Understanding Energy Methods and Measuring Techniques

Understanding Energy Methods and
Measuring Techniques
Nathan Shigemura
Traffic Safety Group, LLC
Institute of Police Technology and Management May 21-24, 2018
Symposium On Traffic Safety - Special Problems in Traffic Crash Reconstruction
Orlando, Florida
Understanding Energy Methods and

Measuring Techniques
Presented for:
Institute of Police Technology and Management
Symposium on Traffic Safety
Special Problems in Traffic Crash Reconstruction
Jacksonville, Florida
May 21-24, 2018
Presented by:
Nathan Shigemura
Traffic Safety Group, LLC
New Berlin, Illinois
Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 1

Orlando, Florida
Introduction
• Many crash investigators/reconstruction do not use,

or shy away from using energy methods in their
analyses.
• Why?? Various reasons…
• We will discuss the value and necessity of using
energy methods in our crash investigations.
• We will explore various ideas and concepts in using
energy methods in traffic crash investigations.

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Why Energy Methods?
• Conservation of Linear Momentum (COLM) is an

excellent technique to use in analyzing collisions.
• However, there will be times when a momentum
solution is not available or not appropriate.
• Energy methods may provide a solution or open
other avenues to use in the analysis.

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What is energy?
Energy is defined as the

ability to do work.

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Forms of Energy
• Thermal • Chemical
• Radiant • Mechanical
• Sound • Nuclear
• Electrical • Magnetic
• Luminous • Elastic
• These energies can be divided into two main

groups: potential energy and kinetic energy.

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Energy
• We, as crash investigators, are concerned with

kinetic energy.
• Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
1 2
Ke = mv
2
• An object possesses kinetic energy by virtue of it’s motion.
• For an object to come to a stop all of its kinetic energy must be
dissipated.

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Work
• Work is defined as a force acting through a displacement.

• In equation form:
W = F ⋅d
• If a force is applied to an object but there is no displacement,
there is no work.
• Notice the “F” and “d” are printed in bold but not the “W”.
This is the vector format for force and displacement and the
scalar format for work (the dot product of two vectors).

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Work (cont.)
• If the applied force is in the same direction as the

displacement vector then the work done is simply
product of the magnitude of the force F and the
distance d through which the object moves.
W = Fd
F
d

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Work (cont.)
• However, if the applied force is not in the same direction

as the displacement vector, then the work done is the
product of the magnitude of the force, F cos θ, in the
direction of the displacement and the distance d through
which the object moves.
F W = (F cos θ ) d
θ F cos θ
d
9
Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily

Orlando, Florida
Work and Energy
• Work – Energy Theorem

– The work done by a force in displacing an object is equal to
the change in kinetic energy of the object.
W = ∆Ke
1 2 1 2
= mv f − mvi
2 2
1
(
= m v 2f − vi2
2
)

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Work and Energy (cont.)
• The applied force that appears in the work equation

is the unbalanced force that is referred to in the
definition of Newton’s First Law of Motion.
• If the force moves the object (causes displacement)
it will cause the object to have a change in kinetic
energy equal to the amount of work accomplished in
moving the object.
• Now that the object possesses kinetic energy, it has
the ability to perform work.
• Thus the Work-Energy Theorem.

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Energy
• First Law of Thermodynamics

– Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It is only transferred from
one form to another.
• Kinetic energy from a moving vehicle can be transformed
into other forms in various ways.
– Braking
• Engine
• Service brakes
– Collisions
• For an object to come to a stop, all of its kinetic energy
must be dissipated.
• If even an iota of kinetic energy remains, the object will
still be moving.

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Dissipating Kinetic Energy
• Skidding
F
W = Fd f =
w
= fwd fw = F
F = fw
Where: W = work
F = resistive force due to friction
f = drag factor
w = weight of the vehicle
d = distance of the skid

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Dissipating Kinetic Energy (cont.)
• Collision
– Breaking/damaging objects
• Attenuators
• Poles
• Guard rails, etc.
– Damage energy
• To the bullet vehicle
• To the target vehicle

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Dissipating Kinetic Energy (cont.)
• Post impact movement

– Slide to a stop Work = fwd
– Spinning during translation to final position
eta = 0.80
fadj = fr + (µ - fr)|sin αavg| + m
1998 Ford Taurus
Interval d (ft) αi αi+1 αavg µ fr sin m fadj S (mph)

1 20.20 0 27 13.5 0.70 0.06 0.233 -0.035 0.174 10.28
2 19.41 27 56.5 41.75 0.70 0.06 0.666 -0.035 0.451 16.21 S= 39.16 mph
3 24.54 56.5 87 71.75 0.70 0.06 0.950 -0.035 0.633 21.58
4 18.30 87 109 98 0.70 0.06 0.990 -0.035 0.659 19.02 f_overall = 0.50
5 19.72 109 134 121.5 0.70 0.06 0.853 -0.035 0.571 18.37
102.17 f_ref = 0.70
eta = 0.71
– Rotational kinetic energy, spinning more or less in one place

rather than translating 1 2
KE = Iω
2 15

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Energy Analysis Techniques
Bridge abutment
Crash attenuators
Skid
Example 1

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Energy Analysis Techniques (cont.)
• Determining speed at the start of the skid in

Example 1 is not a momentum problem.
• Can be solved using energy techniques.
• Determine all the major energy “losses.”
• Add the energy “losses” together to get energy at
the start of the skid.
• Determine speed at the start of the skid from the
total energy.

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• Four energy “losses” in Example 1.
1. Skid to impact.
2. Crushing/destroying crash attenuators.
3. Post impact movement to final position.
4. Damage (crush) sustained by the vehicle.

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2
1
Skid
Example 1 4

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weight of vehicle, w = 3000 lb
1. w = fwd
= 0.70(3000 )(50 ) 2 40,000 ft-lb
= 105,000 ft - lb 1
2. 40,000 ft-lb
d = 50 ft
(e.g. from specs) f = 0.70
3
3. w = fwd d = 82 ft 4
= 0.40(3000 )(82 ) f = 0.80
210,000 ft-lb
= 98,400 ft - lb 4. 210,000 ft-lb
(from damage analysis)

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• Calculate the total energy at the start of the skid by

adding the individual energies together.
ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4
= 105,000 + 40,000 + 98,400 + 210,000
= 453,400 ft - lb

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• Now can calculate speed at the start of the skid from

the total energy value.
30 Ke
S=
w
30(453,400)
=
3000
13,602,000
=
3000
= 4534.0

= 67.33 mph 22

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• Example 2 – Consider an impact

with a wooden pole where the
pole breaks.
• The impact event can have four

energy “losses”
1. Pole fracture energy
2. Pole stump movement in the
ground
3. Damage to the vehicle
4. Post impact movement of the
vehicle

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Analogy
• Energy can be thought of like money.
• The quantity of money that a person had
at the start of a shopping trip can be
determined by adding all the receipts
together.
• By determining each energy
“expenditures” and adding up all the
energy “receipts,” the total energy at the
start of the event can be determined, and
subsequently the speed at the start of the
event.

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Analogy (cont.)
• Thinking of kinetic energy dissipation as individual

“expenditures” can help the investigator answer the
question “should I take that impact into account or
can I ignore it?”

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What About Speed Equations?
• Basic speed equation:
S = 30 Df
• It’s an energy equation!

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What About Speed Equations?

Kinetic Energy = Work
1 2 Continue to convert to speed:
• The basic mv = Fd
2
speed equation (v )(v ) = 2 gfd
1  w 2
comes from  v = ( fw)d
2 g   v  v  2 gfd
  =
the work-  1.466  1.466  2.14
1  w 2
energy  v = ( fw)d 2(32.2) fd
2  g  S2 =
theorem. 2.14
v2 64.4 fd
= fd =
2g 2.14
v 2 = 2 gfd S 2 = 30 fd
v = 2 gfd S = 30 fd
Velocity Speed

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What About Speed Equations? (cont.)
• Combined speed equation:
S = S12 + S 22 + S32 + … + S n2 for multiple losses
or
for multiple
S = 30( f1d1 + f 2 d 2 + f 3 d 3 + … + f n d n ) + S 2
f surfaces and an
event at the end
• These are energy equations!


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Derivation: For multiple surfaces with an event at the
end:
KEinitial = (W1 + W2 + W3 + … + Wn ) + KE final
2
wS o2 wS f
( )
= f1wd1 + f 2 wd 2 + f 3 wd 3 + … + f n wd n +
30 30
S o2 S 2f
= ( f1d1 + f 2 d 2 + f 3 d 3 + … + f n d n ) +
30 30
S o2 = 30( f1d1 + f 2 d 2 + f 3 d 3 + … + f n d n ) + S 2f
S o = 30( f1d1 + f 2 d 2 + f 3 d 3 + … + f n d n ) + S 2f

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• If we continue with the last equation:
S o = 30( f1d1 + f 2 d 2 + f 3 d 3 + … + f n d n ) + S 2f
S o = 30 f1d1 + 30 f 2 d 2 + 30 f 3d 3 + … + 30 f n d n + S 2f
So = S12 + S 22 + S32 + … + S n2
2
The generic equation for multiple events. S f is just another
2
event so it is encompassed by S n .

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• Thus:
– Speed equations come from energy (the Work-Energy
Theorem).
– We add energies and combine speeds.
KEinitial = (W1 + W2 + W3 + … Wn ) + KE final S = S12 + S 22 + S33 + … + S n2

Orlando, Florida
What Else Can Energy Analyses be Used For?
• Calculating impact speeds in an inline (collinear)

collision.
– The Conservation of Linear Momentum (COLM) and
Conservation of Energy (COE) equations are solved
simultaneously.
– The COE equation utilizes the damage energy for both
vehicles.

Orlando, Florida

(cont.)
• Calculating delta-Vs (US):
2 gγ 1 Ecrush w1
∆v1 = ∆v2 = − ∆v1
 γ 1w1  w2
w1 1 + 
 γ w
2 2 
Where: Ecrush = E1 + E2 (damage energy of Unit 1 plus the damage energy of Unit 2), lb
w1 = weight of Unit 1, lb
w2 = weight of Unit 2, lb
g = gravity, 32.2 fps2
γ = effective mass ratio

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(cont.)
• Calculating delta-Vs (SI):
2γ 1 Ecrush m1
∆v1 = ∆v2 = − ∆v1
 γ 1m1  m2
m1 1 + 
 γ 2 m2 
Where: Ecrush = E1 + E2 (damage energy of Unit 1 plus the damage energy of Unit 2), J
m1 = mass of Unit 1, kg
m2 = mass of Unit 2, kg
γ = effective mass ratio

Orlando, Florida

(cont.)
• Calculating the impact speed of a vehicle that
collides with a barrier and comes to a stop.
• Damage energy is used to calculate the speed.
• If the barrier doesn’t move and doesn’t sustain
damage, the speed calculated will be both a delta-V
and an impact speed.
• If the barrier moves or sustains damage or if there is
any post impact movement of the vehicle, the speed
calculated will be an EBS (Equivalent Barrier Speed).

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Damage Energy
• As can be seen in the last few examples of what else

energy is used for, damage energy was needed for
the analyses.
• What is damage energy?

– Damage energy is the energy it took to crush the vehicle
in the collision.

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Damage Energy – Some Definitions

• Damage Energy is based on the premises that the vehicle deforms according
to Hooke’s Law.

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Damage Energy – Some Definitions

• A & B are the Stiffness
Coefficients of the
damaged vehicle
– The A stiffness value
represents the force the
vehicle can sustain without
manifesting residual crush.
– The B coefficient is the slope
of the force-deflection line.
– and, A2
G=
2B

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What is Needed to Calculate Damage Energy?
• Four things are needed to calculate damage energy:

1. Stiffness coefficients
2. Area of damage
3. Depth of the damage centroid from the damage face
4. The angle the collision force makes with respect to a line
normal (perpendicular) to the damage face.

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Basic Damage Energy Equation
 A2 
ET =  A + B x AD +( )
 1 + tan 2 α
2B 
( )

Where: ET = total damage energy

A, B = stiffness coefficients
AD = area of damage
x = depth of the damage centroid from the damage face
α = angle the collision force makes with respect to the
damage face

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1) Determining Stiffness Coefficients

• National Highway Traffic Safety Administration website
– http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/database/veh/veh.htm


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1) Determining Stiffness Coefficients (cont.)
• Utilizing the data obtained from the NHTSA

database, calculate stiffness values:
∆v − b Calculate slope of the
b1 = test o impact speed vs.
residual crush graph.
Cavg
US SI
WT ( bo )( b1 ) mT ( bo )( b1 )
A= A= Calculate A
gLTest LTest
WT b12 mT b12
B= B= Calculate B
gLTest LTest
A2
G= Calculate G
2B

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1) Determining Stiffness Coefficients (cont.)

• Commercial software packages


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44

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45

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2) Determining Damage Area
• Use scale diagrams and geometric shapes.

• Use CAD program.
• Use Tumbas and Smith protocol, SAE 880072.

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2) Determining Damage Area (cont.)
• Using scale diagrams and geometric shapes.
1 2 3
47

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• Using CAD program.

– Program may have the feature where it can give you the
area of a shape.
48

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• Using Tumbas and Smith protocol, SAE 880072.

• AKA “Tumbas protocol”


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• Tumbas protocol
– 2, 4 or 6 crush measurements taken across the damage
width, perpendicular to the damage face.
– Often referred to as “C” measurements.
– The measurements are equally spaced.
– The 2, 4, or 6 crush measurements are used to calculate
the damage area.
– The 2, 4, or 6 crush measurements are also utilized in the
“long” damage energy equations.

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• Measurements will generally be taken in a safe, controlled

environment, e.g. tow yard.
• How many measurements should be taken of the damaged
vehicle?
– Not restricted to taking only 2, 4, or 6 measurements.
– Take as many measurements as needed to be able to draw an
accurate scale diagram of the damage profile.
• When measuring the damaged vehicle, keep in mind the
instructions and procedures outlined in Tumbas for
measuring particular situations.
– Underride, override
– Latch, pillar, hinge failure
– Bowed, not bowed, etc.

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• Obtain measurements of an undamaged exemplar

vehicle.
• Draw both the damage profile and undamaged
profile to scale.
• Overlap the two drawings using the same reference
point, e.g. rear axle on a front damaged vehicle.
• Obtain the 2, 4, or 6 crush measurements from the
scale diagram, per Tumbas .
• Happy calculating!

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3) Determining Depth of Centroid of the

Damage Area
• The centroid is the center of a volume or a two
dimensional area defined by a boundary.
• Can be determined:
– By scale diagram and software package,
– Paper cutouts,
– Calculations using 2, 4, or 6 “C” measurements.

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4) Determining Angle of Collision Force with

Respect to a line Normal to Damage Face
• Equations and measurements are based on NHTSA

crash tests where the vehicles crash perpendicularly
into barriers.
• If the collision force is not perpendicular to the
damage face, a geometric/trigonometric
adjustment needs to be made to take into account
the angle.
• This adjustment is called the magnification factor.
(1+ tan α )2

Orlando, Florida
Damage Energy Equations
Damage Energy Equations For 2, 4, or 6 crush measurements
Basic Damage Energy Equation
 A2 
(
ET =  A + B x AD + ) (
 1 + tan 2 α
2B 
)


Orlando, Florida
Conclusion
• Understanding energy concepts and energy analysis

techniques puts more tools in the crash
investigator/reconstructionist’s tool box.
• By looking at the movements of vehicles from an
energy point of view helps clarify many issues and
questions.
• Utilizing energy analysis techniques can assist the
investigator in solving crashes that may have
previously gone unsolved.

Understanding Energy Methods and Measuring Techniques

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Understanding Energy Methods and

Understanding Energy Methods and

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 1

• Many crash investigators/reconstruction do not use,

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 2

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 2

Why Energy Methods?

• Conservation of Linear Momentum (COLM) is an

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 3

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 3

Energy is defined as the

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 4

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 4

• These energies can be divided into two main

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 5

• We, as crash investigators, are concerned with

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 6

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 6

• Work is defined as a force acting through a displacement.

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 7

• If the applied force is in the same direction as the

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 8

• However, if the applied force is not in the same direction

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 9

Work and Energy

• Work – Energy Theorem

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 10

Work and Energy (cont.)

• The applied force that appears in the work equation

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 11

• First Law of Thermodynamics

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 12

Dissipating Kinetic Energy

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Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 13

Dissipating Kinetic Energy (cont.)

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Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 14

Dissipating Kinetic Energy (cont.)

• Post impact movement

1998 Ford Taurus

Interval d (ft) αi αi+1 αavg µ fr sin m fadj S (mph)

– Rotational kinetic energy, spinning more or less in one place

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 15

Energy Analysis Techniques

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 16

Energy Analysis Techniques (cont.)

• Determining speed at the start of the skid in

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 17

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 17

Energy Analysis Techniques (cont.)

• Four energy “losses” in Example 1.

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 18

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 18

Energy Analysis Techniques (cont.)

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 19

Energy Analysis Techniques (cont.)

= 0.70(3000 )(50 ) 2 40,000 ft-lb

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 20

Energy Analysis Techniques (cont.)

• Calculate the total energy at the start of the skid by

= 105,000 + 40,000 + 98,400 + 210,000

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 21

Copyright © 2010 - 2018 by N. Shigemura & J. Daily 21