mary arrived at the house and greeted Elizabeth, Elizabeth
proclaimed Mary as "the mother of [her] Lord", and Mary recited a song of thanksgiving commonly known as
the È!
from its first word in Latin.[Lk 1:46±56] After three months, Mary returned to her house.[Lk 1:56±57]
According to the Gospel of Luke, a decree of the Roman emperor Augustus required that Joseph and his
betrothed should proceed to Bethlehem for a census. While they were there, Mary gave birth to Jesus; but
because there was no place for them in the inn, she had to use a manger as a cradle.[15]:p.14 [Lk 2:1ff] After eight
days, the boy was circumcised according to Jewish law. He was named Jesus in accordance with the
instructions that the "angel of the Lord" had given to Joseph after the Annunciation to Mary.[Mt 1:21] [Lu 1:31] These
customary ceremonies were followed by Jesus' presentation to the Lord at the Temple in Jerusalem in
accordance with the law for firstborn males, then the visit of the Magi, the family's flight into Egypt, their return
after the death of King Herod the Great about 2 or 1 BC and taking up residence in Nazareth.[19][Mt 2]
  



Mary is involved in the only event in Jesus' adolescent life that is recorded in the New Testament. At the age of
twelve Jesus, having become separated from his parents on their return journey from the Passover celebration in
Jerusalem, was found among the teachers in the temple.[20]:p.210 [Lk 2:41±52]

After Jesus' baptism by John the Baptist and his temptations by the devil in the desert, Mary was present when,
at her intercession, Jesus worked his first public miracle during the marriage in Cana by turning water into
wine.[Jn 2:1±11] Subsequently there are events when Mary is present along with James, Joseph, Simon, and Judas,
called Jesus' brothers, and unnamed "sisters". [Mt 1:24±25] [12:46] [13:54±56] [27:56] [Mk 3:31] [6:3] [15:40] [16:1] [Jn 2:12] [7:3±5]
[Gal 1:19] [Ac 1:14]
These passages have been used to challenge the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary,
however both Catholic and Orthodox churches interpret the words commonly translated "brother" and "sister"
as actually meaning close relatives (see Perpetual virginity). There is also an incident in which Jesus is
sometimes interpreted as rejecting his family. "And his mother and his brothers arrived, and standing outside,
they sent in a message asking for him[Mk 3:21] ... And looking at those who sat in a circle around him, Jesus said,
'These are my mother and my brothers. Whoever does the will of God is my brother, and sister, and
mother.'"[21][3:31±35]

Mary is also depicted as being present during the crucifixion standing near "the disciple whom Jesus loved"
along with Mary of Clopas and Mary Magdalene,[Jn 19:25±26] to which list Matthew 27:56 adds "the mother of the
sons of Zebedee", presumably the Salome mentioned in Mark 15:40. This representation is called a (


È
.[22][23] Mary, cradling the dead body of her Son, while not recorded in the Gospel accounts, is a common
motif in art, called a "pietà" or "pity".

4
  


In Acts 1:26, especially v. 14, Mary is the only one to be mentioned by name other than the twelve apostles and
the candidates of about 120 people gathered, after the Ascension, in the Upper Room on the occasion of the
election of Matthias to the vacancy of Judas. (Though it is said that "the women" and Jesus' brothers were there
as well, their names are not given.) Some also consider the "chosen lady" mentioned in 2 John 1:1 as Mary.
From this time, she disappears from the biblical accounts, although it is held by Catholics that she is again
portrayed as the heavenly woman of Revelation.[Rev 12:1]

Her death is not recorded in scripture. However, Catholic and Orthodox tradition and doctrine have her assumed
(taken bodily) into Heaven. Belief in the corporeal assumption of Mary is universal to Catholicism, in both
Eastern and Western Catholic Churches, as well as the Eastern Orthodox Church,[24][25] Coptic Churches, and
parts of the Anglican Communion and Continuing Anglican Churches.[26]

4  

 
 


According to the apocryphal Gospel of James Mary was the daughter of Saint Joachim and Saint Anne. Before
Mary's conception Anna had been barren. Mary was given to service as a consecrated virgin in the Temple in
Jerusalem when she was three years old, much like Hannah took Samuel to the Tabernacle as recorded in the
Old Testament.[5]

According to Sacred Tradition, Mary died surrounded by the apostles (in either Jerusalem or Ephesus) between
three days and 24 years after Christ's ascension. When the apostles later opened her tomb, they found it to be
empty and they concluded that she had been assumed into Heaven.[25][27] Mary's Tomb, an empty tomb in
Jerusalem, is attributed to Mary.[28] The Roman Catholic Church teaches Mary's assumption, but does not teach
that she died, as that would contradict the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception.
The House of the Virgin Mary near Ephesus in Turkey is traditionally considered the place where Mary lived
until her assumption. The Gospel of John states that Mary went to live with the Disciple whom Jesus
loved,[Jn 19:27] identified as John the Evangelist. Irenaeus and Eusebius of Caesarea wrote in their histories that
John later went to Ephesus, which may provide the basis for the early belief that Mary also lived in Ephesus
with John.[29][30]

4   

Christian devotion to Mary goes back to the 2nd century and predates the emergence of a specific Marian
liturgical system in the 5th century, following the First Council of Ephesus in 431. The Council itself was held
at a church in Ephesus which had been dedicated to Mary about a hundred years before.[31][32][33] In Egypt the
veneration of Mary had started in the 3rd century and the term Theotokos was used by Origen, the Alexandrian
Father of the Church.[34]

The earliest known Marian prayer (the Sub tuum praesidium, or '  


!
) is from the 3rd
century (perhaps 270), and its text was rediscovered in 1917 on a papyrus in Egypt.[35][36] Following the Edict of
Milan in 313, by the 5th century artistic images of Mary began to appear in public and larger churches were
being dedicated to Mary, e.g. S. Maria Maggiore in Rome.[37][38][39]

Over the centuries, devotion and veneration to Mary has varied greatly among Christian traditions. For instance,
while Protestants show scant attention to Marian prayers or devotions, of all the saints whom the Orthodox
venerate, the most honored is Mary, who is considered "more honorable than the Cherubim and more glorious
than the Seraphim."[40]

Orthodox theologian Sergei Bulgakov wrote: "Love and veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary is the soul of
Orthodox piety. A faith in Christ which does not include his mother is another faith, another Christianity from
that of the Orthodox church."[41]

Although the Catholics and the Orthodox may honor and venerate Mary, they do not view her as divine, nor do
they worship her. Catholics view Mary as subordinate to Christ, but uniquely so, in that she is seen as above all
other creatures.[42] Similarly Theologian Sergei Bulgakov wrote that although the Orthodox view Mary as
"superior to all created beings" and "ceaslessly pray for her intercession" she is not considered a "substitute for
the One Mediator" who is Christ.[41] "Let Mary be in honor, but let worship be given to the Lord" he wrote.[43]
Similarly, Catholics do not worship Mary, but venerate her. Catholics use the term  
 for Marian
veneration rather than 
 that applies to God and 
 for other saints.[44] The definition of the three level
hierarchy of 
,  
 and 
 goes back to the Second Council of Nicaea in 787.[45]

Devotions to artistic depictions of Mary vary among Christian traditions. There is a long tradition of Roman
Catholic Marian art and no image permeates Catholic art as the image of Madonna and Child.[46] The icon of the
Virgin is without doubt the most venerated icon among the Orthodox.[47] Both Roman Catholics and the
Orthodox venerate images and icons of Mary, given that the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 permitted their
veneration by Catholics with the understanding that those who venerate the image are venerating the reality of
the person it represents,[48] and the 842 Synod of Constantinople established the same for the Orthodox.[49] The
Orthodox, however, only pray to and venerate flat, two-dimensional icons and not three-dimensional statues.[50]

The Anglican position towards Mary is in general more conciliatory than that of Protestants at large and in a
book he wrote about praying with the icons of Mary, Rowan Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury said: "It is
not only that we cannot understand Mary without seeing her as pointing to Christ; we cannot understand Christ
without seeing his attention to Mary".[51][52]
ë  

In the Catholic Church, Mary is accorded the title "Blessed," (from Latin  

, blessed, via Greek ȝĮțȐȡȚȠȢ,
 and Latin !  , make) in recognition of her ascension to Heaven and her capacity to intercede on
behalf of those who pray to her. Catholic teachings make clear that Mary is not considered divine and prayers to
her are not answered by her, they are answered by God.[90] The five Catholic doctrines regarding Mary are:
Mother of God, Virgin birth of Jesus, Perpetual virginity of Mary, Immaculate Conception (of Mary) and
Assumption of Mary.[77][91][92]

The '  È, the mother of Jesus has a more central role in Roman Catholic teachings and beliefs
than in any other major Christian group. Not only do Roman Catholics have more theological doctrines and
teachings that relate to Mary, but they have more festivals, prayers, devotional, and venerative practices than
any other group.[63] The Catholic Catechism states: "The Church's devotion to the Blessed Virgin is intrinsic to
Christian worship."[93]

For centuries, Roman Catholics have performed acts of consecration and entrustment to Mary at personal,
societal and regional levels. These acts may be directed to the Virgin herself, to the Immaculate Heart of Mary
and to the Immaculata. In Catholic teachings, consecration to Mary does not diminish or substitute the love of
God, but enhances it, for all consecration is ultimately made to God.[94][95]

Following the growth of Marian devotions in the 16th century, Catholic saints wrote books such as Glories of
Mary and True Devotion to Mary that emphasized Marian veneration and taught that "the path to Jesus is
through Mary".[96] Marian devotions are at times linked to Christocentric devotions, e.g. the Alliance of the
Hearts of Jesus and Mary.[97]

Key Marian devotions include: Seven Sorrows of Mary, Rosary and scapular, Miraculous Medal and
Reparations to Mary.[98][99] The months of May and October are traditionally "Marian months" for Roman
Catholics, e.g. the daily Rosary is encouraged in October and in May Marian devotions take place in many
regions.[100][101][102] Popes have issued a number of Marian encyclicals and Apostolic Letters to encourage
devotions to and the veneration of the Virgin Mary.

Catholics place high emphasis on Mary's roles as protector and intercessor and the Catholic Catechism refers to
Mary as the "Mother of God to whose protection the faithful fly in all their dangers and
needs".[103][104][105][106][107] Key Marian prayers include: Hail Mary, Alma Redemptoris Mater, Sub Tuum
Praesidum, Ave Maris Stella, Regina Coeli, Ave Regina Coelorum and the Magnificat.[108]

Mary's participation in the processes of salvation and redemption has also been emphasized in the Catholic
tradition, but they are not doctrines.[109][110][111][112] Pope John Paul II's 1987 encyclical ð  
È

began with the sentence: "The Mother of the Redeemer has a precise place in the plan of salvation."[113]

In the 20th century both popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI have emphasized the Marian focus of the church.
Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) wrote:

It is necessary to go back to Mary if we want to return to that "truth about Jesus Christ," "truth about the
Church" and "truth about man".[114]

when he suggested a redirection of the whole Church towards the program of Pope John Paul II in order to
ensure an authentic approach to Christology via a return to the "whole truth about Mary