DESIGN FABRICATION OF COCONUT TREE

CLIMBING ROBOT
PROJECT REPORT 2019-2020

Submitted by
(Team name)

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Guided by:

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

Award of Diploma in ----------------------------------------- By
the State Board of Technical Education Government of
Tamilnadu, Chennai.
DEPARTMENT:
COLLEGE NAME:
PLACE:
 COLLEGE NAME
PLACE
DEPARTMENT

PROJECT REPORT-2012-2013

This Report is certified to be the Bonafide work done by

Selvan/Selvi ---------------- Reg.No. ------------ Of VI
Semester class of this college.

Guide Head of the Department

Submitted for the Practical Examinations of the board of

Examinations,State Board of Technical Education,Chennai,
TamilNadu.On -------------- (date) held at the ------------
(college name),Coimbatore

Internal Examiner External Examiner

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At this pleasing movement of having successfully completed our

project, we wish to convey our sincere thanks and gratitude to the

management of our college and our beloved

chairman------------------------.who provided all the facilities to us.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to our principal

------------------for forwarding us to do our project and offering adequate

duration in completing our project.

We are also grateful to the Head of Department prof…………., for

her/him constructive suggestions &encouragement during our project.

With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our earnest &sincere thanks

to our guide --------------------, Department of Mechanical for her/him kind

guidance and encouragement during this project we also express our indebt

thanks to our TEACHING staff of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT, ---------- (college Name).

DESIGN FABRICATION OF COCONUT

TREE CLIMBING ROBOT

CONTENTS
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE

LIST OF FIGURES
SYNOPSIS
1 Introduction
2 Literature review
3 Description of equipment
3.1 DC MOTOR
3.2 BEARING
3.3 BATTERY
3.4 UNIVERSEL JOIND
4 Drawing
4.1 Machine components
4.2 Overall diagram
5 Working principle
6 Merits & demerits
7 Applications
8 List of materials
9 Cost Estimation
10 Conclusion
Bibliography
Photography
LIST OF FIGURES
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure
Number Title

1 OVERALL DIAGRAM
SYNOPSIS
 SYNOPSIS

From centuries humans have been climbing trees and poles for various

jobs. This thing we have inherited from our ancestors. Evidently, this skill

has evolved from the need of protection from animals or collecting food

from trees. In the present world climbing poles is used in other fields of

technology as well. With time the needs have increased. The requirement to

carry load on and off the trees and poles has shifted man’s focus on building

machines to do the job. This “Tree Climber” is built to solve the problems

man faced with climbing. The robot works on two sub-mechanisms:

A. Gripping

B. Climbing

The machine could take load on and off the tree and pole whenever

required. The robot is autonomous. The speed of climbing depends on the

pitches of the ball screws placed for movements of arms and the top and

bottom gripper assembly. The movement of the machine is like an ape

climbing the tree. First, the upper pair of arms grip the tree then the body

moves up then the lower pair of arms grip the tree then the upper pair leaves

the contact and the body moves up.

 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Coconut tree is one of the most useful plants in the world. It is grown
in more than100 countries of the world. Indonesia stands first; Philippines
stand second largest coconut producing country in the world and India is the
third largest coconut producing country having an area of about 1.78 million
hectares. Annual production is about7562 million coconuts with an average
of 5295 nuts per hectare. South East Asia is regarded as the origin of the
coconut. It is mainly cultivated in Philippines, Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Malaysia, Samoa, Solomon Islands and many more. The major
coconut growing states in India are Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Orissa, Assam, Goa, Diu and Daman,
Lakshadweep and Gujarat. Kerala tops in production accounting 39 percent
of total production in the country. Although we continue to adapt different
agricultural practices, climbing coconut trees is still manual. But, many
difficulties exist because of physical structure of coconut trees.
A professional climber with proper training could face these
difficulties, as coconut trees do not have branches to hold while climbing.
With increasing awareness in education among Indian youths, only few
come forward for this profession. Hence, a coconut tree climbing system is
required to substitute this manual climbing for farmers who carry out
coconut plantation in large level. Our project aims to design and develop a
machine to climb coconut trees accounting many factors such as stability,
safety of the worker, safety of the tree and to many more. Moreover, our
system is easy to transport between farms and also suitable for different tree
surfaces without losing control. The different phases of our project include
finding the need for design, conducting a survey, constructing need metric
matrix, concept generation, concept screening and scoring. Finally a
prototype is developed
1.1 AIM To design a coconut tree climbing machine that suits Indian
coconut trees.
1.2 OBJECTIVE A tree climbing machine is a potential solution to the
existing problem of man power shortage. It is necessary to develop a vertical
traction model which will not damage the tree and has suitable performance
both mechanically and economically. The detailed objectives are To identify
and compare the different harvesting and climbing methods and select the
most appropriate system. 
To develop the concept of a tree climbing machine.  To determine
the feasibility of the tree climbing system considering the interaction
between the machine and the tree.  To assess the economic feasibility of
the design under Indian condition
This is a self – assessment test on the part of the students to assess his
competency in creativity. During the course of study, the student is put on a
sound theoretical foundation of various mechanical engineering subjects and
of course, to a satisfactory extent. Opportunities are made available to him to
work on different kinds of machines, so that he is exposed to various kinds
of manufacturing process. As a students learn more and more his hold on
production technology becomes stronger. He attains a stage of perfection,
when he himself is able to design and fabricate a device.
This is the project work. That is the testimony for the strenuous
training, which the student had in the institute. This assures that he is no
more a student, he is an engineer. This report discuses the necessity of the
project and various aspects of planning , design, selection of materials,
fabrication, erection, estimation and testing
 CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
 CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 MORPHOLOGY OF COCONUT TREE
The coconut belongs to the family of palms, Palm included under the
lower group of flowering plants known as the monocotyledons.
2.2 MANUAL METHODS
It’s very hard to learn the necessary skills to climb coconut trees. The
few first times, peoples barely managed to get a few feet off the ground. In
addition to fear, the soft skin on the palms of hands and soles of feet made
climbing difficult. During the initial climbing the skin of palm, chest and
foot skin may be disturbed. This is what happens when people slide down
hugging a coconut tree as hard as they can. There are two basic techniques
and they are easy to learn. After that the user just need to practice and to
forget about soft skin. It will probably get cut a bit the first time on the tree,
but after continuous practice it will be fine.
All techniques should be done barefoot and barehanded. A long sleeve
T-shirt might save the user’s skin from abrasion against the tree especially
when the people are learning. Front foot technique is shown below. The first
method is the front-foot technique.
It is similar to rock climbing. The rock climber stuff their hands
inside cracks, pull on them and push on the legs in opposition and walk up
the rock. This front foot technique to climb coconut tree is very similar. The
climbing person has to put his hands close to each other on the back of the
trunk, and pull one foot in front of the other one in front of the climbing
person on the tree. By keeping pressure on the trunk with the balls of the
climbing person’s feet and toes, walk up alternating moving feet and hands.
Technically it seems to be the easiest to learn but requires good balance and
arm strength. Fig 2.3 shows the ill effect of front foot technique.
A - Feet of a coconut tree climber (> 20 years of experience), showing
callosities (arrows) in the ankle region.
B - Right foot of a coconut tree climber with amputated medial toes
(arrow)
C - Occupational mark (arrows) in palmar aspect of hands in a
coconut tree climber.
D - Occupational mark (arrows) the forearm skin in a coconut tree
climber.

2.3 CRITICAL DISCUSSION ON HARVESTING METHODS

There are many difficulties with the harvesting methods. They are 
It is a dangerous job: Climbing a height of 24 meters and working at this
height is very difficult and while certain workers can do it, they would rather
do safer and easier jobs.  It is a slow operation: using coconut tree climber
operator can work faster and reduce harvesting times and other methods
mentioned in section 2.2.  It is an expensive operation: Using coconut tree
climber can decrease harvesting costs.  There is the shortage of workers to
do the cultural operations.  Most of the workers do not like climbing tall
trees because it is dangerous and so coconut are not harvested from these
trees.  The tree trunk is rough and the leaves have very sharp spines which
can injure the worker.  Snakes go into the tree crown to eat bird's eggs and
chicks. They can bite the workers climbing the tree. Workers have fallen
from trees as a result.However machines which have been designed so far
are not suitable for the coconut groves in India and many other countries for
the following reasons:  Operator safety is not resolved because they must
still work at a considerable height.  Tree spacing is not standardized, so the
machine may not achieve the required turning circle.  In many places the
spacing between trees is used to cultivate other crops, so themachine cannot
move and work.  There are many irrigation channels and borders which
machines cannot pass over easily.  Mechanized harvesters are expensive.

CHAPTER III
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENTS
 CHAPTER III
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENTS

3.1 DC MOTOR

A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that

converts direct current electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most
common types rely on the forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all
types of DC motors have some internal mechanism, either electromechanical
or electronic, to periodically change the direction of current in part of the
motor.

DC motors were the first form of motor widely used, as they could be
powered from existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A
DC motor's speed can be controlled over a wide range, using either a
variable supply voltage or by changing the strength of current in its field
windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances.
The universal motor can operate on direct current but is a
lightweight brushed motor used for portable power tools and appliances.
Larger DC motors are currently used in propulsion of electric vehicles,
elevator and hoists, and in drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of power
electronics has made replacement of DC motors with AC motors possible in
many applications.

Electromagnetic motors[edit]

A coil of wire with a current running through it generates

an electromagnetic field aligned with the center of the coil. The direction
and magnitude of the magnetic field produced by the coil can be changed
with the direction and magnitude of the current flowing through it.
A simple DC motor has a stationary set of magnets in the stator and
an armature with one or more windings of insulated wire wrapped around a
soft iron core that concentrates the magnetic field. The windings usually
have multiple turns around the core, and in large motors there can be several
parallel current paths. The ends of the wire winding are connected to
a commutator. The commutator allows each armature coil to be energized in
turn and connects the rotating coils with the external power supply through
brushes. (Brushless DC motors have electronics that switch the DC current
to each coil on and off and have no brushes.)

The total amount of current sent to the coil, the coil's size and what it's
wrapped around dictate the strength of the electromagnetic field created.

The sequence of turning a particular coil on or off dictates what direction the
effective electromagnetic fields are pointed. By turning on and off coils in
sequence a rotating magnetic field can be created. These rotating magnetic
fields interact with the magnetic fields of the magnets (permanent
or electromagnets) in the stationary part of the motor (stator) to create a
torque on the armature which causes it to rotate. In some DC motor designs
the stator fields use electromagnets to create their magnetic fields which
allow greater control over the motor.

At high power levels, DC motors are almost always cooled using forced air.

Different number of stator and armature fields as well as how they are
connected provide different inherent speed/torque regulation characteristics.
The speed of a DC motor can be controlled by changing the voltage applied
to the armature. The introduction of variable resistance in the armature
circuit or field circuit allowed speed control. Modern DC motors are often
controlled by power electronics systems which adjust the voltage by
"chopping" the DC current into on and off cycles which have an effective
lower voltage.

Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it
is often used in traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams.
The DC motor was the mainstay of electric traction drives on both electric
and diesel-electric locomotives, street-cars/trams and diesel electric drilling
rigs for many years. The introduction of DC motors and an electrical
grid system to run machinery starting in the 1870s started a new second
Industrial Revolution. DC motors can operate directly from rechargeable
batteries, providing the motive power for the first electric vehicles and
today's hybrid cars and electric cars as well as driving a host
of cordless tools. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as
toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper
machines. Large DC motors with separately excited fields were generally
used with winder drives for mine hoists, for high torque as well as smooth
speed control using thyristor drives. These are now replaced with large AC
motors with variable frequency drives.

If external mechanical power is applied to a DC motor it acts as a DC

generator, a dynamo. This feature is used to slow down and recharge
batteries on hybrid and electric cars or to return electricity back to the
electric grid used on a street car or electric powered train line when they
slow down. This process is called regenerative braking on hybrid and
electric cars. In diesel electric locomotives they also use their DC motors as
generators to slow down but dissipate the energy in resistor stacks. Newer
designs are adding large battery packs to recapture some of this energy.

Brushed[edit]
Main article: Brushed DC electric motor

A brushed DC electric motor generating torque from DC power supply by

using an internal mechanical commutation. Stationary permanent magnets
form the stator field. Torque is produced by the principle that any current-
carrying conductor placed within an external magnetic field experiences a
force, known as Lorentz force. In a motor, the magnitude of this Lorentz
force (a vector represented by the green arrow), and thus the output
torque,is a function for rotor angle, leading to a phenomenon known
as torque ripple) Since this is a two-pole motor, the commutator consists
of a split ring, so that the current reverses each half turn ( 180 degrees).

The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power

supplied to the motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets
(permanent or electromagnets), and rotating electromagnets.
Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability,
and simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and
low life-span for high intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly
replacing the carbon brushes and springs which carry the electric current, as
well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These components are
necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the
spinning wire windings of the rotor inside the motor.

Brushes are usually made of graphite or carbon, sometimes with added

dispersed copper to improve conductivity. In use, the soft brush material
wears to fit the diameter of the commutator, and continues to wear. A brush
holder has a spring to maintain pressure on the brush as it shortens. For
brushes intended to carry more than an ampere or two, a flying lead will be
molded into the brush and connected to the motor terminals. Very small
brushes may rely on sliding contact with a metal brush holder to carry
current into the brush, or may rely on a contact spring pressing on the end of
the brush. The brushes in very small, short-lived motors, such as are used in
toys, may be made of a folded strip of metal that contacts the commutator.

Brushless[edit]
Main articles: Brushless DC electric motor and Switched reluctance motor

Typical brushless DC motors use one or more permanent magnets in the

rotor and electromagnets on the motor housing for the stator. A motor
controller converts DC to AC. This design is mechanically simpler than that
of brushed motors because it eliminates the complication of transferring
power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor. The motor controller can
sense the rotor's position via Hall effect sensors or similar devices and can
precisely control the timing, phase, etc., of the current in the rotor coils to
optimize torque, conserve power, regulate speed, and even apply some
braking. Advantages of brushless motors include long life span, little or no
maintenance, and high efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost,
and more complicated motor speed controllers. Some such brushless motors
are sometimes referred to as "synchronous motors" although they have no
external power supply to be synchronized with, as would be the case with
normal AC synchronous motors.

Uncommutated[edit]

Other types of DC motors require no commutation.

 Homopolar motor – A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the

axis of rotation and an electric current that at some point is not parallel to
the magnetic field. The name homopolar refers to the absence of polarity
change. Homopolar motors necessarily have a single-turn coil, which
limits them to very low voltages. This has restricted the practical
application of this type of motor.
 Ball bearing motor – A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor
that consists of two ball bearing-type bearings, with the inner races
mounted on a common conductive shaft, and the outer races connected to
a high current, low voltage power supply. An alternative construction fits
the outer races inside a metal tube, while the inner races are mounted on a
shaft with a non-conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on an insulating
rod). This method has the advantage that the tube will act as a flywheel.
The direction of rotation is determined by the initial spin which is usually
required to get it going.

Permanent magnet stators[edit]

Main article: Permanent-magnet electric motor

A PM motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead
relying on PMs to provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field
interacts to produce torque. Compensating windings in series with the
armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under load.
Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM fields
(stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power
consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the
"dynamo" type, which have stator windings. Historically, PMs could not be
made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were
more practical to obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large PMs are
costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound
fields for large machines.

To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high
energy magnets made with neodymium or other strategic elements; most
such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With their higher flux density, electric
machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with all optimally
designed singly fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature
motors resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at
least three rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and
their outer housing is a steel tube that magnetically links the exteriors of the
curved field magnets.

Wound stators[edit]
 A field coil may be connected in shunt, in series, or in compound with the
armature of a DC machine (motor or generator)

Main article: universal motor

See also: Excitation (magnetic)

There are three types of electrical connections between the stator and rotor
possible for DC electric motors: series, shunt/parallel and compound
(various blends of series and shunt/parallel) and each has unique
speed/torque characteristics appropriate for different loading torque
profiles/signatures.[1]

Series connection[edit]

A series DC motor connects the armature and field windings in series with
a common D.C. power source. The motor speed varies as a non-linear
function of load torque and armature current; current is common to both the
stator and rotor yielding current squared (I^2) behavior[citation needed]. A
series motor has very high starting torque and is commonly used for starting
high inertia loads, such as trains, elevators or hoists.[2] This speed/torque
characteristic is useful in applications such as dragline excavators, where the
digging tool moves rapidly when unloaded but slowly when carrying a
heavy load.

A series motor should never be started at no load. With no mechanical load

on the series motor, the current is low, the counter-Electro motive force
produced by the field winding is weak, and so the armature must turn faster
to produce sufficient counter-EMF to balance the supply voltage. The motor
can be damaged by overspeed. This is called a runaway condition.

Series motors called universal motors can be used on alternating current.

Since the armature voltage and the field direction reverse at the same time,
torque continues to be produced in the same direction. However they run at a
lower speed with lower torque on AC supply when compared to DC due
to reactance voltage drop in AC which is not present in DC.[3]Since the
speed is not related to the line frequency, universal motors can develop
higher-than-synchronous speeds, making them lighter than induction motors
of the same rated mechanical output. This is a valuable characteristic for
hand-held power tools. Universal motors for commercial utility are usually
of small capacity, not more than about 1 kW output. However, much larger
universal motors were used for electric locomotives, fed by special low-
frequency traction power networks to avoid problems with commutation
under heavy and varying loads.

Shunt connection[edit]

A shunt DC motor connects the armature and field windings in parallel or

shunt with a common D.C. power source. This type of motor has good speed
regulation even as the load varies, but does not have the starting torque of a
series DC motor.[4] It is typically used for industrial, adjustable speed
applications, such as machine tools, winding/unwinding machines and
tensioners.

Compound connection[edit]

A compound DC motor connects the armature and fields windings in a shunt

and a series combination to give it characteristics of both a shunt and a series
DC motor.[5] This motor is used when both a high starting torque and good
speed regulation is needed. The motor can be connected in two
arrangements: cumulatively or differentially. Cumulative compound motors
connect the series field to aid the shunt field, which provides higher starting
torque but less speed regulation. Differential compound DC motors have
good speed regulation and are typically operated at constant speed.

3.2 BEARING:

A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only

the desired motion, and reduces friction between moving parts. The design
of the bearing may, for example, provide for free linear movement of the
moving part or for free rotation around a fixed axis; or, it may prevent a
motion by controlling the vectors of normal forces that bear on the moving
parts. Most bearings facilitate the desired motion by minimizing friction.
Bearings are classified broadly according to the type of operation, the
motions allowed, or to the directions of the loads (forces) applied to the
parts.

Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as shafts or axles

within mechanical systems, and transfer axial and radial loads from the
source of the load to the structure supporting it. The simplest form of
bearing, the plain bearing, consists of a shaft rotating in a hole. Lubrication
is used to reduce friction. In the ball bearing and roller bearing, to reduce
sliding friction, rolling elements such as rollers or balls with a circular cross-
section are located between the races or journals of the bearing assembly. A
wide variety of bearing designs exists to allow the demands of the
application to be correctly met for maximum efficiency, reliability, durability
and performance.

The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear";[1] a bearing
being a machine element that allows one part to bear (i.e., to support)
another. The simplest bearings are bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a
part, with varying degrees of control over the form, size, roughness and
location of the surface. Other bearings are separate devices installed into a
machine or machine part. The most sophisticated bearings for the most
demanding applications are very precise devices; their manufacture requires
some of the highest standards of current technology.

3.3 BATTERY:

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical

cells with external connections[1] for powering electrical devices such
as flashlights, mobile phones, and electric cars. When a battery is
supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative
terminal is the anode.[2] The terminal marked negative is the source of
electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive
terminal. When a battery is connected to an external electric load,
a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products,
and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical
energy.[3] Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device
composed of multiple cells, however the usage has evolved to include
devices composed of a single cell.[4]
Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded,
as the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge; a
common example is the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude
of portable electronic devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be
discharged and recharged multiple times using an applied electric current;
the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current.
Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-
ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and mobile
phones.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to
power hearing aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used
in smartphones, to large lead acid batteries or lithium-ion batteries in
vehicles, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms
that provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges and
computer data centers.

Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than
common fuels such as gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by
the higher efficiency of electric motors in converting chemical energy to
mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.
 A voltaic pile, the first battery

Italian physicist Alessandro Volta demonstrating his pile to French

emperor Napoleon Bonaparte

The usage of "battery" to describe a group of electrical devices dates

to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1748 described multiple Leyden jars by
analogy to a battery of cannon[5] (Benjamin Franklin borrowed the term
"battery" from the military, which refers to weapons functioning
together[6]).

Italian physicist Alessandro Volta built and described the first

electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800.[7] This was a stack of
copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, that could
produce a steady current for a considerable length of time. Volta did not
understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought that
his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy,[8] and that the associated
corrosion effects at the electrodes were a mere nuisance, rather than an
unavoidable consequence of their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in
1834.[9]
Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in
practice their voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current
for a sustained period. The Daniell cell, invented in 1836 by British
chemist John Frederic Daniell, was the first practical source of electricity,
becoming an industry standard and seeing widespread adoption as a power
source for electrical telegraph networks.[10] It consisted of a copper pot
filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an
unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode.
[11]

These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and
spillage if not handled correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their
components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous. These
characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances. Near the
end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which
replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices
practical.[12]

Principle of operation
Main article: Electrochemical cell
 A voltaic cell for demonstration purposes. In this example the two half-
cells are linked by a salt bridge that permits the transfer of ions.

Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many

cases, the electrical energy released is the difference in the cohesive [13] or
bond energies of the metals, oxides, or molecules undergoing the
electrochemical reaction.[3] For instance, energy can be stored in Zn or Li,
which are high-energy metals because they are not stabilized by d-electron
bonding, unlike transition metals. Batteries are designed such that the
energetically favorable redox reaction can occur only if electrons move
through the external part of the circuit.

A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of

two half-cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing
metal cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative electrode,
the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other
half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive electrode, to
which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Cations are reduced
(electrons are added) at the cathode, while metal atoms are oxidized
(electrons are removed) at the anode.[14] Some cells use different
electrolytes for each half-cell; then a separator is used to prevent mixing of
the electrolytes while allowing ions to flow between half-cells to complete
the electrical circuit.

Each half-cell has an electromotive force (emf, measured in volts) relative to

a standard. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its
half-cells.[15] Thus, if the electrodes have emfs and , then the net

emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the difference between

the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.[16]

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as

the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts.[17] The terminal
voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-
circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance,
[18] the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude
than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is
charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage.[19] An ideal cell has negligible

internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of

until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts
and produce a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would
have performed 1.5 joules of work.[17] In actual cells, the internal resistance
increases under discharge[18] and the open-circuit voltage also decreases
under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the
resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies
according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.

The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy

release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and
electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have different chemistries, but
approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells
have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts.
[20] The high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions
of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.[21]

Categories and types of batteries

Main article: List of battery types
 From top to bottom: a large 4.5-volt 3R12 battery, a D Cell, a C cell,
an AA cell, an AAA cell, an AAAA cell, an A23 battery, a 9-volt PP3
battery, and a pair of button cells (CR2032 and LR44)

Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms:

 Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then

discarded. Their chemical reactions are generally not reversible, so they
cannot be recharged. When the supply of reactants in the battery is
exhausted, the battery stops producing current and is useless.[22]
 Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their
chemical reactions reversed by applying electric current to the cell. This
regenerates the original chemical reactants, so they can be used,
recharged, and used again multiple times.[23]

Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits,
were restored to operation by replacing the electrodes.[24] Secondary
batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active
materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.

Primary
Main article: Primary cell

Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on

assembly. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low
current drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well away from an
alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where
other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary
cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily
reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery
manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary cells.
[25] In general, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable
batteries,[26] but disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain
applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω). Common types of disposable
batteries include zinc–carbon batteries and alkaline batteries.

Secondary
Main article: Rechargeable battery

Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable

batteries, must be charged before first use; they are usually assembled with
active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are
(re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical
reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the appropriate
current are called chargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are
widely used in automotive and boating applications. This technology
contains liquid electrolyte in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery
be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of
the hydrogen gas it produces during overcharging. The lead–acid battery is
relatively heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Its low
manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it common where
its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and
handling issues. A common application is the modern car battery, which can,
in general, deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.
The sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in
the automotive industry as a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell. The
VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the
chance of leakage and extending shelf life.[27] VRLA batteries immobilize
the electrolyte. The two types are:

 Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

 Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special
fiberglass matting.

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types,
that are useful in applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers.
Cells of this type (in order of increasing power density and cost)
include nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–zinc (NiZn), nickel metal
hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the highest
share of the dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most
applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power
tools, two-way radios, and medical equipment.

In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded electronics

such as USBCELL, which allows charging an AA battery through
a USB connector,[28] nanoball batteries that allow for a discharge rate about
100x greater than current batteries, and smart battery packs with state-of-
charge monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage on over-
discharge. Low self-discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged
prior to shipping.

Cell types
Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying
chemical processes and designs, including galvanic cells, electrolytic
cells, fuel cells, flow cells and voltaic piles.[29]

Wet cell

A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell,
since the liquid covers all internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced
during operation can escape to the air. Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells
and are commonly used as a learning tool for electrochemistry. They can be
built with common laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for demonstrations
of how electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as
a concentration cell is important in understanding corrosion. Wet cells may
be primary cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary cells (rechargeable).
Originally, all practical primary batteries such as the Daniell cell were built
as open-top glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet cells are the Leclanche
cell, Grove cell, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell, and Weston cell.
The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are
still used in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power
for switchgear, telecommunication or large uninterruptible power supplies,
but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used instead. These
applications commonly use lead–acid or nickel–cadmium cells.

Dry cell
Further information: Dry cell
 Line art drawing of a dry cell:
1. brass cap, 2. plastic seal, 3. expansion space, 4. porous cardboard, 5.
zinc can, 6. carbon rod, 7. chemical mixture

A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow
current to flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation
without spilling, as it contains no free liquid, making it suitable for portable
equipment. By comparison, the first wet cells were typically fragile glass
containers with lead rods hanging from the open top and needed careful
handling to avoid spillage. Lead–acid batteries did not achieve the safety and
portability of the dry cell until the development of the gel battery.

A common dry cell is the zinc–carbon battery, sometimes called the

dry Leclanché cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as
the alkaline battery (since both use the same zinc–manganese
dioxide combination). A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in
the form of a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode in the form of a central
rod. The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the
zinc anode. The remaining space between the electrolyte and carbon cathode
is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and
manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some designs, the
ammonium chloride is replaced by zinc chloride.

Molten salt

Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt
as electrolyte. They operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated
to retain heat.

Reserve

A reserve battery can be stored unassembled (unactivated and supplying no

power) for a long period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it
is assembled (e.g., by adding electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is
charged and ready to work. For example, a battery for an electronic
artillery fuze might be activated by the impact of firing a gun. The
acceleration breaks a capsule of electrolyte that activates the battery and
powers the fuze's circuits. Reserve batteries are usually designed for a short
service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage (years). A water-activated
battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications becomes
activated on immersion in water.

Cell performance
A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and
over lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain,
and temperature. At low temperatures, a battery cannot deliver as much
power. As such, in cold climates, some car owners install battery warmers,
which are small electric heating pads that keep the car battery warm.

Capacity and discharge

A device to check battery voltage

A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can deliver at the

rated voltage. The more electrode material contained in the cell the greater
its capacity. A small cell has less capacity than a larger cell with the same
chemistry, although they develop the same open-circuit voltage.
[30] Capacity is measured in units such as amp-hour (A·h). The rated
capacity of a battery is usually expressed as the product of 20 hours
multiplied by the current that a new battery can consistently supply for 20
hours at 68 °F (20 °C), while remaining above a specified terminal voltage
per cell. For example, a battery rated at 100 A·h can deliver 5 A over a 20-
hour period at room temperature. The fraction of the stored charge that a
battery can deliver depends on multiple factors, including battery chemistry,
the rate at which the charge is delivered (current), the required terminal
voltage, the storage period, ambient temperature and other factors.[30]

The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity.[31] The relationship
between current, discharge time and capacity for a lead acid battery is
approximated (over a typical range of current values) by Peukert's law:

where

is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.

is the current drawn from battery (A).

is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.

is a constant around 1.3.

Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small
fraction of the capacity lose capacity due to the presence of generally
irreversible side reactions that consume charge carriers without producing
current. This phenomenon is known as internal self-discharge. Further, when
batteries are recharged, additional side reactions can occur, reducing
capacity for subsequent discharges. After enough recharges, in essence all
capacity is lost and the battery stops producing power.

Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the
electrolyte cause battery efficiency to vary. Above a minimum threshold,
discharging at a low rate delivers more of the battery's capacity than at a
higher rate. Installing batteries with varying A·h ratings does not affect
device operation (although it may affect the operation interval) rated for a
specific voltage unless load limits are exceeded. High-drain loads such
as digital cameras can reduce total capacity, as happens with alkaline
batteries. For example, a battery rated at 2 A·h for a 10- or 20-hour
discharge would not sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated
capacity implies.
3.4 UNIVERSAL JOIND:

A universal joint (universal coupling,

U-joint, Cardan joint, Spicer or Hardy Spicer joint, or Hooke's joint) is
a joint or coupling connecting rigid rods whose axes are inclined to each
other, and is commonly used in shafts that transmit rotary motion. It consists
of a pair of hinges located close together, oriented at 90° to each other,
connected by a cross shaft. The universal joint is not a constant-velocity
joint.[1]
History[edit]

This video shows different parts and operation of the universal shaft.

The main concept of the universal joint is based on the design of gimbals,
which have been in use since antiquity. One anticipation of the universal
joint was its use by the ancient Greeks on ballistae.[2] In Europe the
universal joint is often called the Cardano joint or Cardan shaft, after the
Italian mathematician Gerolamo Cardano; however, in his writings, he
mentioned only gimbal mountings, not universal joints.[3]
The mechanism was later described in Technica curiosa sive mirabilia
artis (1664) by Gaspar Schott, who mistakenly claimed that it was
a constant-velocity joint.[4][5][6] Shortly afterward, between 1667 and
1675, Robert Hooke analysed the joint and found that its speed of rotation
was nonuniform, but that this property could be used to track the motion of
the shadow on the face of a sundial.[4] In fact, the component of
the equation of time which accounts for the tilt of the equatorial plane
relative to the ecliptic is entirely analogous to the mathematical description
of the universal joint. The first recorded use of the term universal joint for
this device was by Hooke in 1676, in his book Helioscopes.[7][8][9] He
published a description in 1678,[10] resulting in the use of the term Hooke's
joint in the English-speaking world. In 1683, Hooke proposed a solution to
the nonuniform rotary speed of the universal joint: a pair of Hooke's joints
90° out of phase at either end of an intermediate shaft, an arrangement that is
now known as a type of constant-velocity joint.[4][11] Christopher
Polhem of Sweden later re-invented the universal joint, giving rise to the
name Polhemsknut ("Polhem knot") in Swedish.
In 1841, the English scientist Robert Willis analyzed the motion of the
universal joint.[12] By 1845, the French engineer and mathematician Jean-
Victor Poncelet had analyzed the movement of the universal joint using
spherical trigonometry.[13]
The term universal joint was used in the 18th century[10] and was in
common use in the 19th century. Edmund Morewood's 1844 patent for a
metal coating machine called for a universal joint, by that name, to
accommodate small alignment errors between the engine and rolling mill
shafts.[14] Ephriam Shay's locomotive patent of 1881, for example, used
double universal joints in the locomotive's drive shaft.[15] Charles Amidon
used a much smaller universal joint in his bit-brace patented 1884.
[16] Beauchamp Tower's spherical, rotary, high speed steam engine used an
adaptation of the universal joint circa 1885.[17]
The term Cardan joint appears to be a latecomer to the English language.
Many early uses in the 19th century appear in translations from French or
are strongly influenced by French usage. Examples include an 1868 report
on the Exposition Universelle of 1867[18] and an article on
the dynamometer translated from French in 1881.[19]
Equation of motion[edit]
Diagram of variables for the universal joint. Axle 1 is perpendicular to the
red plane and axle 2 is perpendicular to the blue plane at all times. These
planes are at an angle β with respect to each other. The angular
displacement (rotational position) of each axle is given by and
respectively, which are the angles of the unit vectors and with
respect to their initial positions along the x and y axis. The and
vectors are fixed by the gimbal connecting the two axles and so are
constrained to remain perpendicular to each other at all times.
 Angular (rotational) output shaft speed versus rotation angle
for different bend angles of the joint

Output shaft rotation angle, , versus input shaft rotation angle, ,

for different bend angles, , of the joint

The Cardan joint suffers from one major problem: even when the input drive
shaft axle rotates at a constant speed, the output drive shaft axle rotates at a
variable speed, thus causing vibration and wear. The variation in the speed
of the driven shaft depends on the configuration of the joint, which is
specified by three variables:

1. the angle of rotation for axle 1

2. the angle of rotation for axle 2

3. the bend angle of the joint, or angle of the axles with respect to
each other, with zero being parallel or straight through.

These variables are illustrated in the diagram on the right. Also shown are a
set of fixed coordinate axes with unit vectors and and the planes
of rotation of each axle. These planes of rotation are perpendicular to the
axes of rotation and do not move as the axles rotate. The two axles are
joined by a gimbal which is not shown. However, axle 1 attaches to the
gimbal at the red points on the red plane of rotation in the diagram, and axle
2 attaches at the blue points on the blue plane. Coordinate systems fixed
with respect to the rotating axles are defined as having their x-axis unit
vectors ( and ) pointing from the origin towards one of the
connection points. As shown in the diagram, is at angle with
respect to its beginning position along the x axis and is at angle
with respect to its beginning position along the y axis.

is confined to the "red plane" in the diagram and is related to by:

is confined to the "blue plane" in the diagram and is the result of the
unit vector on the x axis being rotated through Euler angles ]:

A constraint on the and vectors is that since they are fixed in

the gimbal, they must remain at right angles to each other. This is so when
their dot product equals zero:

Thus the equation of motion relating the two angular positions is given by:

with a formal solution for :

The solution for is not unique since the arctangent function is

multivalued, however it is required that the solution for be continuous
over the angles of interest. For example, the following explicit solution
using the atan2(y, x) function will be valid for :
The angles and in a rotating joint will be functions of time.
Differentiating the equation of motion with respect to time and using the
equation of motion itself to eliminate a variable yields the relationship
between the angular velocities and :

As shown in the plots, the angular velocities are not linearly related, but
rather are periodic with a period half that of the rotating shafts. The angular
velocity equation can again be differentiated to get the relation between the
angular accelerations and :

Double Cardan shaft[edit]

Universal joints in a driveshaft

A configuration known as a double Cardan joint drive shaft partially

overcomes the problem of jerky rotation. This configuration uses two U-
joints joined by an intermediate shaft, with the second U-joint phased in
relation to the first U-joint to cancel the changing angular velocity. In this
configuration, the angular velocity of the driven shaft will match that of the
driving shaft, provided that both the driving shaft and the driven shaft are at
equal angles with respect to the intermediate shaft (but not necessarily in the
same plane) and that the two universal joints are 90 degrees out of phase.
This assembly is commonly employed in rear wheel drive vehicles, where it
is known as a drive shaft or propeller (prop) shaft.
Even when the driving and driven shafts are at equal angles with respect to
the intermediate shaft, if these angles are greater than zero, oscillating
moments are applied to the three shafts as they rotate. These tend to bend
them in a direction perpendicular to the common plane of the shafts. This
applies forces to the support bearings and can cause "launch shudder" in rear
wheel drive vehicles.[20] The intermediate shaft will also have
a sinusoidal component to its angular velocity, which contributes to vibration
and stresses.

Mathematically, this can be shown as follows: If and are the

angles for the input and output of the universal joint connecting the drive
and the intermediate shafts respectively, and and are the angles
for the input and output of the universal joint connecting the intermediate
and the output shafts respectively, and each pair are at angle with
respect to each other, then:

If the second universal joint is rotated 90 degrees with respect to the first,
then . Using the fact that yields:

and it is seen that the output drive is just 90 degrees out of phase with the
input shaft, yielding a constant-velocity drive.
NOTE: The reference for measuring angles of input and output shafts of
universal joint are mutually perpendicular axes. So, in absolute sense the
forks of the intermediate shaft are parallel to each other. (Since, one fork is
acting as input and the other fork is acting as output for shafts and above 90
degree phase difference is mentioned between the forks.)
Double Cardan joint[edit]
Main article: Constant-velocity joint § Double Cardan
A double Cardan joint consists of two universal joints mounted back to back
with a center yoke; the center yoke replaces the intermediate shaft. Provided
that the angle between the input shaft and center yoke is equal to the angle
between the center yoke and the output shaft, the second Cardan joint will
cancel the velocity errors introduced by the first Cardan joint and the aligned
double Cardan joint will act as a CV joint.
Thompson coupling[edit]
Main article: Constant-velocity joint § Thompson coupling
A Thompson coupling is a refined version of the double Cardan joint. It
offers slightly increased efficiency with the penalty of great increase in
complexity.

CHAPTER IV
DRAWING
 CHAPTER IV
DRAWING
4.1 MACHINE COMPONENTS

The electric hacksaw with automatic up & down and job fixing
consists of the following components to full fill the requirements of
complete operation of the machine.
1.DC Motor
2.Cam
3.Hinge support
4.Hack saw
5.Vice
6.Base frame

Engine speed (N1) = 3000 rpm,

Engine power (P) = 3.355 kw (4.5 HP)
Diameter of small pulley (D1) = 50mm
Diameter of big pulley (D2) = 300mm
Number of teeth on small sprocket (T1) = 14 44
Number of teeth on big sprocket (T2) = 39
Final speed = 65 rpm
Final torque = 492.89 * 103 N-mm
4.3 DRAWING FORDESIGN FABRICATION OF COCONUT TREE
CLIMBING ROBOT
 CHAPTER V
WORKING PRINCIPLE
 CHAPTER V
WORKING PRINCIPLE
 CHAPTER VI
MERITS & DEMERITS
 CHAPTER VI
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES
 Quick process.
 No manpower is required.
 Easy maintenance.

DISADVANTAGE
Not automated.
CHAPTER VII
APPLICATIONS
 CHAPTER VII
APPLICATIONS

APPLICATION
It can be used in industries.
 CHAPTER VIII
LIST OF MATERIALS
 CHAPTER VIII
LIST OF MATERIALS

FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS

The various factors which determine the choice of material are
discussed below.

1. PROPERTIES:
The material selected must possess the necessary properties for the proposed
application. The various requirements to be satisfied can be weight, surface
finish, rigidity, ability to withstand environmental attack from chemicals,
service life, reliability etc.
The following four types of principle properties of materials
decisively affect their selection
a. Physical
b. Mechanical
c. From manufacturing point of view
d. Chemical
The various physical properties concerned are melting point, thermal
conductivity, specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific gravity,
electrical conductivity, magnetic purposes etc.
The various Mechanical properties Concerned are strength in tensile,
Compressive shear, bending, torsional and buckling load, fatigue resistance,
impact resistance, eleastic limit, endurance limit, and modulus of elasticity,
hardness, wear resistance and sliding properties.
The various properties concerned from the manufacturing point of
view are,
  Cast ability
 Weld ability
 Surface properties
 Shrinkage
 Deep drawing etc.

2. MANUFACTURING CASE:
Sometimes the demand for lowest possible manufacturing cost or
surface qualities obtainable by the application of suitable coating substances
may demand the use of special materials.
3. QUALITY REQUIRED:
This generally affects the manufacturing process and ultimately the
material. For example, it would never be desirable to go casting of a less
number of components which can be fabricated much more economically by
welding or hand forging the steel.

4. AVAILABILITY OF MATERIAL:
Some materials may be scarce or in short supply, it then becomes
obligatory for the designer to use some other material which though may not
be a perfect substitute for the material designed. The delivery of materials
and the delivery date of product should also be kept in mind.

5. SPACE CONSIDERATION:
Sometimes high strength materials have to be selected because the
forces involved are high and space limitations are there.

6. COST:
 As in any other problem, in selection of material the cost of material
plays an important part and should not be ignored.
Sometimes factors like scrap utilization, appearance, and non-
maintenance of the designed part are involved in the selection of proper
materials.
 CHAPTER IX
COST ESTIMATION

CHAPTER IX
COST ESTIMATION
1. MATERIAL COST

2. LABOUR COST
Lathe, drilling, welding, drilling, power hacksaw, gas cutting cost

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES
The overhead charges are arrived by” manufacturing cost”
Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labour Cost
=
=
Overhead Charges =20%of the manufacturing cost
=
4. TOTAL COST
Total cost = Material Cost +Labour Cost +Overhead Charges
=
=
Total cost for this project =
CHAPTER X
CONCLUSION
 CHAPTER X
CONCLUSION

This project is made with pre planning, that it provides flexibility in

operation. Smoother and noiseless operation by the medium of
“FABRICATION OF ELECTRONIC HACKSAW”

This project “FABRICATION OF ELECTRONIC HACKSAW” is

designed with the hope that it is very much economical and help full to
many industries and workshops.

This project helped us to know the periodic steps in completing a

project work. Thus we have completed the project successfully.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Design data book -P.S.G.Tech.

2. Pneumatic handbook -R.H.warrning

3. Machine tool design handbook –Central machine tool Institute,

Bangalore.
4. Strength of Materials -R.S.Kurmi

5. Manufacturing Technology -M.Haslehurst.

6. Design of machine elements- R.s.Kurumi

PHOTOGRAPHY