6 WAVES

6.1 Understanding Waves

1. A wave is a travelling disturbance through a medium from a vibrating or oscillating source.

2. The particles of the medium vibrate but do not travel along with the wave.
3. As a wave travels, it carries energy along with it in the direction of its propagation without transferring
matter.
4. A wave motion can be produced along a rope which is tied at one end. When the hand holding the other
end of the rope is moved up and down, a wave moves along the rope.

a) If a red ribbon is tied to the middle section of the rope, the ribbon will vibrate up and down. The
ribbon gains kinetic energy which is transferred from the moving hand.
b) Note that the particles of the rope do not move forward with the wave.
c) The rope is the medium through which the wave propagates.

6.1.1 Types of waves

Transverse waves Longitudinal waves
A transverse wave is a wave in which the particles
A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the
of the medium oscillate in the direction
particles of the medium oscillate in the direction
perpendicular to the direction in which the wave
parallel to the direction in which the wave moves.
moves.

Example of transverse waves are water waves,

waves on a stretched string, light waves, radio
waves, X-rays and all the electromagnetic waves.
Slinky spring
1. The free end of the slinky is displaced in an
up-and-down direction which is perpendicular
to the direction of the propagation of the
waves.
2. The waves produced along the slinky spring
are transverse waves.
3. We will notice that as the waves pass along the
spring, the coils vibrate at 900 to the direction
of travel of the waves.
Examples of longitudinal wave are sound waves
and waves on a slinky spring.
Slinky spring
1. The free end of the slinky is oscillating to-
and-fro in parallel with the direction of the
propagation of the waves.
2. A series of compressed regions and
stretched regions move along the spring to
form a longitudinal wave.
3. The compression coils do not move along
the spring, but just vibrate forward and
backwards.

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6.1.2 Wavefronts
1. A wavefront is an imaginary line that joins all the points vibrating in-phase, such as a line passing
through similar wave crests.
2. The direction of propagation of a wave is perpendicular to its wavefront.

Plane wavefronts
Circular wavefronts

6.1.3 Oscillating systems

1. An oscillating system refers to a system that
undergoes a periodic to-and-fro movement.
2. Example of oscillating systems is a simple
pendulum.
3. One complete oscillation of a pendulum
occurs when the pendulum bob (moves
through position A-B-C-B-A) returns to its
starting position and is moving in the same
direction.
4. The amplitude, a of an oscillation is the
maximum displacement from the equilibrium
position.
5. The period, T of the oscillation is the time
taken to complete one oscillation.
6. The frequency, f of the oscillation is the
number of complete oscillations made in one
second.
1
7. 𝑓=𝑇
8. The SI unit for frequency is hertz (Hz).
9. A loaded spring oscillating about its mean
position is an example of an oscillating
system.

6.1.4 Graphical Representation of Waves

Displacement-Distance Graph
1. A displacement-distance graph is equivalent to a photograph at one instant of a wave motion through a
slinky spring.
2. The wavelength, λ is the horizontal distance between two successive equivalent points that are in phase
(horizontal distance between two successive crest).

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Displacement-Time Graph
1. Each particle in the wave has different displacements at each instant.
2. A displacement-time graph shows the displacement of a particular particle changes with time (a series of
repetitive cycles).

v
6.1.5 Wave speed λ
1. The wave speed is the distance moved by a crest in one second.
λ
2. 𝑣= = 𝑓λ
𝑇
3. SI unit: m s-1
1. Calculate the 2. A particle in a wave makes 640 oscillations in
a) amplitude 5s. Calculate
b) period a) The period of the vibration
c) frequency b) The frequency of the wave
of the oscillating system

3. A wave travelling on a surface has the following characteristics:

Speed= 40 cm s-1
Amplitude= 3mm
Frequency=20 Hz
Using the data given, sketch a displacement-time graph and displacement-distance graph.

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4. The diagram below shows the wavefronts
produced by a dipper vibrating at a frequency
of 20 Hz in a ripple tank.
What is the speed of the waves?
6.1.6 Damping in an oscillation
1. When a system is oscillating freely by itself,
without any force applied, it is said to be
oscillating in its natural frequency, f0.
2. In free oscillation, the amplitude is constant
with time.
3. Damped oscillations are oscillations with
decreasing energy and decreasing amplitude.
4. The system loses energy to the surroundings,
usually in the form of heat energy when
damping is occurred in the oscillating system.
5. Damping is caused by dissipative force such
as frictional forces and air resistance.
5. The figure below shows the shape of a wave
along the surface of water after the source had
started vibrating for 5 s.
a) What is the amplitude of the wave?
b) What is the wavelength of the wave?
c) Calculate the speed of the wave.
d) Hence, calculate the frequency of the
wave.
6. The effect of damping is the amplitude
becomes smaller with time
7. Example
a) If the swing is left swinging on its own,
the amplitude of oscillation will decrease
with time because of damping.
b) The simple pendulum will stop oscillating
when energy is lost by damping.
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6.1.7 Resonance
1. When a periodic force or external force is applied to an oscillating system, the system is said to be doing
force oscillation.
2. Resonance occurs when the oscillating system is driven at its natural frequency by a periodic force.
3. When resonance occurs, the system oscillates with maximum amplitude as maximum energy is
transferred from the forcing system.
4. The system is forced to oscillate with small amplitude when the frequency of driving force is different
from the natural frequency of the oscillating system.
5. Resonance can be demonstrated by using the Barton’s pendulum.

a) The driver pendulum D is pulled aside and released.

b) The energy of the driver pendulum D is transmitted along the supporting thread to the other
pendulums.
c) Pendulums P, Q, R, S and T are in force oscillation.
d) Only pendulum S oscillates with the biggest amplitude as it is in resonance with D. The reason is
that D and S have the same length and hence the force frequency is equal to the natural frequency of
S.

Effects of resonance
1. Cracking of wine glass

When soprano singer sings at a high frequency which is equal to the natural frequency of a wine glass,
the wall of the wine glass will be set into vibrations with large amplitudes and the glass will break.
2. Collapsed of Tacoma bridge in 1940

When strong wind blows at a suspended bridge, it can cause the bridge to vibrate at its natural
frequency. The bridge will vibrate with large amplitude because of resonance which causes the bridge to
collapse.
3. Sound produced by wind instruments

When air is blown into the mouth piece, the air column inside the instrument is set into longitudinal
vibrations. When the blowing frequency equals the natural frequency of the instrument, resonance
occurs and a loud sound is produced.
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6. A 433 Hz vibrating tuning fork is brought near 7. The figure shows two simple pendulums X
four tuning forks P, Q, R and S. and Y joined by a light elastic string. The lead
bob is pulled aside and released.

a) Which of the four tuning forks will vibrate

with the biggest amplitude?
b) Explain your answer in (a)
c) State the phenomenon observed in (a)
State whether each of the following statements
is true or false.
a) X will oscillate at its natural frequency
b) Y will oscillate with the same frequency
as X.
c) The oscillation of Y is in resonance with
X.
d) Y oscillates with a large amplitude.

6.1.8 Ripple tank

1. A useful apparatus for studying wave phenomena in the laboratory.
2. Main features of a ripple tank

Main parts Function

To be filled with water of uniform depth (to produce waves with uniform
Shallow transparent tray
speed)
To project the image of water waves onto the white screen below the ripple
Lamp
tank
Electric motor A source of vibration to produce water waves
Rheostat Controls the frequency of water waves produced.
Sponge To prevent reflection of water waves from the side of the tray

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3. Plane waves are produced when a wooden bar 4. Circular waves are produced by a vibrating
vibrates on the surface of the water with the plastic sphere.
help of an electric motor.

5. When waves are produced on the surface of water, a wave

crest will act like a convex lens while a wave trough will
act like a concave lens.
6. Crest converges the light to form a bright fringe while
trough diverges the light to form a dark fringe on the white
screen below the ripple tank.
7. Each bright and dark fringe represents the wavefront of
the water wave.

6.2 Analysing Reflection of Waves

Reflection of water waves

1. Reflection of waves refers to the return of all or part of the waves when they encounter an obstacle
(known as reflector).
2. Reflection of waves occurs when the wavefronts are blocked by an obstacle or barrier. This results in a
change in the direction of wave propagation.
3. The laws of reflection are obeyed and hence,
i= r
where
i = angle of incidence
r = angle of reflection
4. When plane water waves are incident 5. When plane water waves are incident at an
perpendicularly onto a straight reflector, the angle i onto a straight reflector, the waves are
waves are reversed. reflected at an angle equal to i, i.e. i = r

6. Characteristics of reflected waves

Direction of the propagation of waves Change after reflection
Angle of reflection i=r
Wavelength Remain unchanged
Frequency Remain unchanged
Wave speed Remain unchanged
Amplitude Decrease as energy is absorbed during reflection

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7. To prevent coastal shore erosion by sea waves, huge
concrete and rock walls are erected in the sea near
the shore to act as wave-breakers. The ocean waves
are reflected from these concrete walls and very
little waves can reach the shore.

Reflection of sound waves

1. Sound waves can be reflected at the surface of solids, liquids and gases.

2. When sound waves are reflected at a hard flat
solid surface such as the concrete wall of a
building,
a) a small amount of wave energy is
absorbed
b) the reflected waves travel in the same
direction
3. When sound waves are reflected at a soft,
uneven surface such as the surface of a piece
of cloth,
a) a large amount of the wave energy is
absorbed
b) the reflected waves move in many
directions.

4. To prevent reflection of sound, the walls in a concert

hall or auditorium are covered with soft material to
absorb the sound. Long curtains are used to cover the
windows and soft carpets are used to cover the floors.
5. When the sound produced by a source is reflected and
observed by the source, the reflected sound is known as
an echo.

8. A girl who is standing 85 m in front of a wall 9. A prison guard who is standing 99 m from the
gives a shout. She hears the echo 0.5 s later. wall fires a gunshot. After how long will he
What is the speed of sound in the air? hear an echo?
(speed of sound in air = 330 m s-1)

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6.3 Analysing Refraction of Waves

6.3.1 Refraction of water waves

1. Refraction of waves is the change of direction of motion of the waves caused by a change in the speed of
the wave.
2. The speed of water waves changes when there is a change in the depth of the water.
3. A change in wave speed causes the wavelength to change.

4. The frequency, f of the waves remains unchanged.

5. The wave speed, v in the denser medium is smaller than that in the less dense medium, however water
density is the same in deep and shallow region.
6. When water waves which pass through are perpendicular to the boundary of the shallow region, the
direction of wave travel is not changed, but refraction occurs.
a) From deep to shallow water:
Wave speed decreases and the wavelength becomes shorter.
b) From shallow to deep water:
Wave speed increases and the wavelength becomes longer.
7. Since frequency is the same,
𝒗D = 𝑓λ𝐷
𝒗s = 𝑓λ𝑠
thus,
𝒗D 𝒗s 𝑣𝐷 𝜆𝐷
= or =
λ𝐷 λ𝑠 𝑣𝑆 𝜆𝑆
8. The direction of incident and refracted waves are
different when water waves pass through a
trapezium-shaped Perspex sheet.
a) Movement of water waves from deep region to
shallow region
➢ The direction of the waves is refracted
towards the normal
➢ Angle of incidence, i > angle of refraction, r
➢ The wave speed at the deep area, vd is greater
than the wave speed at the shallow area, vs.
➢ Therefore, λd > λs

b) Movement of water waves from shallow region to

deep region.
➢ The direction of waves is refracted away from
the normal.
➢ Angle of incidence, i < angle of refraction, r
➢ The wave speed at the shallow area, vs is
smaller than the wave speed at the deep area, vd.
➢ Therefore, λd > λs
Characteristic of Refraction of Waves
Deep region Shallow region
Wave speed, v Faster Slower
Wavelength, λ Longer Shorter
Frequency, f Unchanged Unchanged
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10. When water waves pass through a convex- 11. When water waves pass through a concave-
shaped Perspex sheet, shaped Perspex sheet,

➢ Water waves are converged to the focal
point, F.
➢ The wave speed at the deep area, vd is
greater than the wave speed at the shallow
area, vs.
➢ Water waves are diverged from the focal
point
➢ The wave speed at the deep area, vd is
greater than the wave speed at the shallow
area, vs.

6.3.2 Refraction of sound waves

1. Sound waves are refracted when they move from a gaseous medium to another gaseous medium which
has a different density.
2. Example
a) The speed of sound in helium gas is greater than the speed of sound in the air.
b) The speed of sound in carbon dioxide gas is less than the speed of sound in the air.
3. When a balloon filled with carbon dioxide gas is placed between the loudspeaker and microphone, a
trace with greater amplitude is displaced on the CRO.
➢ The balloon has convex shape, thus it converges the sound waves to the microphone.

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6.3.3 Applications in everyday life
Water Waves be more choppy and is dangerous for
1. When the waves reach the coast, the water is swimming. A higher rate of erosion occurs at
shallower. Wave speed is reduced and the cape.
refraction occurs.
2.

4. Since the wave energy diverges at the bay, the

The wave refracts toward the normal and this
results in the wavefronts following the shape
of the coastline.
3. The energy of the waves is converged at the
cape. This causes the sea around the cape to
water at this area is calmer and hence, is
suitable for recreational activities such as
swimming. Houses and beach resorts are also
usually built in this area.

Sound Waves
1. During the day, the air near the ground is
hotter and less dense. Sound waves travel
faster in the warm air. This causes sound
waves to be refracted towards the normal
between the layer of hot air and cold air when
sound travel from ground to air. However, the
sound wave bends away from the ground. Therefore, the observer hears a softer sound.

2. At night, the air near the ground is cooler

and denser. Sound waves travel slower in
cooler layer of air. Sound waves are
refracted away from the normal between the
layer of cold air and hot air when sound
travel from ground to air. However, the
sound wave bends toward the ground.
Consequently, the observer hears a louder
sound.

10. Figure below shows the top view of incident plane waves approaching a shallow area.
a) Complete the diagram by drawing the wavefronts of the waves entering the shallow area.
b) State the phenomenon observed.
c) Explain your answer in (b).

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11. The frequency of a wave moving from a deep 12. The figure below shows the wavefronts of
area to a shallow area is 16 Hz. The ratio of the waves moving on the surface of water. The
wavelengths in the deep area to that in the frequency of the waves is 15 Hz.
shallow area, λd : λs is 3 : 2
a) Calculate
(i) The wave speed in the shallow
area if the wave speed at the deep
area is equal to 6 cm s-1
(ii) The wavelength of the waves in
the shallow area

a) On the figure, draw a line to show the

boundary between the shallow region and
deep region.
b) S is a point in the shallow region while D is
a point in the deep region. On the diagram,
mark the position of S and D.
c) Calculate the speed, v
d) What is the value of y?

b) The boundary between the deep and

shallow areas is a straight line. The
incident waves are plane waves and the
angle of incidence, i is not zero. The
correct characteristic(s) of the waves
propagating into the shallow area is/are:
[ ] the direction of propagation of the
waves changes.
[ ] the shape of the wavefronts becomes
curved.
[ ] the waves will be focused at a point.
13. The figure below shows plane water waves in 14. In figure below, plane wavefronts move
a ripple tank that move towards a Perspex towards a Perspex sheet in a ripple tank.
sheet placed in the water.

On the figure, draw the wavefronts above the On the figure, draw the wavefronts as they
Perspex sheet and after they have moved enter the region above the Perspex sheet and
across the Perspex sheet. after they have moved across the region above
the Perspex sheet.

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6.4 Analysing Diffraction of Waves

1. Diffraction is the spreading of a wave as it goes through a narrow slit or passes round a small obstacle.
2. When diffraction occurs,
a) wave direction changes
b) wavelength is unchanged
c) frequency is unchanged
d) speed is unchanged
e) wave velocity changes
f) shape of the wavefronts changes according to the sizes of gaps and obstacles
g) amplitude of the waves decreases
3. The degree of diffraction increases when
a) the size of the gap or obstacle decreases
b) the wavelength of the waves increases

6.4.1 Diffraction pattern for water wave

1. Waves with short wavelength that pass by the 4. Waves that pass through a wide gap
edge of a barrier

2. Waves with longer wavelength that pass by

Explanation
the edge of a barrier.
Waves with same wavelength that pass
through the narrower gap spread out more.

5. Waves with longer wavelength pass through a

same gap

Explanation
Waves with longer wavelength spread more
when passing by the edge of a barrier.
3. Waves that pass through a narrow gap
6. Waves with shorter wavelength that pass
through a same gap

Note: Narrow gap

For diffraction of waves, a narrow gap is a gap Explanation
with a width that is approximately equal to or Waves with longer wavelength spread out
less than the wavelength of the wave. more when passing through a same gap.
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7. Waves block by narrow barrier 8. Waves blocked by a wide barrier

Explanation
1. When the barrier is narrow, the wavefronts can regain back in their original form faster.
2. When the barrier is wide, the wavefronts move a longer distance behind the barrier before joining and
regaining back in their original form.
*Note: When the waves hit the barrier, portion of the wavefronts is reflected back.

6.4.2 Diffraction pattern for light waves

1. Narrow slit 3. Small hole

4. Big hole
2. Wide slit

Explanation
Explanation Diffraction pattern become less distinct when
Diffraction pattern become less distinct when the light waves passing through bigger hole.
the light waves passing through the wide slit.

6.4.3 Diffraction pattern for sound wave

1. Diffraction of sound waves at the corner of a building

The student cannot see the radio but he can hear the music very clearly.

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6.4.4 Application in everyday life
1. Sea-walls in a Harbour Jetty
Strong concrete walls are usually built in the sea near a harbour jetty to protect the boats from damage
caused by strong waves.

When strong waves rush towards the harbour jetty, the concrete barriers reflect some of the waves and
allow others to diffract through the small gaps on the barriers.
2. Radio wave
➢ Radio waves travel in a straight line and diffract round obstacles like large buildings and hills.
Therefore, radio reception on long and medium waves is quite good in hilly areas.
➢ These radio waves also diffract round the earth’s curvature and are reflected by the ionosphere. This
results in good and clear transmission of long and medium waves over long distances.
➢ For VHF (very high frequency for stereo radio) and UHF (ultra high frequency for TV transmission)
waves, they do not diffract easily. Hence good reception of VHF and UHF is only possible over
short distance from the transmitting towers and with the use of good aerials. High frequency of radio
waves carry more information.

15. Compare each figure below by drawing the diffracted wavefronts.

a) b) c)

16. In figure below, Muthu walks outside a closed room. There is a

hole at the wall.
Explain why Muthu can hear the sound from the television but
cannot see the television.

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6.5 Analysing Interference of Waves

6.5.1 Principle of superposition

1. Principle of superposition states that when two waves meet at the same point, the resultant displacement
at that point is equal to the sum of the displacements produced by the individual waves at that point.
2. Two wave sources are said to be coherent if

a) they produce waves of the same frequency

b) they produce waves of the same phase (or with constant phase different)

6.5.2 Interference of waves

1. Interference of waves is the superposition of waves from two coherent sources.

2. There are two types of interference, namely constructive interference and destructive interference.
a) Constructive interference
b) Destructive interference
Constructive Destructive
Occurs when A crest meets another crest A crest meets a trough
Resultant Amplitude a + a = 2a [(a) + (-a)] = 0
Amplitude Maximum 0

Before

During

After

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A. Interference of water waves
1. A maximum crest is formed when a wave crest meets another wave crest and constructive interference
takes place.
2. A maximum trough is formed when a wave trough meets another wave trough and constructive
interference takes place.
3. A point of zero displacement is formed when a wave crest meets a wave trough and destructive
interference takes place.
4. An antinodal line is a line joining all the points where constructive interference takes place.
5. A nodal line is a line joining all the points where destructive interference takes place.

6. By measuring the distance between the antinodal lines on the interference pattern, the wavelength, λ, of
the water waves can be determined through the equation:
𝑎𝑥
𝜆=
𝐷
λ = wavelength
a = distance between the two coherent
sources
x = distance between consecutive
antinodal lines
D = distance between the two coherent
sources and the plane where x is
measured

B. Interference of sound waves

1. Two identical loudspeakers are connected to
the same signal generator. The sounds from
the two loudspeakers are coherent because
they are vibrating in phase and have same
frequency.
2. Microphone is moved along line PQ to detect
alternating loud and soft sounds.
a) A loud sound is detected at the position
where the sound waves from the
loudspeakers interfere constructively.
b) A soft sound is detected at the position
where the waves from the loudspeakers
interfere destructively.
𝑎𝑥
3. The wavelength, λ, of the sound waves can be determined through the equation: 𝜆= 𝐷

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C. Interference of light waves
1. The interference of light can be studied using Young’s double slit.

2. The monochromatic light that passes through each narrow slit is diffracted. The diffracted waves then
interfere with each other to produce an interference pattern on the screen.
3. The interference pattern consists of bright and dark fringes of equal spacing.
a) At bright fringe, the light waves from each slit interfere constructively
b) At dark fringe, the light waves from each slit interfere destructively

4. If a white light source is used, a filter and a single slit is placed before the double slit to obtain the
interference pattern
a) A single slit is used to produced diffracted ray of light which are coherent through double slit.
b) A colour filter is placed in front of white light source to produce monochromatic light rays.
Monochromatic light rays are light rays which have a single frequency only which means the
wavelength, λ, is a constant.
c) An alternative method to this is by using a sodium vapour lamp which is a monochromatic light
source.
𝑎𝑥
5. The wavelength, λ, of the light waves can be determined through the equation: 𝜆 =
𝐷
6. Light of different colour in white light have
different wavelengths.
a) Red light has the longest wavelength
whereas violet light has the shortest
wavelength.
b) The interference pattern for red has
greatest fringes separation.

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6.5.3 Application in everyday life
A. Holograms
1. A laser light is a narrow beam of intense light of one wavelength.
2. A laser light can be used to produce a special type of photographic image through the interference of
light, called a hologram.

3. When hologram is viewed through a laser light, or sometimes just normal

daylight, a 3D image can be seen.
4. Credit cards usually have reflection holograms printed on them for improved
security and to prevent forgeries.

B. Laser CDs
1. A compact disc is used to store
music through thousands of tiny pits
on the surface. When a tiny laser
beam travels over the pits on the
surface of the disc, a detector will
pick up the reflected beam and the
laser pulses are changed into sound.
2. When a normal light beam falls on
the disc surface, the light beam will
reflected from the pits and will
interfere and produce different
colour patterns.

C. Destructive interference in Aviation

1. Microphones are used to detect noise in the cabin and
information is fed into a computer. The computer will generate a
sound wave that will interfere destructively with the sound in the
cabin. As a result, the cabin in a commercial plane becomes
quieter.
17. Two coherent waves are produced in a ripple 18. Two loudspeakers connected to an audio signal
tank by dippers that are placed 5.0 cm from generator were placed 1.2 m from each other. A
each other. At a distance of 20.0 cm from the student who was walking along a line 3.0 m in
dippers, the separation between adjacent front of the loudspeakers could hear alternating
antinodal lines is 3.0 cm. Calculate the loud and soft sounds. The distance between
wavelength of the waves. adjacent loud and soft sounds is 0.85 m.
What is the wavelength of the sound?

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19. In Young’s double slit experiment, the 20. Two loudspeakers placed 1.5 m apart are
following arrangement was used. connected to an audio signal generator adjusted
λ = 480 nm to a frequency of 600 Hz. When a student walks
D = 4.2 m at a distance of 3.0 m in front of the
x = 1.8 mm loudspeakers, he hears 4 consecutive loud
Find the distance between the slits. sounds through a distance of 3.3 m.

Calculate
a) Wavelength of the sound waves
b) Speed of the sound waves in air

6.6 Analysing Sound Waves

1. Sound waves are longitudinal waves.

2. Sound waves are classified as mechanical waves.
3. Sound waves need a medium for its propagation.
Sound cannot be transmitted through a vacuum.
4. Sound can travel through solids, liquids, and gases. The speed of sound is faster in solids.
5. The speed of sound increases with temperature but is not affected by changes in air pressure.
6. The speed of sound is unaffected by pressure.
7. The speed of sound is greater with smaller mass of gas molecules.
8. Sound is produced by vibration.
9. The vibrating cone of the loudspeaker continuously compresses and stretches the air molecules in front
of it. This makes a series of compressions and rarefactions travel through the air.

6.6.1 Loudness and pitch of a sound

1. The amplitude of sound waves is related to its loudness. The louder the sound, the bigger is its
amplitude.

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2. The frequency of sound waves is related to its pitch. The higher the pitch of the sound, the higher is its
frequency.

3. The quality of a sound is affected by its waveform. Different musical instruments produce sounds of
different waveforms, hence of different qualities.

6.6.2 Application of sound waves

1. Audio waves are sound waves which can be heard by the human ear. They have frequencies ranging
from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
2. Sound waves with frequencies less than 20 Hz are known as infrasound. It can be used in animal
communication, e.g. rhinoceros and geophysical studies.
3. Sound waves with frequencies greater than 20 kHz are known as
ultrasound. It is used in medicine, industries for measuring the
depth of sea water and dental for cleansing.
4. In medicine, ultrasonic scanning is used for detecting the position
and condition of a foetus in its mother’s womb. It involves the
sending of ultrasound from a transmitter into the body of the
patient, and detecting the echoes which reflect from various parts
of the foetus. Ultrasonic scanning is safer than X-rays as the
ultrasound waves are harmless to the foetus and the mother.

5. Ultrasonic technique is also used for

measuring the depth of sea. A beam of sonar 6. In industries, ultrasonic scanning is used for
waves is sent by a transmitter at the lower detecting cracks and leaks in metal structures
part of a boat to the sea bed. Echoes are such as pipes. It can also be used for cutting
detected by a hydrophone fixed next to the and welding metals.
transmitter. The time interval, t, is measured
by a cathode ray oscilloscope.
𝑡
The depth of sea, 𝑑 = 𝑣 × 2

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7. A bat can navigate in complete darkness by emitting very
high-pitched sound waves in the ultrasonic range. When
these waves hit an object, they are reflected back and
received by the bat. The time between the emission of the
sound waves and the reception of the reflected waves enable
the bat to estimate the position of the object accurately.

21. An ultrasonic pulse transmitted by a Sonar
device in a warship is received 0.24 s later
after it had been reflected by a submarine. The
speed of ultrasound in water is 1600 m s-1.
What is the distance between the submarine
and the ship?
22. A boy shouts towards a mountain and hears
his echo 4.5 seconds later.
If the mountain is 765 m from the boy,
calculate the speed of sound in air.

23. Figure (a) shows the sound waves displayed on the screen of a cathode ray oscilloscope.
Complete the diagram in Figure (b) and (c) according to the specifications stated.

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6.7 Analysing Electromagnetic Waves

6.7.1 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

1. An electromagnetic wave consists of electric and magnetic fields. These two components oscillate at
right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation.
2. Electromagnetic waves are electrically neutral.
3. Electromagnetic waves transfer energy from one
point to another.
4. Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
5. Electromagnetic waves can travel through vacuum
6. Obey the wave equation : 𝒄 = 𝑓𝜆
where c is the velocity of light.
7. Electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed
through a vacuum.
8. Electromagnetic waves can be polarised.
9. Electromagnetic waves show wave properties such as reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference.
10. Electromagnetic waves consist of a series of waves whose frequencies and wavelengths extend over a
broad range.

6.7.2 Visible light

1. Visible light waves are the only electromagnetic waves we can see.
2. It exists as the colour of rainbow where each colour has a different wavelength. Red has the longest
wavelength while violet has the shortest wavelength.
3. When white light shines through a prism or through water vapour, the white light is separated into the
rainbow colour of the visible light spectrum.
4. Visible light travels at a speed of c = 3× 108 m s-1.

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6.7.3 Electromagnetic spectrum

1. Electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous spectrum. This means that there is no distinct boundary separating two adjacent types of waves.

Type of Detrimental effects of

electomagnetic Sources Characteristics Applications excessive exposure to
wave Radiation
Radio waves a) Electrons oscillating a) Waves with longest wavelengths a) Broadcasting and wireless a) Migraine
λ = 10-1 − 104 in b) Carry audio and visual information. communication b) Headache
• Radio c) Long and medium wavelength radio waves can b) UHF (Ultra High Frequency) radio
transmitter diffract around hills and are able to be reflected by waves – television and mobile phone
• Television a layer of charged ions (ionosphere) above the c) VHF (Very High Frequency) radio
transmitter atmosphere. Hence, long and medium radio waves waves – local radio and wireless
can be received in far away and hilly places. communication used by police, taxi,
d) For VHF and UHF which are used in TV and FM ships etc.
radio transmissions, they are not reflected by upper
atmospheric layers and not well diffracted by hills.
Hence, TV and FM signals can only be received
clearly by using tall aerials.

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Microwaves a) Magnetrons a) Wavelength about few centimetres. a) Satellite transmission a) Internal heating of
λ = 10-3 – 10-1 b) Microwave ovens b) Can penetrate the atmosphere b) Radar system (navigation, weather body tissue
c) Radar transmitter c) Cause very quite heating by supplying heat energy forecast) b) Cataracts
to water molecules in an object to vibrate c) Traffic speed camera c) Brain tumor and inner
vigorously at frequency of the microwaves d) Global Positioning System (GPS) ear complications in
d) Radar for detecting and monitoring aircrafts. e) For cooking – microwave oven children when expose
f) Mobile phone networks too long to cellphone.
Infrared rays a) Hot objects a) All objects give out infrared, the hotter objects a) For cooking – ovens, grills and a) Over – heat
λ = 10-6 – 10-3 b) Sun give out more infrared radiation toasters b) Skin burns
c) Human body b) Thermal imaging – to detect tumors in the brain. b) Taking photographs in the dark
c) Objects below 500ºC emit infrared rays only. c) Remote control for televisions and
Objects above 500ºC emit infrared and red light video players
d) Intruder alarm system
e) Data transmission through optical
fibre network
f) Infrared binoculars for night vision
Visible light a) Sun a) Consists of seven components (red, orange, yellow, a) Visual communication a) Increase rates of
λ = 400nm – b) Electric bulb green, blue, indigo, and violet) b) Photography premature skin aging
700nm c) Fire b) Can be detect by naked eye c) Laser light – cutting of metals, land b) Skin cancer
d) LED survey, targeting device on rifles and c) Damage to retina
e) Incandescent lamps transmission of information through
f) Hot objects optical fibres.
d) Photocells
e) Photosynthesis
Ultraviolet a) Sun a) Can be absorbed by glass and the ozone layer in the a) Detecting fake notes a) Skin cancer
rays b) Mercury lamps atmosphere b) Sterilisation – killing bacteria on b) Sunburn
λ = 10-9 – 10-7 c) UV lamp b) Small amount is good for producing vitamin D medical equipment, purification of c) Blindness
d) Very hot objects c) Some materials fluoresce when they absorb drinking water d) Sun tan
ultraviolet radiations, such as fluorescent paint. e) Cataract
d) Fluorescent lamps produce ultraviolet rays which
are then converted to white light by the chemical
coating on the inner glass tube.
X-rays a) X – ray tube a) High energy a) Radiotherapy a) Cell damage
λ = 10 – 10
-9 -11 b) High penetrating power b) Medical imaging – detect cracks or b) Genetic defects
c) Highly ionizing rays fractures in bones, to study other c) Cancer
d) Very dangerous internal organs such as lungs, cancer
treatment

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e) Must be protected by a lead screen when operating c) Airport security check – luggage
the X – ray machines d) Detection of cracks in building
structures
e) Detect whether an old art pieces are
genuine
Gamma rays a) Radioactive a) High energy a) Radiotherapy a) Cell damage
λ = 10-11 or less substances b) High penetrating power b) Medical imaging b) DNA mutation
b) Cosmic rays c) Highly ionizing rays c) Sterilisation – food and medical c) Cancer
d) Very dangerous equipment (syringes and needles) d) Genetic defects
e) Should be handled at places where iron or lead d) Pest control in agriculture
sheets are used as shields to absorb the rays. e) Help engineers to check welds and
metal joints

24. State three differences between 25. Table below shows the uses of electromagnetic waves P, Q, R and S.
electromagnetic waves and sound waves. Electromagnetic
Use
wave
P Satellite communication
Q Producing shadow pictures of bones
R Used by plants in the photosynthesis process
Used in fluorescent lamps where it causes it to glow when it hits the fluorescent
S
powder
Identify waves P, Q, R and S.

26. The chart below shows the electromagnetic spectrum in order of increasing wavelengths.
Gamma rays A B Visible light C Microwave D
a) Name the wave labeled A, B, C and D
b) Name an electromagnetic wave with
i) a very low frequency
ii) a very low wavelength
c) State two properties of electromagnetic waves
d) Name an electromagnetic wave which can be sensed by humans
e) State one application for each of the following electromagnetic waves:
i) Gamma rays
ii) Visible light
iii) microwave

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Johor 08

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Kedah 08

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Kelantan 08

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Melaka 08

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Pahang 08

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Perak 08

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Perlis 08

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Selangor
08

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MRSM 08

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Negeri
Sembilan
08

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Pahang
08

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