4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

Notes on PSI

1. Condition Monitoring of Traction Transformer

2. TSS Maintnance Schedule

3. Protective Relays in TSS.

4. Equipment earthing

5. Earthing Grid

6. POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT OF TRACTION SYSTEM

CONDITION MONITORING OF TRACTION

TRANSFORMER
(Dissolved Gas Analysis)

Condition Monitoring involves monitoring of certain parameters of traction transformer. Based on

values certain maintenance
the prescribed parameter activities can be decided and carried out.

Normally, any equipment is maintained in three ways viz.

a) Routine Maintenance

b) Periodic Maintenance

c) Condition based Maintenance

In Routine maintenance, activities involved which are essential for day to day working like
silica Gel of
checking in Oil
Breather
level, etc.
colour of

In Periodic maintenance, activities involved are that type of maintenance activities which are not
frequently
necessary to andbeensures
done sothe working of the transformer over a longer period such as Oil testing,
measuring IR value etc.
It is established that over maintenance of any equipment leads to more number of failures. Hence
minimise
the presentthe maintenance
trend is to which can be achieved through condition based monitoring.

Failure of a transformer leads to lot of inconvenience and anxiety which can be avoided if proper
failure
measurestakes
areplace.
taken before its
When
A
and transformer
maysuchlead faults
to
never
itsare
failure
fails
detected
all
andofand
consequently
a sudden
diagnosed
excepttoatbe
the
dueshut
early
to short
down
stage,
circuit
fornecessary
repairs
or lightning
if steps
not detected
can
surges.
be taken
in
Always
its to plan
a
fault
incipient
of
i)A
ii)
the
transformer
following
Deterioration
shut
local
is developed
down
fault
stage.
conveniently
nature.
developing
ofSuch
of
the
gradually
insulation
faultsfor
over
can
its
comparatively
days
be
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4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

Major causes of failures of the

transformer are
i) Insulation

ii) Hot spots

iii) Core faults

iv) Short circuit faults

v) Switching surges

vi) Manufacturing defects

The transformer oil acts as a coolant and insulating medium. It absorbs heat from the
Also it insulates
core and dissipatesvarious parts of the transformer which are at different potentials. The
it to atmosphere.
specified
oil should possess the properties of
in IS – 335. Condition as the oil indicates the health of the transformer. If
place, cause
deviation for properties
in the this can beof found outtakes
the oil and necessary measures can be taken
tool to achieve
accordingly. this.
Dissolved analysis is a very powerful

i) It assesses the internal condition of the transformer. It is performed by Gas

Chromatography
ii) The knowledge of solubility of Hydro-carbons and fixed gases at different
temperatures in the oil helps to gas analysis.
iii) The absolute concentration of fault gas indicates status of insulation whereas
type of the
relative fault.
concentration provides a clue to the

Formation of gases takes place in oil filled transformer due to following reasons.

i) Oxidation

ii) Vaporization

iii) Insulation decomposition

iv) Oil breakdown

v) Electrolytic action.

For DGA generally Roger's Method is used which analyses proportion of one gas with
involved
respect toare
the other gas. The gases

i) Methane (CH4) and Ethane (C2H6) - at 120 0 c

ii) Ethylene (C2H4) - at 150 0c

iii) Acetylene(C2H2) - at very high temperatures.

TheIfabsolute
these
ii) Methane
gases provides
condition
/ Hydrogen
an ofidea
the
ratio
offault
the
is 1gases
type
and Ethane
ofgives
the fault
the
to Methane
status
e.g. Conductor
of is
the1,transformer
over
over
heating
heating
insulation
between
by co
whereas
or
Partial
i)
150Ifco2,
0c
Methane
discharge
-200
oil
theover
relative
0C.
/ Hydrogen
heating
by Hydrogen.
concentration
byratio
Ethylene.
isArcing
1,ofslight
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monitoring below 1500 C. 2/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

iii)If Ethane to Methane is 1, over heating between 200 0-300 0C.

iv) If Ethylene to Ethane is 1, normal conductor over heating.

v) If Methane to Hydrogen and Ethylene to Ethane are 1, circulating currents and/or

over heated joints.
vi) If Acetylene to Ethylene is 1, flash over without power follow through.

vii) If Ethane to Methane and Acetylene to Ethylene are 1, Tap changer selector
Transformer)
breaking current. (Not Applicable for Tr.

viii) If Ethylene to Ethane and Acetylene to Ethylene are 1, Arc with power follow
through or persistent arcing.
Guideline for the characteristics of oil to be obtained before energising New
Transformer.
Sr. No Characteristics Test Method Requirement

1 Appearance IS 335-1983 The oil shall be clear & transparent & free from suspended
matter of sediments
2 Density at 27 0 C Max IS 1448-1977 0.89 g/cm 33 Kinematic viscosity IS 1448-
1977 27 CST
at 27 0 C Max

4 Inter Facial tension IS 6104 0.300 N/m

at 27 0 C Max

5 Pour point (Max) IS 1448-1970 -60 0c

6 Flash point (Max) IS 1448-1970 140 0 c

7 Neutralisation value(Max) IS 335-1983 0. 3 mg KOH/g

8 Corrosive sulphur IS 335 Non- corrosive

9 Electric Strength

(BDV)min. with 2.5 mm Gap.

(a) 72.5 KV and lessthan 145 KV IS 6792-1972 50 KV (rms)

(b)145 KV and above IS 6792-1972 60 KV (rms)

10 Power dissipation IS 6262-1971 0.002

factor- tan delta

at 90 0 C (max)

11 Specific resistance
b) Neutralisation
12
a)
value
b)total
atOxidation
90
27after
sludge
0C coxidation
(min)
(min)
stability
after1500
ISIS(max)
6103-1971
335-1983
IS´ 10
335-1983
12 ohm-cm
0.10%
35 0.40
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(by
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ohm-cm
monitoring Xmer.htm 3/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

oxidation (max)

13 Ageing characteristics after accelerated ageing test

(a) Resistivity at 27 ° C IS 6103-1971 2.5 ´ 10 12 ohm-cm (min)

(b) Resistivity at 90 ° C " 0.2 ´ 10 12 ohmcm (min)

(c)Dietectric loss factor " 0.2

(tan delta) at 90 ° C max.

(d) Neutralisation value IS 1448-2-1967 0.05

(e)Sludge content max - 0.05%

14 Presence of Oil shall not contain anti oxidation additive.

oxidation inhibitor (IS 335)

15 Water content IS 335

(a) 72.5 KV and less 20 PPM

than 145 KV

(b) 145 KV and

above. 15 PPM

(All concentration in PPM)

Gas
0-4 Years 4-10 years 10 years

Methane 10 to 30 30 to 80 30 to 130

Ethane 10 to 30 30 to 50 30 to 110

Ethylene 10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 150

Acetylene 10 to 16 10 to 30 10 to 40

Hydrogen 20 to 150 150 to 300 200 to 500

Carbon
as
Monoxide
Dioxide
Carbon
Levels for Different Fault 3000 200
Conditions
toto300
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on 300 toto500
4000
Condition monitoring Xmer.htm 5000 500 toto700
4000 10000 4/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

(All concentration in PPM)

TRANSFORMER OIL TESTING on Condition monitoring Xmer.htm

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4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

TERMINOLOGY

1. Flash point : The temperature at which the oil gives off so much vapour that this
ignitable
vapor whenmixture
mixedand gives
with a momentary
air forms an flash on application of a small pilot flame
under the prescribed conditions of the test.
2. Pour Point : The lowest value of temperature expressed as a multiple of 30 C at
cooled andoil
which the examined under
is observed prescribed
to flow when conditions.

3. Total sludge value : The percentage by weight of insoluble matter formed when the
specified conditions
oil is heated and subsequently
and oxidized under diluted with n-heptane.

4. Total Acidity : It is the measure of free organic and inorganic acids present together
Potassium Hydroxide
and is expressed required of
as milligrams to neutralize the total free acids in one gram of the oil.

5. Inorganic Acidity : It is the measure of inorganic acids present and is expressed as

required to of
milligrams neutralize these
Potassium acids in one gram of the oil.
Hydroxide

6. Electrical Strength (BDV) : The voltage at which the oil breaks down when
continuously
subjected to an increasing
AC electric voltage
field contained
with a in a specified apparatus. The value is
expressed in KV.
7. Specific Resistance (Resistivity ) : It is the ratio of the DC potential gradient in volts
within the specimen,
per centimeter paralleltothe
thecurrent
currentflow
density in amps per square centimeter at a given
conditions. Thisand
instant of time is numerically equal to the resistance between opposite faces of a
under prescribed
centimeter.
8. Dielectric Dissipation Factor : (TAN DELTA) : It is the tangent of the angle (delta)
applied
by which voltage and difference
the phase resulting current
betweendeviates from 90 degrees, when the dielectric of
insulating oil.
the capacitor consists exclusively of the

9. Inter Facial Tension : It is the force necessary to detach a planner ring of platinum
higher surface
wire from tensionof
the surface that
theisliquid
upwardof from
the the water-oil surface. It is expressed in
N/m.
SAMPLING
Sampling of the oil shall be done in accordance with BIS : 6855

Requirements for taking sample:

Sample of oil should be taken when it is warm.

The outlet of the drain valve should be clean.
The sample pot must be properly cleaned and rinsed.
The test must be carried out as soon as possible.

Main testes to be performed for testing of the oil :

Dielectric strength test

Crackle test
Acidity test.
Sludge test
Flash
Applypoint test increased voltage across the electrode placed 2.5 mm apart in steps.
gradually
Dielectric Strength Test
Procedure Take
Fill
Wait
At
Note
place.
a:the
certain
for
sample
thecell
20
reading.
minutes
of
voltage
asthe
perapparatus
BIS
discharge
for escaping
: 6855.
with
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notes ontakes
of
sample
air monitoring
Condition bubbles
oil above etc.40 mm of electrode.
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4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

Repeat the process for at least three times.

Crackle Test
Procedure :

Fill the cell with 250 ml sample oil.

A steel rod of 12.5 mm dia is heated till red hot.
Red hot steel rod is lowered in the sample oil gradually.
No hissing or crackling sound should appear.

Acidity Test
Procedure :

1. Fill the flask with 50 ml of Methaleted spirit.

2. Add a few drops of Phenolphtelen.

3. Mix the solution properly.

4. Fill the burette with 0.01 N KOH solution.

5. Neutralise the mixture in the flask with the burette.

6. As indicator changes the colour, note the burette reading.

7. Add 10 ml of the sample oil in to the flask.

8. Again neutralise the mixture of the flask. (OIL)

9. Note the reading of the burette.

10. Calculate the amount of the KOH solution.

11. Calculate the acidity by following formula :

Acidity in ml KOH per gram of oil = 0.664 X No. of ml of KOH

SLUDGE TEST
1. Dilute the sample oil with n-heptane.

2. Diluted solution is filtered with white filter paper.

MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE OF TRACTION
3. Wash the same filter paper with only n-epta free from oil.
4. If
5.
6.
TopPrepare
Pourfilter SUB-STATION
thepaper
asolution
solution
turnsonoftothe
3brown,
part
sameofshows
filter
Oxylene
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the+presence
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4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

FORTNIGHTLY MAINTENANCE

GENERAL INSPECTION B A PSI SUPERVISOR

Go round the whole area of the substation, inspect for general cleanliness, proper
rail access.road
drainage, Theand
surface of the roadway and pathways in the sub-station should be firm
sufficiently elevated to prevent water logging. Remove any undergrowth of vegetation
and
outer
aroundperiphery;
the cut any tree branches likely to come in the vicinity of live lines.
If lubricating or transformer oil is stored, inspect for security and fire risk and see that
material is in the vicinity.
no combustible
Examine all "Caution," "Danger", "Shock Treatment", and other boards, whether they
well secured,
are clean and inspect fire extinguishers, fire buckets and First Aid Boxes, if they are
serviceable.
intact and
Inspect structure and plant foundations for any sinking or cracking. Go round the
checking
structural tightness
work for of various bolts and nuts.
Inspect all indication lamps on control panels for correct working.
Carry out inspections as indicated at Annexure 2.01.

BATTERY

Check all cells generally in accordance with Para 20220.

Take specific gravity and cell voltage of pilot cell and record in register. If any
gravity andchange
significant voltageisfor all cells
noticed, should be taken to identify any weak cells. Then top up
specific
the
withcorrect level
distilled for exactly
water every cell.
to
Check operation of battery charger and note charging rate in register.

MONTHLY MAINTENANCE

BONDING AND EARTHING

Visually inspect all earth connections and see that they are in order and that every
connecting bolts
equipment has and nutsearths.
duplicate as necessary.
TightenWhere the sub-station and feeding post are
are properly bonded with the feeding post and the track by two independent
close by, ensure that sub-station structures
connections
OIL LEVEL IN TRANSFORMERS, CIRCUITS BREAKERS, CTS ETC.

Check oil level in sight gauge glass and examine all joints, valves, plugs etc. for all
parts if found
leakages andequipment,
in each restore therectify
oil level.
leaky

INSULATORS

Clean all insulators with dry cloth and look for any flashover marks, cracks and
chipped,
chippings.should be replaced.
Insulators, which are Minor
badly chippings can be rendered impervious to moisture
epoxy Clean
Make
Check
resin. a
externally
silica-gel
for
if
note
heater
oilinleakage
the
inbreather.
the
the
register
tank,
on
marshalling
transformer
If
conservator,
ofturning
the maximum
box
pink
body,
is
radiator,
functioning
in conservator
appearance,
temperature
bushings,
property,
tank,
replace
ofoiltransformer
level
oiland
itdrain
with
indicator,
if all
valve
dry
oil
terminal
gel
on
and
gauges
dial
(blue
by a light coating of Araldite or similar
TRACTION etc. with
indicator;
colour)
silica
Check
foundations.
action
connections
gel.
by
explosion
for
TRANSFORMERS
and
dry
tightening
If
reset
gas
recondition
the
are
If
cloth.
collection,
leaking,
indicator.
silica
invent
order.
the
gel
diaphragm
take
the
bolt;
if
is any,
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notes old
too
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replace
wet,
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Buchholz
check
any
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4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

OPERATING MECHANISM OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND

INTERRUPTORS

1. Open the cover of control box. Examine the interior and remove the accumulated
rusted
dust. indicating
If any entry
part of the of moisture,
interior is badlyfind out the cause, plug the holes and repaint the
the weatherproof
rusted parts. Check gaskets are in good
in particular if condition; if not, replace them to make the
Examine
control boxif the leading and
watertight in pipe connections are properly brushed, sealed and watertight.
dust-tight.
are in place.
Check Check
if all pins andalso tie-rod
check nutsnuts for tightness.

Operate the mechanism at least twice manually. Have it operated on remote control
open, observe
from RCC; whether
keeping thethe mechanism
control door functions smoothly without any rubbing or
absorber functions
obstruction, properly
and also when circuit breaker is tripped.
if the shock
Examine the commutator of the motor and clean with muslin cloth. Examine carbon
Check
brushesbreather and breather
and replace holes for clogging.
if necessary.
Check gear-oil level in the mechanism and replenish it, if required.
Check if heater is functioning properly.
Check interlocks of the equipment and associated isolators.
Check local position indicator and remote semaphore indicator for operation. Observe
recording counter.
for the correct operation of

After complete checking, close the cover and test the breaker for operation under
remote, local and manual control.
ISOLATORS

1. Manually operate isolator several times and observe if it operates smoothly and
lock, lubricate
correctly. moving parts
Check interlocks and as necessary with appropriate lubricant.
integral

If isolator is motor-operated, check commutator of motor and clean with dry mull
proper bedding
cloth, and checkand wear.brushes
carbon Check for
if motor is working smoothly. Clean limit-switch and
check tightness
auxiliary switchof wiring and
contacts connections. Examine contactor box and signal box; clean
shafts, bearings,
thoroughly contacts all
and lubricate etc.gears,

BUSBARS, CLAMPS AND CONNECTORS

Immediately after switching off the power supply and earthing the lines, feel by hand
and equipmentand
all connectors terminals
clampswhich
on buscarry
barsheavy currents to see if they are too hot. If any
contact. Open
connection up the
is too hot,connector;
it indicatescarefully
poor clean the contact surfaces, touch up the high
mating
spots onsurfaces bed surfaces
the contact well together;
so thatapply
the a very light coat of Vaseline, refit and tighten
metallic strip. applicable, replace bi-
up. Wherever

CONTROL AND RELAY PANELS

Make a note of flag indications, if any, then reset.

Check if all indicating and recording instruments are working normally and the
Note
day when
pointers andarerecord
inspection
in thewas
not sticky. Register
carriedthe out.
range
Abnormal
of voltagevoltage
and or
current
current
variations
should beduring
notedafor
15-
BATTERIES minute
corrective
Clean
Take specific
the
period
AND panels
action.
BATTERY
gravity
at the
externally.
time
and of
cell QUARTERLY MAINTENANCE
CHARGES
the
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4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

If the battery is not in a fully charged condition, boost charges should be given as
increased to the
required and extent
trickle required.
charging rateThis should only be done by a supervisory official
excessive discharge.
after investigating the causes for
Make a general examination of battery charger. Check earth connection to the body.

PTS AND CTS

These should be maintained generally on lines similar to that of traction transformers

apply.
except In
foraddition, for PTdocheck
items, which the fuse holders on the LV side to see if they are in
not obviously
order.
AUXILIARY TRANSFORMERS

Measure insulation resistance of transformer winding and record values along with
Test a sample of oil for BDV.
temperature.
Check that the 25 kV fuse-holder drops out freely on raising the spring latch. Check
resistance of neutral
rod gap setting. conductor.
Measure earth

Annual maintenance and periodical overhaul are to be carried out, generally as

indicated for the traction transformers.
HALF YEARLY MAINTENANCE
GENERAL

SR. S.E.(PSI) should visit the grid sub-station and ascertain whether any significant
occurred
change induring the grid
the EHV past network
six months
hasor are expected shortly.

TRACTION TRANSFORMERS

1. Test oil sample from tank bottom for crackle test, acidity and BDV. If BDV is below
thedried out. value, oil should be
prescribed

Check whether the rod gap settings on bushings of transformers are in order, as per
Measure and record insulation resistance of all windings to earth and other windings
Maker's drawings.
temperature
with a 2500 Vof megger,
windingsalong
and ambient
with temperature.
Check all alarm and trip devices for proper functioning.

ISOLATORS

1. Observe for any signs of overheating and check the wipe of contact blades. Clean
andtips
blade lightly
and Vaseline the contact
fixed-contact fingersmaking surfaces.

Clean all articulated joints, sliding and bearing surfaces thoroughly.

Check all split pins, lock nuts and check nuts for proper condition.
Check for correct setting and alignment of arcing horns.
Operate the isolator slowly; check for simultaneous operation of the blades on the
tips
polesinandthe correct
fixed contact
alignmentjawsofofblade
the poles. Adjust if required to ensure that the blades
contacts
are
Checkfully
Examine when
fuses handle
home
tightness between
for all is
of signs in
of closed
the
connections, position.
overheating
remove or aging,
cobwebsspringiness
and wipeand
offcleanliness
accumulatedof dust
contact
CONTROL
GENERAL Check
with dry
Check
making
lightly locking
AND
if
Vaseline
parts.
cloth.
tapRELAY
andarrangements.
Clean
totime
ensure
up
PANELS
settings
and
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on contact.
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4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

1. Inspect the fence all-round the sub-station and bonding between metal fencing
the hinges
panels and to of all doors.
earth. Repaint
Put a drop any
of oil inof the structural parts as necessary.

Open all the trench cover and clean them completely. Clean all culverts and remove
lizards
cobwebs;or other
checkinsects gaining
possibility of entry into enclosed control equipment, and make them
Arrange for paintings of walls and metal-works as necessary.
insect-proof.
Check all explosion vent diaphragms for any damage.
Check rod gap setting.

LIGHTNING ARRESTORS

Check earthing terminals and earth strips for proper condition. Check connection to
Where
the line.lightning arrestors are provided with discharge counters, record the counter
reading.
BONDING AND EARTHING

1. Check physically the soundness of bonding and earthing connections to every

lightning
electrical arrestor etc.
equipment, and inter-panel
structural steel, connections.

Record earth resistance to body of electrical equipment as well as to all parts of the
Check
fencingifand
the structural
terminations
steelofwork.
the overhead shield wire covering the whole sub-station
properly bonded
are in good electrically
physical condition to and
the structures.
Check and record resistance of each group of earth electrodes, after disconnecting it
Improve if necessary.
from common earth system.
Check condition of connections to the buried rails.

T RACTION TRANSFORMERS

1. Send samples to approved laboratory for all tests listed at Annex.2.03B (IS 1866)
including dissolved gas analysis.
Check oil level in bushings.
Inspect bushing gaskets for leaks and tighten bolts.
Move the tap-setting switch up and down the full range a few times so that by self-
assured. Set the
wiping action tap finally
good contactatisthe correct position making sure that tap-indication
corresponds to position of main
contacts.
Paint transformer tank on such parts as required.

ISOLATORS

1. Smoothen burrs, if any on the blade tips and fixed contact fingers with fine emery
paper and smear Vaseline.
Measure clearance of blade in open position and record and adjust crank mechanism, if
Check the adjustable stop setscrews for proper condition and correct positioning.
found necessary.
If the isolator is motor-operated, measure and record insulation resistance of motor
500 V megger.
windings and contactor coils using a

BUS BARS AND CONNECTORS

Measure with a 'Ductor' or other low resistance-measuring instrument the contact

If the battery
carrying
resistancesCheck ofisand
heavy notclean
in a healthy
allcurrents. up control
connections, condition
whichswitches
are or andif there
push-button
is excessive
contacts
accumulation
for burnt of
or corroded
CONTROL
BATTERIES
sediment,
replaced
BATTERY Carry
marks;
also
with
the
ifCHARGER
AND
out
the
whole
apolish
AND
new
maintenance
contact
RELAY
battery
set.
BATTERY
the surfaces.
springs
PANELS
should
on CHARGES
has
relays
Check
be
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notes the
on as
correct
detailed
Condition springiness.
in Xmer.htm
monitoring Para 20221. 11/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

Open out the covers of the battery charger and blow out all dust. Check tightness of all
Measure and bolts,
connections, recordnuts
the and
insulation
screws.resistance of the transformer windings of the battery
charger with 500 V megger.
PTS AND CTS

Test oil samples if possible.

Check rod gap setting, if provided.
Measure insulation resistance.
Check conditions of fuses of PTs and terminal connections for CTs
SPECIAL MAINTENANCE SCHEDULES FOR MINIMUM OIL

CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND INTERRUPTORS

This schedule will apply to minimum oil circuit breakers and interruptors with the
following proviso:

32 kV CBs 6 trippings on fault

25 kV CBs 30 trippings on fault

25 kV Interrupters 250 openings on normal current for minimum oil type and 500
rated current for bulk oil type.
openings on

Open the extinction chamber, examine the contact-rod arcing-tip, upper and lower
arcing-contacts
contact fingers and or burring
fixed or pitting. Check contact springs for loss of temper, breaks
replace wherever
or other deterioration; necessary. Remove any beads of fused metal from arcing-tips and
the
clean contacts when theChange
pitted surfaces. wear reaches the limits prescribed by the manufacturer. Tighten
carrying
up all bolts parts.
andCheck
currentcontact rod for correct alignment and setting.
Test oil sample for BDV. If it falls below the prescribed value the oil should be
Clean
purified theorexplosion
replaced. chamber with dry and clean cloth. Remove the carbon deposits if
moisture
any; washfrom out all all traces
parts with of fresh oil having high di-electric strength and refill with
In addition,
good oil. the operating mechanism of circuit breakers and interruptors should be
Lubricate bearing
attended to surfaces
annually of as rollers,
under- bearings and sliding surfaces with good quality
collect
machinedust oil.and
Sincedirt,oilittends
should tobe used sparingly and any surplus should be wiped off
See
withthat all links
a clean cloth.and levers move freely. Operate the mechanism slowly by hand to see
undue
that allfriction
parts moveis noticeable.
freely andObserve no the mechanism to see that everything is in
Check
working allorder.
pins, latches, etc. for binding and misalignment. Check latch carefully to see
cause unlatching
that it is not getting from worn vibration
so as toor sticking and failure to trip.
Check that the mechanism operates with 80% of the nominal operating voltage. Check
resistance.
and record the insulation
Observe operation of trip coil during electrical tripping and the plunger for action and
plunger
freedomshould from any have sufficientThe
stickiness. travel to ensure an adequate impact that will positively
insulation
release theresistance
breaker latch.of the coil.
Check
Check if the breaker mechanism operates smoothly and freely without binding. Check
against
that the its guide.rod is not binding
contact
Wash
Measure
Check
without
auxiliary
and refill
out
opening
the
excessive
the
contacts
to
bearings,
condition
correct
length
andsurfaces
friction.
pivots,
of
level
closing
ofthe
thewith
breaker
etc.
Check
lightly
contacts
position
the
with
right
operating
with
stroke
and
carbon
of the
Vaseline
grade
refinish
andauxiliary
tetra-chloride
rods
check
of oil.
or
with
andpetroleum
and
Measure
contacts
levers
fine
adjust
iffile
they
towith
the
jelly.
ifensure
inburnt
are
duration
accordance
respect
Drain
dirty,
that
or corroded.
oil
to
they
for
and the
from
with
which
are
main
PRE-MONSOONlubricate
Examine
Manufacturer's
contacts.
Ensure
secure
gearbox
the
and motor
compare
and
that
of
Adjust
very
the
runs
move
the
good
CHECKS
accelerating
with
lightly.
spring
to
instructions.
where
freely.
contact
charge
Maker's
charging
necessary.
Smear
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notesthe
isspring
instructions.
made
spring
onmotor
and see
Condition that adjusting
monitoring Xmer.htm nuts are locked tight. 12/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

Before onset of monsoon season, it should be ensured that for every equipment no
the scheduled
scheduled inspectionwork
maintenance just preceding
is overdue.the
In monsoon, special attention should be paid
ingress
to the vulnerable points likely to permit in dielectric strength of the equipments and
of moisture resulting in reduction
rusting of parts.
OVERHAUL SCHEDULE FOR EQUIPMENT

1. Transformers. In case of an internal fault or once in 7-10 years.

2. Operating mechanism of Circuit Once in 10 years or as and when any major part like springs
Breaker and Interruptors have to be replaced or the mechanism is sluggish, and needs
shop attention and overhaul

Top

Protective Relays in TSS

I. Transformer protection :

i) Differential Relays :

Protection against internal faults with necessary restraining features to avoid frequent
current
trippingwhen
due totransformer is charged/switched
inrush of the magnetising on.

Protection against internal faults by means of single pole differential relay.

It is of high speed type and operation in less than two cyles (1/25 seconds)

It has following features.

i) Setting of relay need not be changed if transformer tap is changed.

(Transformer taps - 15% to + 10%)

iii) The relay shall not operate for maximum through fault current.

iv) Current setting of the relay should be adjustable between 20% to 80%. Current
maximum sensitivity
setting should is achieved.
be as low on possible so that

v) Adjustable bias setting should be provided. The bias at minm operating current shall
range of 30%,
be 20%, Tr. transformer and
40% to suit theother design considerations.
tapping

The relay is connected to bushing CTs. But interposing CT of suitable ratio of knee
should be provided
point voltage, with current
excitation differential
etc. relay so that the bushing CT secondary current at
full load has a value equal to relay rated
current.

Type
Back DDT
separately
be adjusted -12
up protection
onbetween
primary for
20%and
internal
and
secondary
40%
earthoffaults
side
5 Amps.in
and
is provided
areequal
connected
by
stepa of
sensitive
on5%
a separately
(The
high
relay
speed
mounted
shall
earth
be
2) T10
fault
CTs.
of
more
Type
Setting
Earth
relays.
The
CAG
than
class
40leakage
10 current
10
-14
100%
40%
They
with
ms).setting
of
operating
are
protection
of5A.
5provided
A,for
20%,
time
the
: relay
30%
not onor
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notes can40% of
Condition 5 A bias
monitoring setting.
Xmer.htm 13/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

3) Over current protection :

It is provided by means of a single pole non directional over current relays with IDMT
secondary sideboth
characteristic, also on
an primary
additional
andinstt O/current relay is provided on primary side.

On primary side, OCR is connected to a separately mounted CT. On secondary side, it

secondary
is providedterminals through leg
on the unearthed a separate
of the CT. The secondary side OCR seves as back up
protection
primary against
side OCR anywillfault.
serveThe
as back up protection to earth leakage relay and
differential relay against heavy faults.
IDMT OCR on primary and secondaryy side has current setting from 80% to 320%
and time multiplier setting from 0-3 sec.
Instt. OCR has current setting from 400% to 1600%. They are of T10 class with
the currenttime
operating setting.
not more than 10 ms at 5 times

Type CDG 26, CAG 13, CDG 16

Setting 80 - 320 % of 5 A, 400 - 1600% of 5 A

Scheme of Protection for OHE.

It has the following functions.

i) It detects all the short circuit over the zone of OHE fed by the feeder CB and opens
the CB in minimum time.
ii) It discriminates betn the maximumload circuit and short circuit current even if the
fault current is
load current specially when
sometimes the than
more faultsthe
are at a large distance from TSS. (Is it because
of impedance and phase angle setting)
iii) It detects and isolates the faults due to coupling of wrong phases from adjacent
TSSs.
iv) It achieves auto reclosing of the feeder C/B once with an adjustable time period of
0.5 Sec. to 30 Sec.
i) A `Mho' relay for an impedance of 20-25 ohms and a phase angle of 70 degree for
protection against the earth faults.
It discriminates between the phase angle of fault impedance and the working
impedance of the system.
i.e. Mho type directional distance protection relay (DPR)

Type YCG 14.

Setting : 0.33 to 12 ohm extended zone reach upto 60 ohm of 5A with MTA 75 degree.

2) Instantaneous overcurrent protection :

It provides primary protection to the OHE dening earth faults in the vicinity of FP. The
setting
current of Tr. transformer.
setting can be 200 % of current

Type - CAG - 17

Setting - 100 to 800 % of 5 A

HV
Mho
Setting
The and
differential
3) Wrong relay
0.33
LVphase
with
side
to 12
MTA
relays
circuit
ohmofand
couplingextended
breakers
70earth
degree
Relay. leakage
for
zoe
isthe
reach
nottransformer.
relays
adequate
uptoon
60primary
for
ohm
These
wrong
with and
CBs
phase
MTA
secondary
are125
coupling
alsowith
opened
sides
protection
forward
and
due to
at neutral
extended.
Type
offset
Other
also
other OCR
YCG
faults
of
protections
11%.
section
Hence
on14
inthe
thesecondary
an
or
:transformer,
additional
at FP when
sideMho
due
feed
open
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notestorelay
isthe
on withmonitoring
Condition MTA set at 125 degree is provided.
Xmer.htm 14/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

action of Buchholz relay.

The IDMT OCR on secondary side trips the respective CB on 25 KV side only.

The tripping of the CBs in effected through a high speed tripping relay ( VAJH-13)
will lock
having out reset
hand the closing of CB
contacts. from anyitmode, i.e. RC,local till the intertrip relay
On tripping,
reset manually.
(VAA-61) or lock out relay (if provided) is

Protection against internal faults by means of Buchholz Relay.

Protection against low oil level.

Protection against high oil temp.

Protection against high winding temp.

Aux. relay type VAA 33 is provided with Buchholz Relay for excessive winding and
oil temp .
Protection against high voltage surges by means of L.A.

Protection against direct lightning stroke by means of shielding wires and spikes.

Protection of adjustable arcing horns.

Loop impedance with earth return for the OHE at 70 degree phase angle -

i) Single track OHE 0.41 per Km.

ii) Double track OHE 0.24 per Km.

iii) Single track OHE with return conductor 0.70 per Km.

iv) Double track OHE with return conductor 0.43 per Km.

Specifications for protective scheme.

i) Electrical Relays for power system protection IS 3231 - 1965

. ii) Static protective relay IS 8686 - 1977

iii) Electrical indicating

instruments IS 1248 - 1968

iv) Control cable IS 694 - 1977

v) Interposing CT IS 2704(iv) 1981

All the relays are out draw out (plug in switch board) type, back connected and
proof
suitable covers.
for semi flush mounting having dust
automatically
The
the relay
terminal
relay
currenthousing
housing
coils
connections
when are
are
arethe
rated
such
such
relay
inside
that
for
that
isathe
drawn
the
continuous
thecurrent
current
relay
out.housing
terminals
The
terminals
rating
relays
of
arehave
5ofsuch
have
ACT
and
flag
that
flag
secondaries
the
type
the
type
voltage
operation
current
operation
get
of terminals
shorted of
CT secondaries
automatically
The
withstanding
voltage
indications.
relaysof withstanding
have20%
when
get
flag
ofshorted
the
type
overload
relay
20%
operation
of
isfor
drawn
overload
8 indications.
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notes hrs.
hrsout.
and
forthe
on Condition8monitoring
hrs. Xmer.htm 15/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

Top

Equipment Earthing
The metallic frame work of all outdoor equipments such as transformers, circuit
breakers,
steel interrupters
structures and
shall be isolators,toasthe
connected well as
earthing grid by means of two separate and
size as indicated
distinct below;
connections made one connection
with MS flat of shall be made with the nearest longitudinal
the nearest transverse conductor of the
conductor, while the other shall be made to grid:

S.N. Equipment System voltage and fault level conductor Ground conductor size

1 Equipments on the primary 66 kV, upto 3000 MVA

side of traction power 110 kV, upto 5000 MVA
transformer 132 kV, upto 6000 MVA 50 mm x 6 mm
220 kV, upto 10000 MVA
66 kV, above 3000 upto 6000 MVA
110 kV, above 5000 upto 10000 MVA
132 kV, above 6000 upto 12000 MVA 75 mm x 8 mm
220 kV, above 10000 upto 20000 MVA

2 Equipments on the 50 mm x 6 mm
secondary side of traction
power transformer

3 Fencing uprights steel 50 mm x 6 mm

structures

4 Doors/fencing panels 6 SWG G.I. Wire

Earthing inside control room

An earthing ring shall be provided inside the control room by means of 50 mm x 6 mm

wall on teak
MS flat whichwood
shallblocks
be runfixed
alongtothe
the wall at a height of about 300 mm from the floor
connected
level. The to the main
earthing earthing
ring shall begrid by means of two separate and distinct connections
The
madeearthing
with 50ring
mmshall alsoMS
x 6 mm be connected
flat. to an independent earth electrode by means
made with 50 mm x 6 mm MS flat.
of two separate and distinct connections The metallic framework of control and relay
battery
panels, chargers,
LT ac andremote control equipment
dc distribution boards, cabinets and such other equipments shall
means of two to
be connected separate and distinct
the earthing ring byconnections made with 8 SWG galvanized steel
the wall
wire. Theand in recess inshall
connections the floor. All along
be taken recesses shall be covered with cement plaster
between the MS
after finishing theflats shallConnections
work. be made by welding.
connection
In
each
main
lightning
provided
unnecessary
direct
addition
lightning
earthing
as possible
as
arrestors,
to
shall
close
bends.
the
grid
arrestor.
also
earth
from
asby
and
For
possible
be
means
the
electrodes
with
This
made
lightning
ground
75
earth
of
tobymm
two
themeans
provided
arrestors
terminal
electrode
lightning
separate
x 8 mm
of two
provided
for
ofshall
MSand
arrestor
the
the
separate
flat
distinct
be
lightning
main
for
connected
andthe
earthing
and
connections
thearrestor
primary
traction
distinct
connections
togrid
the
to
power
side
connections
made
ground
an
theindependent
lightning
shall
frame
with
terminal
beof
50
made
asthe
Earthing
earth
of
mm
arrestors.
short
transformers,
transformer
with
sidethexarrestors,
50electrode
and
lighting
6 mm of
straight
Thebeing
xMS lightning
there
and
6arrestor
earth
shall
mm
flat
as
protected;
with
shall
electrode
possible
be
foras
MS arrestor
provided
75
the
also
flat
well
mm
25this
for
avoiding
be
shall
as
kV
xa25
for
8toconnection
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notes side
mm
be
kV
the MS flat
on Condition as for primary
monitoring Xmer.htmside lightning arrestor. 16/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

Earth Screen

The area covered by outdoor substation equipments shall be shielded against direct
screen
strokescomprising
of lightning19/2.5
by an mm galvanized
overhead earth steel stranded wire strung across the
screen wires
pinnacles shall
of the be stung
metallic at a heightThe
structures. as indicated
earth in the approved traction substation
live conductors)
layouts (not less and
thanshall
2.5 mbeabove
solidly
theconnected to the traction substation earthing grid
xat6each
mmtermination
MS flat. by means of 50 mm

Earthing of fencing uprights and panels

Each metallic fencing upright shall be connected to the traction substation main
distinct
earthingconnections made
grid by means withseparate
of two 50 mm xand6 mm MS flat. In addition, all the metallic
uprights by means of two separate and
fencing panels shall be connected to the distinct connections made with 6 SWG G.I.
also
wire.beAll
connected to the
the metallic supporting
door uprights by means of two separate and distinct
panels shall
connections made with 6 SWG G.I. wire.
Earthing at the point of 240 V ac 50 Hz supply for oil filtration
plant.
A minimum number of three earth electrodes (excluding the one to be provided
earthing
separately - refer clause
for the 8.4)control
remote shall be provided by each switching station, and they shall
cubicle
6bemm MS flat forming
interconnected a closed
by means of 50loop
mmmainx earthing ring. This ring shall be connected
made
by two separate and distinct connections traction rail in a single-rail track circuited
with 50 mm x 6 mm MS flat, to the
impedance
section and bond
to theinneutral
a double-rail
point oftrack
the circuited section of the nearest track, so as to
the
limitvicinity of the switching
the potential station in the
gradient developing in event of fault.

System Earthing :

One designated terminal of the secondary of each potential, current and auxiliary
earthing ringshall
transformer by means of two separate
be connected and distinct connections made with 50 mm x 6
to the main
mm MS flat.
Equipment Earthing :

All masts, structures, fencing uprights, and all outdoor equipment pedestals including
connected to the earthing
auxiliary transformer tankring
shallbybemeans of two separate and distinct connections made
fencing
with 50 panels
mm x 6shall
mm beMSconnected
flat. All to the supporting uprights by means of two separate
SWG G.I. wire.
and distinct All the metallic
connections made with door
6 panels shall be connected to the supporting
distinct
uprightsconnections
by means ofmade with 6 SWG
two separate and G.I. Wire

The metal casing of potential and current transformers shall be connected to the
distinct connections
mast/structures madeof
by means with
two50separate
mm x 6andmm MS flat.

The ground terminal of lightning arrestor shall be connected directly to the earth
distinct
electrodeconnections
by means ofmade
two with 50 mm
separate andx 6 mm MS flat. The earth electrode shall be
lightning
so placed arrestor
that the may be brought
earthing to the
leads from theearth electrode by as short and straight a path
as possible.
Earthing inside remote control cubicle :

recesses
An
shall
connections
terminal
two earthing
separate
be connected
run
in
board,
the
along
ring
made
andfloor.
remote
shall
distinct
the
with
to All
the
wall
be
control
50main
recesses
connections
provided
mm
on teak
earthing
equipment
x 6shall
wood
inside
mmmadebe
MS
ring
blocks
the
cabinets
covered
flat.
with
asremote
well
fixed
The
8 SWG
with
and
as
control
metal
to
to
other
cement
the
G.I.
ancasing
independent
wall
cubicle
such
Wire.
plaster
atequipments
ofaThe
by
height
LTafter
means
ac
connections
earth
and
of
finishing
of
shall
300
dc50 be
mmwork.
electrode
distribution
connected
shall
the
each
Top xother
from
be
6 mm
taken
by
the
Connections
to
shall
board,
MS
means
the
floor
along
be
earthing
flat;
battery
level.
made
of
the
the
two
of
wall
by
earthing
by
The
earth
chargers,
separate
welding.
means
and
earthing
strips
inring
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notes and
of
onto
ring
distinct
Condition Earthing Grid
monitoring Xmer.htm 17/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

An earthing grid is formed by means of bare mild steel rod of appropriate size as
about 600inmm
indicated below
clause theburied
7.1.2 groundatlevel andof
a depth connected to earth electrodes. The
grid
connection between the earth electrode anddistinct
shall be by means of two separate and the connections made with 75 mm x 8
the
mmMS MSflat
flat.and
The theconnection
MS rod shall be made by welding, while that between the earth
between
links by bolted
electrode and the joints. The through
MS flats earth electrodes
MS shall be provided at the outer periphery of
as
thepossible the earthing
grid as shown grid conductors
in Fig.2A.1.2. As far shall not pass through the foundation block of
longitudinal
the equipments. conductors and transverse
All crossings between conductors shall be jointed by welding. The
the earthingand
transverse grid shall be suitably
longitudinal spaced
conductors ofso as to keep the step and touch potentials
of the earthing
within acceptable gridlimits;
conductors shall length
the overall not be less than the calculated length (refer
Annexure 1).
The size of the earthing grid conductor shall be decided based on the incoming system
1). The and
voltage faultfault
levellevel
considered shall take into account the anticipated increase in fault
(refer Annexure
station. The size
current during theshall be asofgiven
life span the below:

S.No. System Voltage kV Fault level MVA Diameter of the grid conductor (MS
rod) mm

1 66 Upto 4000 32
Above 4000 upto 5000 36
Above 5000 upto 6000 40

2 110 Upto 6000 32

Above 6000 upto 8000 36
Above 8000 upto 10000 40

3 132 Upto 7000 32

Above 7000 upto 10000 36

4 220 Upto 12000 32

Above 12000 upto 16000 36
Above 16000 upto 20000 40

Top

POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT OF

TRACTION SYSTEM
General:

Most ac electric machines draw from the supply apparent power in terms of kilovolt-
useful
amperepower (kVA)measured
which is in kilowatts
excess of (kW)
the required by the machine. The ratio of these
power
quantities (kW/kVA)
i.e. usefulis the power factor (Cos) of the load and is dependent upon the type
power/apparent
machinery
of
more
Whenmachine.
correspondingly
consumers
ataking
Usually
The
considerable
locomotive
current
the used
measures A
equipments
overall in
(usually
than isindustry
large
wattless
when
to
high.
power number
improve
around
like have
ofof
theoretically
working
To
current
factor
induction
overcome
0.85)
the an inherently
electric
there-by
at
power
and
required.
less
amotors,
generating
this,
impose
than
factor.
reducing
the
the
power lowthe
Insupply
stiff
Even power
addition
system
rated factor
transformers,
penalties
if
loads
authorities
system
is
there
thelow, with
especially
transmission
for
isvoltage
the
no
low
insist the
thyristor
system
such
power
drop
the
upon result
penalty,
lines, the
auxiliaries
is
installations
and
factor.
inefficient
a minimum
line
the
supply
average
Reduction authorities
transformers
and
transmission
losses
transference
Causes
are
tend likely
the
toand
reduce
cost
for
power
toincreasing
inlow
have
of
limit.
have have
equipments
power
the
electricity
factor
power
low
overall
tocosts totheir
carry
the
by
powergenerate
factor
power
can
gets
can
power
this
factors.
be
be
on
extra much
relieved
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notesfactor.
made
traction
current.
on byIn
ofsystem
Condition :
monitoring Xmer.htm 18/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

actual practice because of the terrain the average load factor of the locomotive hardly
exceeds 50%.
Methods of improving power factor:

The method employed to achieve the power factor improvement is by introduction of

opposition
reactive kVAto into
the wattless or reactive
the system in phasecurrent of the load. The apparent power (kV) in
phase component
an ac circuit can bewhich supplies
resolved the useful power (kW) and the wattless component
into in-
(kVAr) sum
phasor which
of does no useful
the two work.drawn
is the KVA The from the supply. To improve the power
approximately
factor, equipmentthedrawing
same magnitude
kVAr of as load kVAr but in phase opposition (leading) is
resultant
connectedkVA is now with
in parallel smaller
theand theThe
load. new power factor is increased. The power factor
the leading kVAr.
improvement can be varied by varying

The voltage and current relationships in ac circuits with pure capacitance and pure
inductance
curves for aascapacitor
well as the power
circuit are and energy
shown in Fig.2.6.1 (a), (b) and (c). The method of
Fig.2.6.2 (a) and
power factor (b).
improvement is shown in

(a)theDynamic
capacitor
If loadbankat themayReactive
Traction power
be ineffective
substation compensation
in fluctuates
providing considerablythrough
desired improvement thyristor
and thereinare
power
prolonged
factor.
switching:
periods
In
compensation
such cases
of lightDynamic
equipment
load, theReactive
fixed
can be
shunt
used
power
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notes onto improve
Condition the p.f.
monitoring Xmer.htm 19/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

In this scheme, required capacity of capacitor bank is divided in steps; each step is
parallel
controlledso by
thatthyristors
capacitorconnected
banks are in in anti-
circuit during both positive and negative half
acycles.
step-down
This scheme connects at LV side of (General scheme is given as Annexure-I).
transformer (25 kv/430-430v)
voltage acrosson
All switching thetakes
thyristors
place is zero,the
when to obtain almost transient free switching. As the
acapacitor,
trapped charge, the voltage
while switching offacross
is left thyristors
with will alternate between zero and twice
capacitors will start
the peak phase discharging
voltage. when the
Besides since switched off, a transient free switching will
therefore require two conditions to be met:
The thyristors must be gated at a positive or negative crest of supply voltage and,
The capacitors must be pre-charged or topped up for the loss of charge with the same
polarity.
{The pre-charged voltage = n2 vp
n2-1
where n=Ö xc/xL ,
vp =peak phase voltage
xc=capacitor reactance and
xL= Reactance of damping reactor used for
keeping di/dt with in capability of thyristor}
Appropriate circuitry to pre-charge the discharged capacitor has also to be provided to
premature
avoid largefailure of capacitors.
switching transients and

Dynamic Reactive power compensation through IGBT switching:

In this scheme, voltage source converter (VSC) based static VAR compensator
provided
comprising forofrequired capacity
switching deviceofIGBT
compensation
is (General scheme is given as
in this IGBT scheme,
Annexure-II). provides
The pulse a step-less variable
width modulation mode KVAr for maintaining p.f. close to
reactive power.
unity by generation or absorption of

In this scheme, half of the required capacity of reactive power compensation is

voltage
providedsource converter)(IGBT
by STATCON at LVbased
side of 25 kv/430v step-down transformer & rest half
capacitors at 25 kv bus. Thus the
capacity is provided by fixed shunt working range of compensation of reactive power is
power.
from zero to total required reactive

For more details RDSO Specification No. TI/SPC/PSI/DRPC/0050 and Instruction No.
TI/IN/0014 may please be refered.
Advantages of Shunt Capacitors:

1. The current on the supply side is reduced resulting in lower I2R losses and lower IR
2.
andThe
IXpower-factor
drops. on the supply side is improved and the power angle (angle
voltages)
between is decreased.
sending end and receiving end
3. The receiving end voltage as well as the line regulation is very much improved.
4. The reactive power drawn from the supplying end machines is reduced, thereby the
kVAbetween
loadingthe
of capacitors and the supply source is reduced.
all the equipment
5. Shunt capacitors offer relatively quick solutions to peak load bottlenecks thereby
reinforcement
postponing or augmentation
the necessity of of substation capacity.
6.

Difficulties in the use of Shunt Capacitors:

5. The
1.
2.
3.
4. In
Switching
Harmonics
to order
light
achieve
switchgear
residual
loadtoconditions
in
derive
at
present
voltage
and
times.
required
out
maximum
inAs
of
of
which
theshunt
shunt
the
for
system
capacitor
increases
controlling
benefit
capacitor
capacitor
findthedraws
the
power
bank
banks
capacitor
shunt
condenser
constant
loss
after
capacitors
give
and
bank
being
rise
bank
current,
kVA
must
toswitched
must
acurrent
loading
path
be
the
becapable
of
supplying
applied
transients
off
of
low
may
theimpedance
ofplant.
asbe
handling
end
in
near
the
power-
Ittomay
thenecessary
system
high
and
considerably
factor
have
light
serious.
striking
over
load
thereby
RRRVwhich
voltage
load
to
as
may
be
Voltage).
possible
(Rate
cause
conditions.
to
high
switched
become
some
discharge
of of
and,
overloading
thewhich
times
Rise
banks.
leading
off
therefore,
the
of
are
under
is Re-
difficult
same
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notesquite
under
and
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monitoring Xmer.htm 20/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

Advantages of series capacitors:

1. It can be located in general anywhere in the system and not necessarily near the
2. The voltage improvement is precise and spontaneous with widely fluctuating loads.
load.
disconnect
It is, therefore,series capacitorstounder light load conditions.
not necessary
3. The voltage improvement in case of series bank is much more as compared to the
shunt
kVArcapacitor
rating. bank for the same
4. Since the series capacitors not only reduce the power angle but also the circuit
the power
reactance, thetransference limitasiswell
system stability considerably
as increased.
5. The series capacitor banks normally remain in circuit and only under system fault
circuited.
condition theyThe
areswitchgear
required toemployed
be short for the purpose, therefore, has to close and apply
result
a shortthat the duty
across on the
the bank switchgear
with the is very much lighter compared to the duty it has
banks.
to perform in controlling the shunt

Difficulties in the use of Series Capacitors:

1. There is no reduction in the line current, power losses and reactive power loading of
improvement
generating in power
machines. Thefactor on the supply side is very small.
2. The starting current of large motors may contain substantial sub-harmonic
components
between theandseries
resonance mayand
capacitor set the
in motors. In such a case the motor accelerates from
speed
rest upcorresponding to the resonance frequency and continues to rotate at this reduced
to the sub-synchronous
large
speed.currents mayvibration
Excessive result with
andpossible damage to the machine.
3. When the magnetization characteristic of a transformer swings into regions of
considerably
saturation, whenreduced. It may
its reactance getsresonate with the reactance of the series capacitor. This
resonance”
phenomenoncan occur“Ferro-
called when a transformer is energized with no load on secondary or
substantially boosted.
when the primary voltage Under
is these conditions high voltages can occur across capacitor
to
andprevent occurrence
suitable steps mustofbesuch conditions.
taken
4. The synchronous machines operating in parallel may hunt when subjected to sudden
variations,
load variationsmore so in systems
or periodic torque with low (X/R) ratio.
5. The capacitor banks being in series are to be fully insulated from the ground. It is
theworking current
short time which
current dictates
rather than the the design of the capacitor. Further, the protective
quite elaborate and expensive
equipment required to be provided as theiscapacitor banks are not only subjected to system
fault currents but also to surges.
Choice of type and location of p.f compensation equipment:

It is seen that for traction application, where the objective is to improve the system
regulation
power factorunder
(andload
not conditions)
so much forcapacitors
voltage connected in parallel are considered more
Dynamic Reactive
suitable. Shunt poweras
capacitor compensation
well as equipment should be ideally as close to the
loadconsidered
are as possiblethey
but are
if larger
betterinstallations
located at traction substation.

In any particular location where the capacitor bank or DRPC equipment is to be

and maximum
installed, reactive power
it is necessary to knowrequirements.The size of the capacitor bank should not be more than maximum kVAr
the minimum
requirement of the load. Power factor will be leading under light load conditions,
kVAr
whichrequirement
is undesirable.of the load,
From therating of the capacitor which can be left permanently
minimum
maximum
connected can and be
minimum kVAr Ifrequirements
determined. the of the load are widely different, it may be
necessary
which willtobeinstall DRPC
switched Onequipment,
or Off depending upon the load conditions.

When
The
being
since
Where
harmonics
rated
their
taken
determining
series
voltage
performance
the
ofreactors
resultant
the should
influence
theare
voltage
increase
and
be
connected
equal
life
of to
the
may
of
be
to
presence
the
expected
in
the
bevoltage
series
adversely
highest
ofwith
on
the
atvoltage
the
the
the
affected
capacitor
capacitor
capacitor
capacitor,
Choice of rated voltage of shunt capacitor orofDRPC:
by
the
itself.
an
terminals
network
terminals
toundue
limit
Thisto
increase
is
in
the
above
which
arush
following
matter
the
in
theof
the
capacitor
considerable
stress
currents
actual
necessitate
considerations
account: in
voltage
due
the
isanto
capacitor
to
importance
equivalent
of
be
are
switching
the
connected,
to network
be
dielectric.
taken
for
increase
over
capacitors
account
will
into
voltages
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notesin on
theCondition
and
rated monitoring
voltage Xmer.htm
of the capacitor. 21/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

Capacitors cause a voltage rise at the point at which they are located. This voltage rise
harmonics
may be even that may be
greater forpresent.
any Capacitors are therefore liable to operate at a higher
connecting the capacitor.
voltage than that measured before
The voltage of the capacitor terminals may be particularly high at times of light load.
connected
As the DRPC at LV side of a isstep-down 25 kv/430v transformer, the rated voltage should
equipment
LV side due
be equal to highest voltage of
to the at the network to which it is to be connected.

Transients:

Switching in transient

At the time of energization of single bank the transient current is maximum when the
wave
switchisispassing
closed through its peak
at the instant the value.
voltageAt the time of switching in, the capacitor
with the resultoffers
momentarily a large current
very flows into the capacitor at higher frequencies. As the
low impedance
its steady gets
capacitor statecharged
value. The initial current
the current reachesflowing during switching in is called the
transient current
inrush current is more when
a transient oneThe
current. or more banks are in service and the next one is
discharge
switched in, as all the banks in service in. The transient current can also be more
into the bank being switched
fully
whendischarged.
a capacitor isHence fast re-closures
energized before it ison circuit breakers controlling capacitor
banks are not advisable.
The peak value of inrush current is given by

where is the peak value of nominal capacitor power frequency current. The frequency
of the inrush current is given by

, where f is the power frequency.

In normal cases the inrush current is around 20 times the normal full load current and
kHz. To limit of
the frequency theoscillations
inrush current during
up-to 1 parallel switching in, it is desirable to provide
a series reactor.
Switching out Transient:

Re-striking may occur at the time of switching off due to rapid rate of rise of voltage
controlling capacitor
across the contacts ofbanks. Repeated
the circuit breakerre-striking can produce dangerous over voltages
voltage
and underacross contacts
adverse may bethe
conditions, as high as 3 to 4 times the amplitude of the normal
the suitability
voltage wave. ofIt aisparticular circuittobreaker
thus important ensure for the switching duty. Semiconductor
When
devicesthey
are are
veryused
much near capacitors
prone they must be adequately protected against voltage
to damage.
type currentIttransformers
transients. is advisable for capacitor
to use bar control and protection and keep the power
unity
factor of the current transformer cables,
as possible. In the case of load as itnear
is necessary to earth the sheath at both ends.

Effect of Harmonics:

The reactance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to the frequency. Hence if the

current
applied will be greater
voltage includes than that would
harmonics the be produced by the same voltage at the
Comparatively
normal
The
In-practice
If theactual
various
capacitor
current
theharmonic
higher
small
current
taken
components
frequency
voltages
by
when
a capacitor
fed
components
across
of
from
thewhen
the
ahigher
pure
capacitor
are
harmonics
sinusoidal
harmonics
almosth3,invariably
are
h5,
supply.
can
present
h7produce
areHarmonic
the
expressed
is the
higher
current
square
currents
odd
as aroot
fundamental frequency.
components
cause
capacitor
of
current
number
supply
percentage
rms thevalue
an
sum
frequency,
components
harmonics
appreciable
current
ofof
ofcomparable
the
the
theresultant
and
squares
fundamental
such
ofincluding
increase
corresponding
the
asin
of
fundamental
voltage
3rd,
magnitude
the
in
the
5th
voltage,
various
the
wave
fundamental.
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notesand
total
increase
on to
7th
the
isthe
given
etc.in
Condition the
by kVAr
monitoring loading.
Xmer.htm 22/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

The total capacitor current is given by the expression

Where V = rms voltage

V1 = rms value of voltage at the fundamental frequency
I = the rms capacitor current due to V1
h3, h5, h7 = rms value of 3rd, 5th, 7th etc. harmonic expressed as percentage of V1.

In practice the of 3rd, 5th, 7th etc. harmonics only need be considered. Percentage
existence
increase inofreactive
harmonic voltages
output is the
due to given approximately by

The peak voltage of the wave may amount to the sum of the fundamental and all the
individual harmonic peak voltages.
The typical percentages of current harmonics present in the traction system with
under:
silicon diode rectifier locomotives are as

Feeder current

142 A 480 A

3rd harmonic 150 Hz 38.50 11.50

5th harmonic 250 Hz 14.35 5.48

7th harmonic 350 Hz 16.00 2.01

Rating of capacitors for power factor correction:

Assuming the load P (kW) has a power factor of Cos and it is desired to raise the
compensation
power factor torequired
Cos theiskVAr
(see Fig.2.6.3)

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4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

where = uncorrected angle of lag

*= corrected angle of lag

RATING OF SHUNT CAPACITOR:

Depending upon the system voltage, typical ratings may be chosen. The average
monthly consumption
power factor of from
is obtained kWh the
andratio
kWAh.of

Capacitors are normally designed to withstand 1.1 times rated voltage. For traction
should
service cater for therating
the voltage voltage
ofrise
the under light or zero load condition.
capacitor

The capacitor units are suitable for continuous operation at 1.3 times rated power
combined
frequency effect
currentoftoharmonics andthe
take care of over voltages.

With installation of shunt capacitor banks at a traction substation, under no load

increase due
conditions theto25
Ferranti
kV buseffect and may
voltages this condition may overstress the capacitor.

Systems on load or inductance in association with the p.f compensation equipment can
form circuits,
parallel which
resonance at are
somein series or frequency.
harmonic Out of the two resonant conditions, the parallel resonance is more serious.
The harmonic resonance may have the adverse effects such as excessive currents, over
and telephone
voltage torque interference
disturbances and radio

Series Reactor:

Any reactor connected in series to a capacitor will have resonance with the capacitor
reactor
bank at as well as thefrequency.
a particular capacitor bankThe should be designed to handle the system
for the
harmonics.
Forthe
To
of
resonance
avoid
thirdmaximum
ofThe
capacitor
any
harmonic current
reactor
capacitor
resonance
reactor
resonance
bankthat
should
isatbelowcould
bethat
allwith
odd
X/XC flow
rated
series
harmonics,
=of1/9 through
not
=only
lowest
reactor the
0.111(11.1%
the
odd capacitor
at rating
allharmonic
odd bank
ofharmonics
and
thepresent
for
series but alsotraction
5thpresent
reactor
in
harmonic
the infor
thethebe
should
overload
The=condition
nX
resonance
such
load.
system
15% that
reactor
XC/n conditions
IfisX/XC
the
eliminated.
X/XC
at oris
7th
series
XL/XC
for
> which
recommended.
harmonic
11.1%
=series
1/25
resonance could
Generally
=condition
=resonance
1/n2
0.04
X/XC aappear.
frequency
(4%)
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notes=for
13of
1/49
onand
to
the 0.02
for
capacitor-reactor
Condition (2%). at nth harmonic is
monitoring Xmer.htm 24/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

The series reactor must be capable of withstanding transient overvoltages or for

saturated.
voltage rise at light loads without getting

Fuse protection of shunt capacitor banks:

The weak point in condensers is its insulation or dielectric, which can fail due for
over-heatingisand
overheating over-voltage.
caused Thecurrent and is a function of time. The over-current
by excessive
harmonics,
can be causedseries resonance, and inrush current at the time of switching on and
by over-voltage,
switching off operations.
The over-voltage, apart from causing thermal failure due to over-current can also cause
the insulation
dielectric especially
failure when over-voltage
due to puncturing of is of a very peaky nature. Such over-
controlling
voltage can circuit
be duebreaker, system
to restriking faults, parallel resonance and failure of capacitors in
in the
a bank containing some unit in series.
Fuses are an essential part of high-voltage capacitor bank design to provide protection
failure. This
against the protection
effects of unitmust operate in such a way as to enable the remainder of the
dielectric
satisfactorily
capacitor bankwith the minimum
to continue disturbance to the system. The high voltage capacitor
to operate
internal or external
fusing may methods.
be achieved by either

Internal fuse operation:

The tin/copper fuse link must be capable of withstanding the transient inrush currents
in without deterioration
experienced by capacitorsandatitswitching-
must also operate positively when an element suffers
depends
dielectricupon an adequate
breakdown. Thisnumber
condition of elements being connected in parallel with the
discharge current
faulty element fromthe
so that theadditional
healthy elements ensures positive operation of the faulty
element fuse.
It is desirable that the number of elements in parallel (n) should be as large as is
practicable;
the minimumand indeedofthere
number is restriction
elements on which relates to the increase in voltage
in parallel
elements
occurringwhen
acrossone elementgroup
a parallel fuse has
of failed. The reactance of the group is increased by
current
the ratiosupply the voltage
n/n-1 and assuming across the element group rises in the same proportion,
a constant
other
thoughfactors.
in practice it is some what less due to

Advantages of Internal fusing:

1. Enables a capacitor unit to continue in service after the first dielectric breakdown.
failure canfused
In externally resultbank
in loss of complete bank
dielectric
2. With mixed dielectric (plastics/paper) HV capacitor units upto 250 kVAr (as against
100units)
kVArare made
with which
paper are more economical and internal fusing make it possible to use
dielectric
for banks.
a smaller number of larger units

Disadvantages of Internal fusing:

1. Internal fusing does not provide protection for faults between element pack and unit
case.is provided
Unless HRC in thefuse
main connection to capacitor, case rupture of the capacitor unit could
protection
2. Internally
result. fused capacitors give no indication of fuse operation. The only method of
is by individual
detecting prematurecapacitance measurement of each unit which is time-consuming
fuse operation
3. Fast transientsprogramme.
maintenance may cause high transient currents in a capacitor bank resulting in
dielectric
operation of failure occurring
fuses without anyin capacitor units. External fuses could be replaced but
With external
which
Operation
being imposed
result
of inafusing,
fuse
on
progressive
theeither
breakdown
remaining
external
breakdown
units
oforaninternal
or
element
unit
elements
final
incauses
series
dielectric
connected
–over-stressing
connected
failure
in parallel
causes
groups
of with
the
operation
ofremainder
the
capacitor
fuse
of
need replacement.
with internal fuses many or all units
Current-limiting
Detection
of
the
HRC
units,
which
the
external
fuse
results
elements of
has failure fuse
operated.
fuse
in an
inwithout
isthe operation"
HRC
increased
indicated
This
series
case fuses:
is group
due
voltage
by
rupture,
to
thethe
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on pinmonitoring
Condition indication.
Xmer.htm 25/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

increase in reactance of the group. Hence it is important to the life of the capacitor
detected as soon as
units of elements possible
that before
the fuse manyisfuses operated in a parallel group as to cause
operation
cascade breakdowns occur.
a voltage rise in the group so high that

There are two basic methods by which fuse operation and hence local voltage increase
measurement of out-of-balance
may be detected. One method iscurrent
by and the other by out-of-balance voltage
protection.
Out-of-balance current protection:

A typical diagram of connection is shown at Fig.2.6.4. For balanced conditions i.e.

between the two
with all fuses points
intact A and B.
no current willOperation
flow of a unit fuse in one or the other of the
appear
parallelbetween the two
assemblies will points
cause aAvoltage
and B andto a current will flow in the current
transformer primary.
A current-sensitive relay can be made to operate on the secondary. Because of the
current a standard
low magnitude CT out
of the would be unsuitable. The CT should meet the insulation level of
of balance
due to fuse operation
the system. Normallywill
lossnot increase
of one unit the voltage across the remaining units by more
Hence
than 10%mostof out-of-balance
nominal designcurrent
voltage.relays provide two stage operation i.e. initial alarm
in
which means that the bank can continue or second-stage trip in the event of a second
service until balance can be restored,
unit fuse operation in the same group.

Out-of-balance voltage protection:

A typical diagram of connection is shown at Fig.5. Specially designed voltage
transformers (RVT) called residual
are connected
voltageacross
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on Condition group
monitoring of capacitors.
Xmer.htm 26/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

For balanced conditions no voltage will appear across the RVT but operation of a unit
voltage
fuse willwill appear
cause across theand
an unbalance secondary
a winding of RVT. Operation of a single unit
1.1
fusetimes nominala design
will impose voltagevoltage
of less across
than the remaining parallel units and hence a
function followed by a trip operation
voltage relay will provide an initial alarm if any further fuses in the same group operate.
As with the current out-of-balance system the voltage relay should incorporate a time
the control
delay featurecircuits of the
and will capacitor circuit
be connected into breaker.
In either method of unbalance detection i.e. current or voltage it has been assumed that
will
underappear across,
balanced or current
condition flow through the protective relay. But in practice perfect
no voltage
voltage
balance and current
cannot exist.relays
Hence areboth
designed
the to take into account residual out-of-balance
detection methods may be used
condition. The capacitance unbalance for either externally-fused or internally-fused capacitor
more
units, sensitive
although detection equipment
with the latter designis required. As a compromise unbalance detection
are usually
system designed to
for externally alarm
fused for the effective loss of one capacitor unit in a group.
capacitors

Line Protection:

The line current of a capacitor bank may be increased above its nominal value by
capacitance
increases in tolerances,
line voltage,increase in fundamental frequency and the effect of harmonic
permitted
the
currents flowing in the system to which path. Because of the increase of the use of
capacitor presents a low impedance
the incidence
thyristor of harmonic
convertors currents
in the past few flowing
years in any high voltage power system is much
and thyristor
greater. locomotives
Electric aggravates
traction with rectifierthis problem further.

The margin of 1.3 times nominal line current which is the maximum permitted by IS
account particularly
and international the effect oftakes
specifications harmonic
into currents.

Overvoltage Protection:

Capacitors are designed to accept over voltages upto 1.1 times the nominal voltage.
current
subjected
High
Switching
To
over
time cater
However voltage
delays
over-voltage
overloading
for
todevices,
should
these
underover
relaysvoltages
and
may
be
which
should
caused
other
incorporated.
conditions be operate
encountered
operate
in
ofby
special
excess
fifthwithout
when
circumstances
and
harmonicThe
of when
10%
seventh
the
relay
causing
voltage
before
capacitors
should
harmonics
such
excessive
the
exceeds
beas
maximum
are
peak
sudden
which
disconnected
over
10%
voltage
loss
voltage
may
for
permissible
prolonged
of
sensitive
occur
load
by
dueswitching
atwhich
to
current
light
and
re-
load periods,
overloading
reached.
devices
striking
with
might
periods.
operate
breaker capacitors.
cause
from
which
circuit.
and
Alarm re-ignition,
of
aathe
voltage
allow
PT
the
and
capacitor
in
capacitor
trip
re-striking.
the
rise
should
features
capacitor
on
bank
has
thebe
may
been
with
system,
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notesused
circuit
onbe
suitable
Condition monitoring Xmer.htm 27/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

Capacitors, which are liable to be subjected to high over-voltages by lightning should

located as near
be protected byto capacitors
lightning as possible.
arrestors

Protective measures for capacitor banks:

The protective system comprises of the following:

1. Internal element fuses against element short circuits with or without external HRC
current
fuses. (ratedforabout
each 2.5
unit).
times the rated
2. A neutral displacement relay or a neutral current-relay in conjunction with Residual
current
voltage transformers for detection of unbalance voltage/currents.
transformers/Neutral
3. An over current relay with suitable time setting.
4. An under voltage relay for switching off the bank during failure of supply.
5. An over voltage relay with suitable time setting.
6. A time delay lock up relay to prevent immediate closing of the capacitor CB in the
minute
event of itstime gap for
tripping andcomplete
to allow discharge
5 of the units before recharge.
7. A 42 kV station class lightning arrestor located close to capacitors to protect against
8. A seriessurges.
lightning reactor of suitable rating to limit in rush currents due to switching over
9. ‘Re-strike
voltages and free’ circuit breaker.
harmonics.

Apart from the above protection, suitable device to discharge the capacitor after being
(5 minutesoffabove
switched 600
within V) shouldperiod
a specified be provided. In some cases suitable resistors are built
purpose.
inside the capacitor bank for this

Typical shunt capacitor installation at a traction substation is given Bellow.

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4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

Protective measures for DRPC equipment:

The protective system for DRPC equipment comprises of the following:

1. External HRC fuse (rated about 2.5 times of the rated current for each branch/unit).
It is 8.
3.
5.
6.
seen
2. An
A
Over42
series
suitable
that
under
kvinstation
reactor
big
voltage
currentovermarshalling
relaytemperature
class
ofrelay
suitable
lightning
foryards,
switching
rating
protection
(instantaneous arrestor
electric
to
& limit
off
to
located
IDMT) loco
the
the
protect
bank/equipment
inrush
sheds
withat the
primary
where
currents
switching
suitable of
several
25
due
timewhen
devices
kv/430v
tolocos
Supply
switching
setting. willvoltage
beover
Capacitor
idling
auxiliaries
are installed
goes
4.
transformer
voltage
7. below
over banks
(IGBT/Thyristor).
with
An
earth working,
power-on
and
fault
involtage at
aharmonics.
the
toprotection
set
protect
vicinity
the
limit.
and switching
relay
power
with
against
of
with
ofthe
factors
sheds stations:
suitable
lightning
bank/equipment.
www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notes onthe
tendimprovement
time
to
surges.
Condition besetting.
poor Xmer.htm
monitoring i.e.will
of the
be order
much
Hence
Capacitor
ofmore.
0.7.
if shunt
bankscapacitors/DRPC
installed at switching
equipment
stations
29/30
4/15/2019 Notes on PSI

with single HRC fuse protection on each string have proved to be workable
improvement in power factor.
propositions, providing It might indeed be desirable to provide only HRC fuse
much needed
switching
protection for capacitor bank at shunt
station. Provision of the capacitors at switching stations has, however, the
due to capacitors
disadvantage during periods
of additional of light load and the possibility of over voltages at
line losses
therefore,
such times.beThe
at the traction
major substation.
installation will,

Capacitor mounted on locomotives:

As the source of the poor power factor is primarily the locomotive, it is ideal if the
with
powerharmonic filters areequipment
factor correction located in together
the locomotive itself. The capacitor that can be
weight considerations of the locomotive
installed is dictated by the space and

www.cr.railnet.gov.in/department/elect/CETITHK/Notes on Condition monitoring Xmer.htm 30/30