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Beekeeping With the Asian Honey Bee ( Apis cerana javana Fabr) in the
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Beekeeping With the Asian Honey Bee (Apis cerana

javana Fabr) in the Indonesian Islands of Java, Bali,
Nusa Penida, and Sumbawa

Cooper Schouten, David Lloyd & Heather Lloyd

To cite this article: Cooper Schouten, David Lloyd & Heather Lloyd (2019): Beekeeping With the
Asian Honey Bee (Apis�cerana�javana Fabr) in the Indonesian Islands of Java, Bali, Nusa Penida,
and Sumbawa, Bee World, DOI: 10.1080/0005772X.2018.1564497

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Beekeeping With the Asian Honey
Bee (Apis cerana javana Fabr) in the
Indonesian Islands of Java, Bali,
Nusa Penida, and Sumbawa
Cooper Schouten , David Lloyd and Heather Lloyd
Introduction
Beekeeping has been practiced through-
out Indonesia for many centuries and
plays an important, though under-recog-
nized role in contributing to the liveli-
hoods and cultural heritage for many
indigenous communities (Abrol, 2013;
Bradbear, 2004, 2009; Crane, 1999;
Gratzer, Susilo, Purnomo, Fiedler, &
Brodschneider, 2019; Gupta, Reybroeck,
Van Veen, & Gupta, 2014). Beekeeping
has many other benefits in addition to
income generation from honey that are
often overlooked. Honey bees have many
attractions as demands on labor, inputs,
and time are low and beekeeping can be
scaled up while not competing with other
resource intensive farming systems
(Bradbear, 2009; Engindeniz, Ucar, &
Basaran, 2014; Gupta et al., 2014). Bee
products can be an important source of
nutrition and have medicinal applications
(Musa Özcan & Al Juhaimi, 2015) and
beekeeping can contribute significantly to
improving agricultural productivity of
crops through pollination services (Klein
et al., 2007; Kluser & Peduzzi, 2007;
Pohorecka, Bober, Skubida, Zdańska, &
Torój, 2014). Most importantly, beekeep-
ing can provide opportunities for margin-
alized groups, such as women and the
landless poor, to access alternative income
streams without exacerbating environ-
mental and land tenure issues (Bradbear,
1987; Griffiths, 2009; Gupta et al., 2014;
Koeniger, Koeniger, & Tingek, 2010;
Lloyd, Somerville, & Schouten, 2016;
Olschewski, Tscharntke, Benítez,
Schwarze, & Klein, 2006).
Beekeeping with Apis cerana
Indigenous communities in Southeast Asia
continue to practice wild harvesting of
honey bee products from the Asian honey
DOI: 10.1080/0005772X.2018.1564497
© 2019 International Bee Research Association.
bee (A. cerana) (Crane, 1999). Placing
bees in hives, however, enables bees to be
moved and kept close to households where
they can be managed. Bee hives take many
forms, from pots and simple mud-clad/
grass and bamboo hives to hollowed logs,
removable frames and top-bar hives
(Bradbear, 2009; Crane, 1999; Ruttner,
2013; Verma & Attri, 2008). Similarly,
there is much variation in productivity,
harvesting practices and managment
systems of A. cerana beekeeping through-
out the species range (Crane, 1999).
Due to high honey yields, honey hunt-
ing of the giant honey bee (Apis dorsata
binghami) has traditionally been common
throughout Indonesia (Ahmad, Joshi,
& Gurung, 2003; Oldroyd & Wongsiri,
2009). Yet, widespread deforestation has
led to a decline in available forest areas,
which has had significant consequences
for bee species and the rural communities
that utilize them (Wertz-Kanounnikoff &
Kongphan-Apirak, 2008). Crane (1999)
reports an increase of log-hive beekeeping
with A. cerana from the 1800’s, which,
then progressed in some areas with the
introduction of frame hives by European
and American missionaries in the 1900’s.
While the use of hive systems to manage
A. cerana in Indonesia has long been
promoted, it remains unclear whether the
majority of bee products from A. cerana in
Indonesia are collected using traditional
methods of wild harvesting or beekeeping.
While studies on the practices and
importance of beekeeping with A. cerana
for rural livelihoods have been conducted
throughout wide parts of Asia, recent
literature reviews of the Indonesian geno-
type A. cerana javana suggests that there
is very little known and published on this
species (Carr, 2011; Koetz, 2013).
ARTICLE
Currently, A. cerana beekeeping practices
and technologies, and the contributions of
A. cerana to honey production and live-
lihoods in Indonesia remains unknown.
There is also paucity of information
regarding postharvest handling prac-
tices and current education and exten-
sion services to A. cerana beekeepers in
Indonesia. The major contribution of this
paper is to provide contextual and empir-
ical evidence on the subject of beekeeping
with A. cerana in the case of four islands
in Indonesia, namely Java, Bali, Nusa
Penida, and Sumbawa. This study gives an
overview of beekeeping with A. cerana on
these islands and provides new insights
into understanding current practices and
challenges faced by beekeepers.
Methods
This research was undertaken on the
Indonesian islands of Java, Bali, Nusa
Penida and Sumbawa (Figure 1). Human
research ethics approval was obtained
prior to undertaking this study (ECN-15-
096). Semi-structured interviews and
focus group discussions were conducted
with beekeepers, telephone and email
consultation with key informants and field
observations of beekeeping with A. cerana
(Drever, 1995; Reason & Bradbury, 2007).
Key informant interviews are qualitative
in-depth interviews with selected people,
who are identified by their community as
having key insights into the issues (Carter &
Beaulieu, 1992). Key informant interviews
provided information from a wide range
of people who have first-hand knowledge
and insights on the nature of problems
related to beekeeping management and
practices and the community.
Thirty-seven semi structured inter-
views and 12 focus group discussions
Bee World • Page 1
research-article
ARTICLE
were undertaken in 2015, in seven
districts from Java, Bali, Nusa Penida,
and Sumbawa (Table 1; Figure 1). Key
informants of the Sumbawa District
Forestry Department and Directors of
the Indonesian National Beekeeping
Centre in Java identified the study
districts as suitable areas with A. cerana
beekeeping. Key themes for focus group
discussions and key informant interviews
focused on issues relating to the cultural
and economic importance of beekeeping
and issues relating to honey enterprises.
Guide questions were developed in
consultation with key informants and
included themes of: current management
practices, queen breeding, harvesting,
processing and storing practices, eco-
nomic structures, potential and existing
markets, productivity, training, cultural
significance, and traditional uses. Core
themes from the data are presented as
topic headings. Honey moisture con-
tent of honey was analyzed in situ using
a 
Figure 1. Study sites throughout Indonesia.
a 
Table 1. Number of semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions (FGD’s)
conducted within the 7 districts of the study.
No Islands District
1 Java Sedan
2 Padi
3 Pacitan
4 Bali Ubud
5 Nusa Penida Ped
6 Sumbawa Sumbawa Besar
7 Desa Batudulung
Total
Page 2 • Bee World
a calibrated portable AHT RHB-90
refractometer.
Results
Beekeeping in Indonesia
Key informants of the Indonesian National
Beekeeping Centre reported that beekeep-
ing was a national priority (Kuntadi pers
com., 2015; Widjaja, pers com., 2015). The
principal center for commercially man-
aged European honey bee (A. mellifera)
honey production came from Eastern Java.
The Sumbawa District was noted for its
significant contribution of “madu hutan”
(forest honey), derived from A. dorsata.
Key informants in Java reported that,
while some attempts have been made to
establish A. mellifera beekeeping enter-
prises in Sumatra and Kalimantan, these
have “repeatedly failed”’ and as a result, A.
cerana remains the main species used for
beekeeping in these areas. The specific
reasons for this failure remain unclear,
No. of participants
Interviews FGD’s
3 2
5 1
6 2
3 1
12 2 frames in A. cerana hives, measuring
5 2
3 2
37 12
however limited technical beekeeping
skills and extension was identified by key
informants as a contributing factor. Key
informants confirmed that A. cerana is
used for honey production in all major
islands of Indonesia. The following areas
were identified as having notable commer-
cial honey production from A. cerana:
North Sumatra, Riau, Lampung, Banten,
West Java, Central Java, Yogyakarta
Region, East Java, Bali, Nusa Penida, and
Lombok. A. cerana beekeepers in
Indonesia were reported to be exclusively
stationary and do not migrate their hives
to flowering events to maximize honey
production. No evidence of supplemen-
tary feeding for A. cerana was observed.
Log Hive Beekeeping
Beekeepers in this study were observed
and reported to be using a variety of
practices and equipment in their opera-
tions. Hives were observed suspended in
trees, around household eves, and on
timber stands. Beekeepers in both Nusa
Penida and Java reported that hives were
kept high in trees (~10 m) to reduce the
incidence of theft and because “the bees
prefer this situation.” These hives were
brought down for inspection using a
bamboo pole with a hook. All beekeepers
reported stocking their hives with feral
colonies with wild nests or alternatively
hanging empty boxes or log hives in trees
to attract swarms. Once feral colonies are
found, the combs from the colony are “cut
out and transferred to a hive box and then
transported to an apiary” (Kuntardi pers
com, 2015). Beekeepers were not observed
splitting their colonies to increase colony
numbers. Focus group discussions
revealed that empty hives were suspended
in trees year-round to catch swarms, and
during ‘good seasons’ increases in hive
numbers could be achieved. The most
common hive type was the log hive, often
constructed of hollowed coconut (Cocos
nucifera) trunks (~1 m long). These hives
had openings on either end that were
sealed using freely available materials,
such as timber or plastic (Figure 2). Other
hive designs observed included rectangu-
lar timber boxes (~30 × 20 × 20 cm), where
bees attached their combs to the roof.
Beekeeping with Movable Frames
In Southwest Java and western Bali,
transition to beekeeping with frame hives
was observed. Only one beekeeper in each
location was observed trialing the use of
40 × 30 × 20 cm. There was little evidence
to suggest sound understanding of the
importance of bee space, which is the
required uniform distance made by bees

a  Figure 2. Apis cerana colony in coconut
log hive on the Indonesian island of Nusa
Penida.
between parallel combs (Phiancharoen,
Duangphakdee, & Hepburn, 2011). This
was evident with top bars being oversized,
irregular and often placed evenly distrib-
uted within the hive, rather than placed
together to create appropriate bee space
between frames.
Harvesting Practices
Focus group discussions and observations
of harvesting techniques revealed beekeep-
ers open log hives by cutting through the
first three combs and then collect the top
portion of the comb, where the honey is
stored. In Nusa Penida, the remaining
brood comb was frequently placed back into
the hive. This was thought to discourage the
bees from absconding. Beekeepers indicated
that “if we leave the brood in the nest, the
colony will hopefully not leave.” Beekeepers
in this study reported that when an entire
colony is harvested for its honey or when
the bees abscond, the hive is then cleaned of
old combs and hung back in trees to attract
a new swarm. Very few beekeepers during
this study owned beekeeping equipment,
such as veils, smokers, or hive tools.
No distinct honey harvesting periods were
reported during focus group discussions
with beekeepers, with the exception of
January to March in Nusa Penida. Key
informants from Java and Sumbawa
indicated a dearth period from November
till April (Julmansayah, pers com., 2015),
which coincides with the rainy season.
Beekeepers revealed a range of reasons
dictating the timing of their harvests,
including, harvesting monthly, harvest-
ing by night, to reduce the occurrence of
being stung, and harvesting during a full
moon. Harvesting was also reportedly
conducted when there was little income
in the household. Beekeepers in Nusa
Penida, Bali, and Java reported harvesting
on average eight times per year.
Postharvesting Practices
The main honey harvesting method
observed during this study was
hand-straining of combs into buckets. No
evidence of centrifugal honey extracting of
A. cerana combs or frames was observed
during this study. Beekeepers stored their
honey in freely available bottles and
containers. In Nusa Penida, beekeepers
hand strain their honey into cleaned 750 ml
glass beer bottles. Moisture content of
honey and issues relating to fermentation
were found to be main concerns among
key informants. Honey moisture content
during this study ranged from 21 to 28%
with a mean of 24% (80.5% Brix, Be 42.5)
(n = 45), while the current Indonesian
standard is 22% (Indonesian National
Standard, 2018). Honey from Nusa Penida
was found to have consistently low
moisture content, at a mean of 21%.
Production and Genetics
While honey yields were investigated,
data should be interpreted with caution
as beekeepers interviewed rarely kept
records of production or sales, making
honey yields difficult to estimate. Annual
variation in honey production from A.
cerana hives was found to range from 0.5
to 5 kg per hive. Beekeepers in Nusa
Penida reported that honey production
during the wet season was on average
three times higher than production
during the dry season. For example, one
beekeeper reported that from 12 colo-
nies, in a dry season, he harvests one to
two 750 ml bottles and approximately
four to five bottles during the rainy
season.
Honey yields from A. cerana were found
to be generally low (<5 kg) and abscond-
ing was reported by beekeepers and
key informants as a major problem in
trying to keep and maintain A. cerana
colonies. On average, observed colonies
constructed 10 combs, with a maximum
of 12 combs recorded. Basic grafting of
A. cerana using A. mellifera queen cups
and a feather was observed at the village
level in Java. These beekeepers indicated
that success rates were low and that
they desired more training, educational
materials, and support for developing
successful queen multiplication and
breeding programs.
Beekeepers reported they did not store
or render beeswax produced from their
operations. Key informants suggested
that knowledge regarding the value of
beeswax and how to process it is limited
among most A. cerana beekeepers in
Indonesia. Where hand straining of hon-
eycombs is occurring, wax was reportedly
discarded.
research-article
ARTICLE
Marketing Economics and Constraints
In Nusa Penida, Bali and urban areas of
Java, beekeepers reported not having to
travel to sell their honey, nor did they
experience difficulty in finding buyers. In
Nusa Penida, 750 ml bottles were sold for
IDR 500,000 on average (US$35) with a
range of IDR 400,000 to 1.2 million.
Beekeepers in this region reported IDR
100,000 price fluctuations resulting from
availability. Beekeepers in remote areas
throughout Java and Sumbawa however,
reported greater difficulty in selling their
honey and commanding prices above IDR
70,000/kg. Income from beekeeping was
reported to be a supplementary, but
important income stream that could be
drawn upon in times of financial hardship.
In Nusa Penida, focus group discussions
with 12 beekeepers indicated that while
income generation from beekeeping was
important to supporting their livelihoods, it
was considered a “risky and often unreliable
source of income.” Average income from the
sales of honey in this region was IDR 4
million annually and 60% of beekeepers
reported that income from honey was either
essential, or very important. For 30% of
these beekeepers, this income represented
~50% of their total annual cash income.
Education, Training, and Extension
Key informants in all regions reported
limited funding and infrastructure as
major constraints to conducting extension
(Julmansayah, pers com., 2015; Kuntadi
pers com., 2015; Widjaja, pers com., 2015).
Limited dissemination of new information
regarding A. cerana beekeeping practices
and limited research capacity to manage
honey bee pathogens were also major
constraints identified. Desktop studies
revealed that twelve universities in
Indonesia had previously conducted active
beekeeping programs, however it was
noted that these programs were no longer
active. Discontinuation of beekeeping
programs was attributed to a wide variety
of reasons, including, limited access to
quality breeding stock, increased pest and
disease pressures and limited governmen-
tal funding and support (Julmansayah,
pers com., 2015; Kuntadi pers com., 2015;
Widjaja, pers com., 2015). Very few
educational or extension materials were
observed during this study and no
beekeeper indicated they had access to
beekeeping educational materials.
Discussion
Hive Design
A. cerana beekeepers in the four study
areas utilized local materials, local bees,
and local knowledge. Bradbear (2009)
Bee World • Page 3
research-article
ARTICLE
highlights that these are essential compo-
nents of successful beekeeping and the
introduction of improved “modern”
beekeeping technology can increase
financial risks for rural beekeepers.
Further, studies by Lowore and Bradbear
(2013) indicate that in Uganda, local
fixed-comb hives provide higher returns
on investment in comparison to top-bar
and modern frame hives. No standardiza-
tion in hive designs for beekeeping with A.
cerana javana was observed during this
study. In temperate areas, bee population
sizes are often larger than in the tropics
due to a need for greater food storage to
survive longer dearth periods over winter
(Akratanakul, 1990). It therefore has been,
and continues to be, difficult to design a
single colony-management scheme
suitable for all A. cerana races. This
suggests that specific management
practices are needed for each area in
regard to localized pest and disease
pressures, floristics, and genotype of A.
cerana. Akratanakul (1990) suggests that
the interior volume of A. cerana hives
should be from 20 to 25 liters.
Comparatively, dimensions of hives used
for temperate A. mellifera are around
35–45 liters. Hisashi (2010) suggests that
A. cerana beekeepers of Nagasaki in Japan
report successful management reduced
absconding behavior and increased honey
yields by using “box pile hives” or “multi-
story hives” similar to “Warrè” style hives.
Management, Harvesting, and Posthar-
vesting Practices
Beekeepers found to be keeping their bees
high in trees have numerous benefits in
addition to avoiding stolen hives in that
the returning foraging bees remain in the
tree while hives are inspected on the
ground. There is also less temperature
variation than nearer the ground, which
may explain reasons for bees reportedly
preferring higher positioning. Beekeepers
using log hives cannot readily inspect
honey stores and are unable to select
combs of ripe surplus honey. Where honey
is not yet ripe and capped, the moisture
content will exceed 17%, which is likely to
exacerbate reported issues of fermentation.
The most common form of extraction
found in this study was hand straining,
which can further promote fermentation
through the introduction of contaminants.
Low moisture content found in Nusa
Penida may reflect the predominant flora
and dryer climate of the island, which is in
a rain shadow of the nearby island of Bali.
If colonies do not have enough stored
honey and the surrounding flora is not
yielding nectar and pollen, opportunistic
Page 4 • Bee World
harvesting may be leading to the demise
of managed colonies in making them
more likely to abscond, susceptible to
pests and disease, robbing, and starving
(Akratanakul, 1990). Harvesting during
times of little income in the household
suggests that, while optimal honey
harvesting times likely exist, periods of
low income may encourage beekeepers
to harvest under less favorable condi-
tions. Such issues are likely to be limiting
Indonesian beekeepers from realizing the
potential productivity and profitability of
their enterprises (Bradbear, 2009).
In order to make informed management
decisions to optimize production, it is
vital to understand the phenology within
the operational range of a beekeeper. Yet,
even on a local scale, this information is
rarely homogeneous (Somerville & Nicol,
2006). The development of floral calen-
dars that indicate the timing of flowering
events and the quality and quantity of pol-
len and nectar would be useful informa-
tion to Indonesian beekeepers. This would
allow beekeepers to identify optimal
harvesting periods, ensure their bees have
adequate food resources to survive deaths
and maximize yields during nectar flows.
While no supplementary feeding was
observed during this study, such practices
may be beneficial during dearth periods.
While supplementary sugar feeding is a
common modern beekeeping method and
has been used successfully by beekeepers
in other parts of Asia, currently, many
Indonesian A. cerana beekeepers are
potentially unaware of the benefits such
programs offer. Inappropriate sugar feed-
ing regimes may also have major quality
assurance issues, and this should not be
overlooked (Somerville, 2005).
Absconding was a common problem
reported by beekeepers, which is the
colony’s natural response to unfavorable
environments, for example, limited food
or pest and disease pressures. Absconding
behavior is also exacerbated by unfa-
vorable hive design, poor management
techniques, and a poor understanding of
honey bee nutrition (Somerville, 2005).
Correcting these situations can, to some
extent, deter the colony from absconding.
These issues could be improved by pro-
viding appropriate training, educational
materials, and extension services for
improving basic bee husbandry, supple-
mentary feeding during dearth periods,
and management of pests and disease.
Productivity and Genetics
While honey production was found to be
low, studies suggest that honey production
of A. cerana can be increased through
improved management and harvesting
methods and selective breeding programs
(Hisashi, 2010; Joshi, Ahmad, & Gurung,
2001; Ken, Danyin, & Shaoyu, 2003;
Saville & Acharya, 2001). Wongsiri (1992)
reports that improved management
methods and selective breeding programs
in Guandong China, resulted in colony
numbers increasing from 2,000 to 6,000
and honey yield increases of 5–50 kg/year.
Productivity from A. cerana hives during
this study was found to be similar to
initial production figures prior to
improvement programs. Before selective
breeding, A. mellifera produced similar
quantities of honey (2–5 kg/year) to
tropical strains of A. cerana today (Crane,
Walker, & Day, 1984; Pechhacker, Joshi,
Chatt & Horn, 2001).
While basic grafting was observed at
the village level, training and extension
is required to improve queen breeding
success rates and improve the quality of
current stock. Improved grafting meth-
ods for A. cerana and rearing of queens
from more productive colonies may lead
to improved honey yields and reduced
absconding behavior.
Conclusion
This study highlights that A. cerana
beekeeping in Indonesia is an important
income generating activity for small-
holder beekeepers and has potential for
improvement. Major limitations to A.
cerana beekeeping in Indonesia included,
minimal rearing of queen bees and
understanding of bee space, frequent
absconding, non-standardized hive
design and issues of high moisture
content of honeys, and fermentation.
Further research to compare financial
and labor returns to investment of
different beekeeping systems would be a
valuable undertaking for future beekeep-
ing research in Indonesia. While produc-
tion is currently low, prices for honey in
some areas, such as Nusa Penida, are
providing significant contributions to
household incomes. The development of
translated educational materials, training,
workshops, and increased extension
services would help to improve the
productivity and profitability of small-
holder beekeeping enterprises in
Indonesia.
Acknowledgements
The authors appreciate the financial
support for this study provided by the
Australian Centre for International

Agricultural Research (ACIAR) (Project
number AH/2015/002) and the New
Colombo Plan initiative of the
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.
This research would not have been
possible without the cooperation and full
support of the beekeepers from each
district, whose knowledge, insights and
enthusiasm were invaluable to this
research.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflicts of interest are
reported by the authors.
ORCID
Cooper Schouten http://orcid.
org/0000-0003-4398-9499
David Lloyd http://orcid.
org/0000-0003-2356-6608
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Cooper Schouten, David Lloyd and
Heather Lloyd
School of Environment, Science and
Engineering, Southern Cross University,
Post Box 157, Military Road, East
Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia
E-mail: cooper.schouten@scu.edu.au
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