3.

​EARTHQUAKES
DEF: These are sudden earth movements or vibrations in the earth's crust. They are caused
by:
1. One ​tectonic plate​ sliding over or past another plate along the line of fault;
2. Volcanic eruptions - the movement of molten rock below or onto the earth's crust,
which in turn is caused by the movement of plates.
Occurrence of earthquakes
Majority of earthquakes occur in narrow belts which mark the boundaries of tectonic plates.
The main types of regions where they occur are:
1. The mid-ocean ridges;
2. The ocean deeps and volcanic islands;
3. Regions of coastal compression.
The Distribution of Earthquakes:
-The world's distribution of earthquakes coincides very closely with that of volcanoes.
-Regions of greatest ​seismicity ​are:
1. The circum-pacific areas with the epicenters, and the most frequent occurrences
along the ‘​pacific ring of fire'.
-The region has 70 percent of the earthquakes in the world.
2. The Mediterranean - ​himalayan ​belt including the middle-east, the Himalayas and
parts of North-West China with 20 percent of earthquakes.
NB:​the only part of Africa which have earthquakes are located in the Great Rift Valley region
of East Africa and in parts of North-West.

THE EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES ON THE ENVIRONMENT

major effects, usually caused by movement along faults, can be very disastrous particularly
in a densely populated areas.
1. Destruction of human and animal life
Earthquakes cause only cause restricted damage in regions of occurrence, but their after
effects can be very catastrophic.
They produce gigantic tidal waves, called ​tsunamis ​by the Japanese, which flood towns and
drown thousands of people and animals.
2. Landslides
They can cause rapid kinds of movement that results in sliding or slumping of the land.
Large quantities of loosened surface rocks and soil suddenly slide down a steep slope such
as a valley side.
-Earthquakes open up deep cracks in the surface of rocks e.g. the El Asnam earthquake in
Algeria in 1954, destroyed an area of radius 40km and opened surface cracks up to 3m
deep.
3. Raising and Lowering of Sea floors.
The gigantic sudden movement cause some parts of Sea floors to be raised or lowered. For
instance, the Agadir earthquake in Morocco in 1960 raised the sea floor off the coast. In
some areas, the depth of the sea decreased from 400m to 15m after the earthquake.
The Sagami bay (Japan) in 1923, parts of the bay were uplifted by 215m. This raising of the
sea floors in most cases causes ​tsunamis.
4. Raising and lowering of the coastal regions
Earthquakes can also cause some parts of the coastal region to raise or be lowered. For
example, in the Alaskan earthquake of 1899, some coastal rocks were raised by 16m.
5. Displacement of the Crust
The gigantic tidal waves can displace parts of the earth's crust vertically or literally.
6. Dislocation of infrastructure and pollution
● Buildings collapse railways, roads, and bridges are buckled and twisted;
telecommunications are cut when the cables are snapped.
● Pollution result from broken pipelines and gas mains, with fires breaking out of
control.
MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKE.
1. The intensity of an earthquake is measured by an instrument called a ​seismograph​,
this instrument records the vibrations produced by earth’s sudden movement
(earthquake).
2. The ​magnitude ​of an earthquake refers to the total amount of energy released, and
the scale which gives the magnitude is called ​the richter scale. ​This scale ranges
from ​0 to 8.9.
3. The ​intensity​ of an earthquake refers to the effect produced by the earthquake.
measures Against Effects of Earthquakes.
● Modify the way tall buildings are constructed in areas vulnerable to earthquakes.
Strong and firm buildings should be erected by using steel frames, deep foundation
and light roofs.
● Conduct a thorough investigation and forecast the future trend of earthquakes so that
people are evacuated from the epicenter before the occurrence of an earthquake to
avoid loss of property and lives.
● The use of explosive materials like dynamites in rock breaking especially near
settlement areas should be discouraged.

Exercise
1. Define the following terms:
a. ​Earthquakes
b. Seismic wave
c. Epicenter
2. Explain the factors causing earthquakes.
3. Outline the effects of earthquakes.
4. What measures should be taken to minimise the effects of earthquakes?

VULCANISM
Def: Vulcanicity refers to all the various way by which magma (molten rock) and gases are
forced into the earth's crust and on to its surface.
Magma:
These are molten rocks below the surface of the earth.
Lava:
- When magma reaches the surface of the earth, it loses its gases and is called ​lava.
A volcano is an extrusive Landform formed by Vulcanicity. Volcanic activities are caused by
earth movements and primarily occur at plate boundaries (regions of crustal
compression-where plates meet and where plates diverge (move apart) as a result of
Tension Force.
It has been discussed that the earth's crust floats on the molten Mantle which constitutes
magma(molten rocks).
Therefore, any crack, fault or fissure in the earth's crust will cause or provide a way through
which magma escape and explode as a volcano or silently flow on the earth's crust, forming
lava plateaus and other enormous Landforms.
When magma reaches the surface of the earth, it solidifies and forms ​extrusive landforms
but the one that cools and solidify within the crust as plutonic rocks forming ​intrusive
landforms.

Where do most volcanic activities take place?

Most volcanic activities occurs in narrow belts which mark the boundaries of tectonic plates
and these include:
a. The mid-ocean ridges​ (where plates move-apart) due to tension forces
b. Regions of Crustal compression ​(where plates meet) due to compression forces.
For example, the Circum-pacific areas have the highest number of percentage of frequent
occurrences of most volcanic activities along the ​Pacific Ring of Fire. This is because the
pacific region is where tectonic plates meet(as a result of compression forces) and
move-apart (as a result of Tension forces).
Diagram showing where most volcanic activities takes place.

4. ​LANDFORM ASSOCIATED WITH VOLCANIC ACTIVITIES

A. ​Landforms of Igneous Intrusions:

Landforms of igneous intrusion are Landforms that develop as a result of magma cooling
and solidifying in the earth's crust. It's not always the case that magma reaches the surface
of the earth's crust,but it's thick, it may cool and solidify in the earth's crust, and the features
formed are called ​Landforms of igneous intrusion. There are basically six(6) of them.
1. Batholith​:
- Is a very large mass of magma(igneous rocks) which accumulates in the crust.
Sometimes it forms the rock of core of a mountain.
- Batholiths are made of granite, which after removal of the overlying rocks forms a
massive and resistant upland region such as the Wicklow Mountains of Ireland and
the Chaillu Massif in Gabon.
- Sometimes, the solidified magma have given rise to extensive Batholiths with
hundreds of kilometers in extent. Batholiths are the most spectacular of the intrusive
landforms.
- When Batholiths are exposed at the surface by denudation forces, they form
inselbergs. A good example in Zambia is the Sinda Batholith in Eastern province.

2. Sill​:
When an intrusion of molten magma is made horizontally along the bedding planes of
sedimentary rocks, the resultant intrusion is called a ​Sill.
Some ​sills ​form ridge-like escarpments when exposed by erosion, e.g. the Great Whin sill of
North-east England.
 3. Dyke​:
When a mass of magma ​cuts across bedding planes,​ it forms a structure called a ​dyke.
- Dykes may be vertical or inclined to some degree. Some dykes are easily eroded to
form shallow trenches,others resist erosion and stand up as well-like ridges, e.g. The
Kaap valley ridge in South Africa and Cleveland Dyke of Yorkshire; England.
4. Laccolith​:
Is a large blister or igneous mound with a ​dome-shape ​upper surface and a level base fed by
a pipe-like conduit from below.
- It arches up the overlying strata of sedimentary rocks, e.g. The laccoliths of the Henry
Mountains in Utah, USA.
5. Lopolith​:
This is a ​saucer-shaped igneous intrusion. They are formed when magma is injected
between layers of rocks and solidifies in shape of a saucer.
- A shallow basin is formed when exposed to the earth's surface .e.g ​the Bushveld
lopoliths of South Africa.
6. Phacolith
Is a lens-shaped mass of igneous rocks occupying the crest of an anticline or the bottom of a
syncline and being fed by a conduit from beneath.
An example of a phacolith is ​Corndon hill in Shropshire, England.

B. Extrusive Volcanic Landforms

Extrusive Landforms result when hot lava reaches the surface of the earth, then solidifies
and forms features like volcanoes, craters, calderas, lava plateaux or lava plains, volcanic
plugs or volcanic neck, lava dammed lakes and hot springs and geysers.
It's the type of lava (either highly fluid, thick or viscous) that is responsible for the formation
of different extrusive Landforms/features.
The following are the extrusive features:
1. Volcanic Mountains or Hill.
These are mountains formed when lava erupts through an opening or vent and piles on the
surface. Volcanic cones are made up of lava, ash and cider and vary in size from small to
large mountains.
2. Volcanoes
magma sometimes reaches the surface of the earth through a ​vent ​(hole, or a fissure (crack)
in the surface rocks. When magma emerges at the surface,it is called ​Lava.
- If lava emerges via a vent, it usually builds up a ​volcano​, with a cone-shaped
mound.
- If it emerges from a fissure, it may build up a ​lava plain, or a lava plateau.

Features of a Volcano
- The mound of a volcano is called the ​cone and this may consist of ​lava​, or a ​mixture
of lava ​and ​rocks ​torn from the crust by the molten magma, or it may consist of ​ash
and ​cinders ​(small fragments of lava).
- The channel through which the lava rises is called the ​pipe​,and the exit of the pipe
which is usually a shallow depression, is called the ​Crater.
Diagram showing structure/features of a volcano.
Classification of Volcanoes.
Volcanoes are classified according to their present state, that is, ​Active, Dormant and
extinct.
1. Active Volcanoes
Volcanoes that has erupted recently and still showing signs of further eruption.
2. Dormant Volcanoes
The ones that have been known to erupt and show signs of possible eruption in the future.
E.g. Mt. Vesuvius, Italy, Mt. Fuji etc.
3. Extinct Volcanoes
These are volcanoes that have not erupted at all in historic times but retain features of
volcanoes. E.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Meru.

Major Types of Volcanoes

Volcanoes are formed in different shapes and sizes, depending on the type of lava and the
nature of eruption. The major types of volcanoes are;
Basic lava volcano (shield volcano), ash and cinder volcano, composite volcano
(strato-volcanoes) and Caldera.