IL NUOVO CIMENT0 VOL. 24 B, N.

2 11 Dicembre 1974

Gravitational Field of a Freely Moving Mass.

F. SALZ1VIAN
University of Massachusetts Boston Campus, Columbia Point - Dorchester, Mass.

(ricevuto il 4 Febbraio 1974)

S u m m a r y . - - A definition of a freely moving mass in generM relativity

is proposed based upon properties of the anMogous motion in spceiM
relativity. Co-ordinate ambiguities can, to a large extent, be removed
with the use of ((invarian~ )) quantities which play the role of (, gauge
invariants ~) in general relativity under co-ordinate transformations which
do not change the frame of reference. The gravitational ((force • which
a freely moving source, taken to be a Schwarzsehild mass, exerts on a
test mass momentarily at rest, or on another mass momentarily at rest
asymptotically far away is calculated, showing that two-body effects can
be i m p o r t a n t even in the ease of a (( test ~ mass. The definition of a freely
moving mass is shown to be physically meaningful to terms of second
order. The calculation has close similarities to that for the analogous
motion of a freely moving charge in electrodynamics, renforeing the
idea that a restricted set of co-ordinate transformations in general rela-
tivity corresponds to the gauge transformations of eleetrodynamies in
special relativity.

1. - Introduction.

There has been interest recently in approaching general relativity from

a d y n a m i c a l , r a t h e r t h a n a g e o m e t r i c a l , p o i n t of view (1.:).
I n t h e p a s t , t h e g e o m e t r i c a l a p p r o a c h has b e e n w i d e l y p r e v a l e n t , s t e m m i n g
i n large p a r t f r o m E i n s t e i n ' s i n t e p r e t a t i o n of g e n e r a l r e l a t i v i t y a n d his v i s i o n
t h a t this w o u l d b e c o m e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l f r a m e w o r k of a n a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g ,

(1) F. SALZMAN and G. SALZMAN: Lett. Nuovo Cimento, l, 859 (1969).

(2) S. WEINBF~RG: Gravitation and Cosmology (New York, N . Y . , 1972).

1.~
158 F. SkLZMAN

unified field theory. Because the geometrical approach is so distinctively

specialized, it has characteristically tended to de-emphasize the relationship
between general relativity and other field theories. Thus, as WEI~BEnG notes (5),
Einstein's vision has not been realized, and, in the meantime, the geometrical
approach, rather t h a n h a v i n g led to unification, has set general relativity
substantially apart from other field theories.
I n constrast, a dynamical approach has the p r o p e r t y t h a t it naturally
leads one to consider problems and use methods corresponding to those in
other field theories, t h e r e b y making one focus on the close similarities between
general relativity and other theories. Of course, general relativity does have
properties unique to it, such as the arbitrariness of co-ordinate systems, which
give rise to well-known difficulties and significant differences, and which have
to be borne in mind. However, how general relativity is perceived, i.e. as
a t h e o r y with f u n d a m e n t a l features in common with other field theories albeit
with substantial differences, or as a distinctly separate theory, has a direct
bearing even on the kinds of questions which are raised.
Thus, in a dynamical approach, it is natural to seek to determine the
gravitational field of a mass which is moving freely in a force-free region of
space, t h a t is, performing motion which is analogous to nonaccelerated or
uniform motion in special relativity. I t is physically interesting to determine
the field of the moving mass for precisely the same reasons it is of interest
to determine the electromagnetic field produced b y a uniformly moving charge
in classical electrodynamics. F r o m the field one can find the effect which the
m o v i n g mass has on a test mass, or its effect on an arbitrary mass (spatially)
a s y m p t o t i c a l l y far away.
I f the magnitude of the asymptotic gravitational field reflects the fact
t h a t the total energy, kinetic as well as rest mass, acts as a source of the
gravitational field, as would be expected, then there are interesting conse-
quences. For example, it is possible t h a t a particle of very small rest mass
in the field of a massive object m a y not be t r e a t e d as a (( test ~) mass if its
energy is sufficiently high. When, as is usually done, the motion of the (( test )~
mass is obtained b y means of the geodesic equation for the case in which the
massive source is assumed to be <<fixed >), this point m a y not be evident. For
example, if we consider a (~test >) mass falling freely along a radius in the
Schwarzschild field of a massive, <~fixed >> source, t h e n the equation of the
(radial) geodesic, in Schwarzschild co-ordinates, is

d2r mG
d~ r~ ,

where r is the Schwarzschild radial co-ordinate, dT the element of proper time,

m the mass of the source and G the gravitational constant. Since the equation
is independent of the energy of the <~test ~>mass, there is no indication that,
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF A FREELY M O V I N G I~IASS 1~

for a highly energetic particle, energy-dependent t w o - b o d y effects m a y be

important.
A related question is examined b y I~ (a) in connection with the
problem of identifying gravitational waves in general relativity. I n partic-
ular, he studies characteristics of the a s y m p t o t i c g r a v i t a t i o n a l field of a fast-
moving particle, noting that, in t h e analogous situation in electrodynamics,
the greater t h e speed of a charge, the more its electromagnetic field resembles
a plane electromagnetic wave. PI]~A~I finds, in w h a t he t e r m s an invariant
manner, t h a t t h e gravitational field of a fast-moving mass likewise increasingly
resembles a plane gravitational wave, the greater t h e speed of the mass.
Although a p p a r e n t l y m o t i v a t e d to consider the gravitational field of a
fast m o v i n g mass b y an analogy with electromagnetic theory, PInA~I uses
a m e t h o d of analysis which differs considerably f r o m t h a t used in t h e elec-
t r o d y n a m i c case, and also f r o m t h e t r e a t m e n t given here.
Pirani's m e t h o d is based upon an invariant characterization of t h e gravi-
tational field in t e r m s of the R i e m a n n tensor. The desire for such an i n v a r i a n t
formulation stems quite n a t u r a l l y f r o m the fact t h a t the gravitational field,
represented b y the elements of the Christoffel symbol F~e, can t a k e on a r b i t r a r y
values at a given space-time point in different co-ordinate systems, and can
even vanish entirely in the freely falling frame, i.e. in the local inertial, or
local Lorentz, frame. Thus, in order to show t h a t a gravitational field exists
and to determine whether gravitational radiation is present, it is necessary
to s t u d y the l~iemann tensor, which describes the variations of the gravitational
field. Since the electromagnetic field cannot be m a d e to vanish b y choosing
a particular co-ordinate system, in this respect gravitational and electromagnetic
theories are distinctly different.
The i n v a r i a n t formulation involves reducing the R i e m a n n tensor at a n y
given space-time point to certain canonical forms, first given b y PET~OV.
The physical significance of a canonical f o r m is t h a t t h e values of its elements
at the space-time point are those which would be m e a s u r e d b y an observer
in a local Lorentz frame. I n the case in which gravitational radiation exists,
the elements of the canonical f o r m contain a scalar t e r m which is f r a m e
dependent. I n the case of the Schwarzschild gravitational field of a mass, the
R i e m a n n tensor assumes its canonical f o r m in the local Lorentz f r a m e at rest
with respect to t h e mass, and its nonzero elements are equal to scalar invar-
iants of the l~iemann tensor. PI~ANI arrives at his conclusion about the char-
acter of the a s y m p t o t i c gravitational field of a f a s t - m o v i n g mass b y m a k i n g
a Lorentz t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the R i e m a n n tensor (in canonical form) in the
local rest Lorentz f r a m e to the f r a m e of a Lorentz observer moving rapidly
with respect to the mass and t h e n comparing the d o m i n a n t t e r m s of the trans-

(3) F . A . E . PIRANI: Proc. Roy. Soc., 252A, 96 (1959).

160 F. SALZ~A~

formed tensor with the elements of the canonical f o r m of the R i e m a n n tensor

for t h e ease in which g r a v i t a t i o n a l radiation exists.
W i t h this m e t h o d of characterizing the gravitational field, one c a n n o t
obtain direct answers to t h e questions raised a b o v e concerning the effect t h a t
the g r a v i t a t i o n a l field has on another mass because the calculation is carried
out in local inertial frames at a given space-time point, in which t h e gTavi-
r a t i o n a l field vanishes. I n such frames, the metric tensor, which plays the
role of a potential in general relativity, is simply t h a t for flat space-time.
Certain properties of the motion of a mass in a force-free region h a v e been
discussed in connection with its t o t a l e n e r g y - m o m e n t u m P ' , defined as
follows (4):

(1.1) p~ = ~ ( - - g ) ( T ' ~ t~~

J

where Greek indices range f r o m 0 to 3 (and L a t i n indices f r o m 1 to 3), units

with c = 1 are used, dV is the element of spatial hypersurface for x ~- - con-
stant, g is the d e t e r m i n a n t of the metric tensor, T "~ is the e n e r g y - m o m e n t u m
tensor density for the m a t t e r field, and t "~ is a q u a n t i t y which in particular
co-ordinate systems and u n d e r linear t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s has the physical prop-
erties associated with the e n e r g y - m o m e n t u m density of the gravitational
field. The q u a n t i t y PZ has physically meaningful properties a p p r o p r i a t e for
t h e t o t a l m a t t e r - g r a v i t a t i o n a l e n e r g y - m o m e n t u m four-vector of a freely m o v i n g
particle only with respect to restricted reference frames and co-ordinate systems,
which are defined below.
Since at spatial infinity the gravitational field of the freely m o v i n g mass
is zero and the four-space is flat, co-ordinate systems can be chosen such t h a t
for sufficiently large spatial distances f r o m the mass m, the metric tensor
approaches, and at infinity equals, t h a t for Lorentz (pseudo-Cartesian) co-
ordinates (t, x, y, z) in flat space-time, given b y t h e Lorentz metric (tensor) V,~,
where ~o0 -----], Un ~ U~ ~-- U33~-- -- 1, and V,~ --~ 0 for # v~ v.
A co-ordinate s y s t e m with this property, called here an a s y m p t o t i c a l l y
L o r e n t z co-ordinate system, determines ~ f r a m e of reference which ~ s y m p t o -
ticMly approaches a Lorentz frame. For the freely moving mass m, a region
of sufficiently large spatial size can t h e n be designated with the p r o p e r t y t h a t
outside of it the gravitational field of the mass m a y be t a k e n to vanish.
Outside of the designated region, an a s y m p t o t i c a l l y Lorentz co-ordinate s y s t e m
is chosen, with Cartesian spatial co-ordinates denoted b y x, y, z; inside the
region, t h e co-ordinates x ~ are arbitrary. W i t h respect to such co-ordinate
systems, the components P ' , defined in eq. (1.1), are independent of t h e t i m e
co-ordinate x ~ and independent of the co-ordinates used in the interior region.

(a) L. D. LANDAU and E. M. LII~SHITZ: The Classical Theory o] l~ields, I I I Edition

(Oxford, 1971), p. 307.
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF K F R E ] g L Y M O V I N G MASS 161

The rest f r a m e of the mass m, as c o m m o n l y accepted, is determined b y

the solutions of the Schwarzschild p r o b l e m in which the components of the
metric tensor are time independent, i.e.

(1.2) ~g.~(x~176 o.

Let an S - c o - o r d i n a t e s y s t e m be a n y co-ordinate s y s t e m which satisfies eq. (1.2),

and denote b y S the f r a m e of reference which the S - c o - o r d i n a t e systems deter-
mine. F o r an a s y m p t o t i c a l l y Lorentz S-co-ordinate system, the components P "
of eq. (1.1) are given b y

(1.3) P~ = (m, O, O, O),

so t h a t t h e energy E : m (in units with e = 1) and t h e m o m e n t u m P = 0 .

Thus, consistent with the S-frame being considered t h e rest f r a m e of the mass,
the t o t a l m a t t e r - g r a v i t a t i o n a l energy of the mass, as determined b y the
a s y m p t o t i c g r a v i t a t i o n a l field, is equal to its gravitational mass, a result which
expresses the equality of gravitational and inertial mass. Under a n y co-ordinate
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n which in the exterior region has the f o r m of a Lorentz trans-
formation, the components P " t r a n s f o r m as the e o n t r a v a r i a n t components of
a Lorentz four-vector, so t h a t

(1.4) P " = (E, P ) .

The results stated in eqs. (1.3) and (1.4) support the idea that, at large
spatial distances, the gravitational field of a freely m o v i n g mass is proportional
to its energy, and indicate the conditions under which this physically meaningful
p r o p e r t y holds. There is, however, considerable reluctance to a t t a c h a n y
physical significance to the gr~vitationM field itself. The generally accepted
view, expressed b y PII~A~I (5), is t h a t (, I n accordance with the principle of
equivalence, only the variations in the field, and not the field itself, can
produce a n y real physical effects )>.
Our point of view is considerably different, n a m e l y t h a t the gravitational
field of a mass does h a v e a real physical effect, t h a t is, it exerts a (~force ,~
on another mass, and, for this reason, it is of physical interest. There are,
of course, co-ordinate ambiguities which appear to m a k e t h e gravitational
field, as represented b y the elements of the Christoffel symbol F~o, completely
arbitrary, and therefore meaningless. W h a t we wish to d e m o n s t r a t e here is
t h a t the gravitational field, for a restricted set of reference frames and co-
ordinate systems, has certain reasonable physical properties, just as the t o t a l
e n e r g y - m o m e n t u m P~ of the freely moving mass, for a restricted set of
reference frames and co-ordinate systems, has physical properties which are

(5) F. A. E. PIRANI: Phys. Rev., 105, 1089 (1957).

162 r. SALZMAN

the same as those characteristic of the e n e r g y - m o m e n t u m four-vector of a

freely m o v i n g particle in special relativity.
Given t h a t a gravitational field exists, then, as emphasized by MOLLEn (6),
the gravitational field in a given frame of reference is regarded as representing
a particular physical situation and, therefore, as being the same field in all
the co-ordinate systems of the frame. I n different frames of reference, the
gravitational field is regarded as representing, in general, different physical
situations. Given t h a t a field exists, this view of the gravitational field is
analogous to t h a t of the electromagnetic field, where the field is considered
to be physically different in different frames of reference. I n general relativity,
the local freely falling frames at a given space-time point, in each of which
the gravitational field vanishes locally, are un exceptional, but not arbitrary,
set of reference frames.
Co-ordinate ambiguities can be removed to a large and physically mean-
ingful extent with the use of <~frame invariant >>quantities (~.~ i.e. quantities
whose values remain the same under co-ordinate transformations which do
not change the frame of reference. Consider an a r b i t r a r y frame of reference R.
Let x" be a n y co-ordinate system of R, called an R - c o - o r d i n a t e system, and
let the line element be given b y

(1.5) ds2 ~ g~ dx ~ dx ~_-- go0(dxO)~~ 2goidx~ ~~- gijdx i dx J .

A co-ordinate system x '~ is also an R - c o - o r d i n a t e system if it is related to

an R - c o - o r d i n a t e system x" b y the co-ordinate transformation

•li: xli(x j) ,
(1.6)
x'O= x~O(x~) ,

where the spatial co-ordinates x '~ are functions of the spatial co-ordinates x j
only.
The values of the elements of spatial distance de and the element of time
interval dT0 orthogonal to the hypersurface of spatial elements, which are
given b y

(1.7) da 2 ~ - ( giJ g~goo ]

and
,~ dxi\ 2
(1.8) dTo2 : - goo dx ~ -~ .oi |
g0o / '

are invariant under the transformations of eq. (1.6) and thus are independent

(s) C. MOLLER: The Theory o/ Relativity, I[ Edition (Oxford, 1972), p. 267, 268, 281.
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF A F R E E L Y ' M O V I N G MASS 163

of the particular R - c o - o r d i n a t e s y s t e m employed. Physically, the values of da

and dTo are those which would be measured b y a local Lorentz observer in
an inertial f r a m e instantaneously at rest in R. Since t h e values of da and dTo
depend only on the f r a m e of reference R, t h e y are frame- or R-invariant
quantities.
Let V(R) denote the three-velocity of a particle m e a s u r e d b y a local Lorentz
observer instantaneously at rest in R, and call VIR) the R-frame Lorentz
velocity of the particle. The m a g n i t u d e of this velocity, I V(R)I, given b y

(1.9) V(~) = Ida/dTol,

is R-invariant. The invariant speed of light Vz, with respect to any reference
frame, is always given b y

(1.10) V~ ~ 1 .

As MOL~ER argues (6), co-ordinate transformations which leave the elements

of spatial g e o m e t r y invariant m u s t also be regarded as leaving the gravita-
tional field unchanged. Such t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s are closely analogous to the
gauge t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s of eleetrodynamics which leave t h e electromagnetic field
unchanged. Co-ordinate t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s which leave a f r a m e of reference
unchanged result only in the relabeling of the points of reference and in the
changing of the settings and rates of clocks. Following M~OLLER, we regard
the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s of eq. (1.6) as being analogous to t h e gauge transformations
of eleetrodynamies; we will refer to t h e m as the ~ o l l e r gauge transformations.
F r a m e - i n v a r i a n t quantities such as da and dTo should be viewed as playing
the role of (( gauge invariants ~) in general relativity.
I n the rest f r a m e S of the mass m , there are additional S-invariant quan-
tities (~). Because the components of the metric tensor of an S-co-ordinate
system are t i m e independent, it follows t h a t the c o m p o n e n t goo, if normalized
to u n i t y at spatial infinity, is an S-invariant, i.e.

(1.11) g:o(X"(X~)) = goo(X~),

where x 's and x j are related b y a Moiler gauge t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . Since, in

Sehwarzsehild co-ordinates goo vanishes on the Sehwarzschild surface r ~ ra,
where rs--~ 2raG, it t h e n follows f r o m eq. (1.11) t h a t goo m u s t vanish on this
surface in all S-co-ordinate systems. The energy Et of a test mass mt falling
freely in the Sehwarzsehild gravitational field of the mass m, with an S - i n w r -
iant speed V(s~, is given b y

(goo) ~
(1.12) E t ~- m , (] _ V~s))89,

and thus is manifestly an S-invariant quantity. A]so, the energy E t is a con-

164 F. SALZ~AN

s t a n t of the motion because the components of the metric tensor are t i m e

independent.
The S-frame is regarded as a preferred f r a m e of reference. A n y other f r a m e
m o v i n g with respect to the S-frame is physically determined b y means of the
S-frame Lorentz velocities of its points. I n order to be consistent with special
relativity, a definition of a <,freely moving ~>mass in general r e l a t i v i t y must,
at a m i n i m u m , satisfy the conditions under which the t o t a l energy-momen-
t u m P " of the mass's m a t t e r - g r a v i t y field, given b y eq. (1.1), has the physi-
cally meaningful properties characteristic of the e n e r g y - m o m e n t u m four-vector
of a freely moving particle in special relativity.
As indicated in the discussion of eq. (1.3), in a n y a s y m p t o t i c a l l y Lorentz
S - c o - o r d i n a t e system, the components of P " are those one would expect for
a particle at rest, assuming t h e equiva]ence of inertial and gravitational mass.
Thus, a n y a s y m p t o t i c a l l y Lorentz S-co-ordinate s y s t e m satisfies the m i n i m u m
condition necessary to describe the mass m at rest in a force-free region.
F u r t h e r m o r e , po is an S - i n v a r i a n t and the spatial components P~ b e h a v e as
the c o m p o n e n t s of a t h r e e - v e c t o r under spatial rotations b u t do not change
their values under those Moller gauge t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s which do not change
the basis vectors (the c o m p o n e n t s of p s are, of course, invariant under a n y
co-ordinate t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in the interior of the designated region described
above).
Thus, as indicated in the discussion of eq. (1.4), a necessary condition for
the mass m to be m o v i n g <~freely ~>with respect to a f r a m e 0 is t h a t in the
a s y m p t o t i c region there exists an 0 - c o - o r d i n a t e s y s t e m related to an a s y m p t o -
tically Lorentz S-co-ordinate s y s t e m b y a Lorentz transformation. I t seems
n a t u r a l to extend this definition so t h a t it applies not only to the a s y m p t o t i c
region b u t also t h r o u g h o u t the physical region outside the physical dimensions
of the mass. I n order to e x t e n d the definition, we note t h a t co-ordinates r, 0, r
are called sphericallike co-ordinates if the c o m p o n e n t s of the metric tensor
in t e r m s of these co-ordinates can be written in the normal Euclidean spherical
form times a factor which depends only on r, and we call co-ordinates x, y, z
Cartesian-like if t h e y are related to a set of spherieallike co-ordinates b y the
familiar transformations. Therefore, based upon the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n properties
of nonaccelerated motion in special relativity, we say t h a t a mass moves
~ freely ~>, i.e. in nonaccelerated motion, with respect to a n y f r a m e 0 p r o v i d e d
there exist 0 - c o - o r d i n a t e systems related t h r o u g h o u t the physical region
outside the physical dimensions of the mass to spatially Cartesian-like, a s y m p -
totically Lorentz, S-co-ordinate systems b y a Lorentz transformation.
However, if, in general relativity, a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is introduced based
upon a particular co-ordinate velocity and not restricted to the a s y m p t o t i c
region, t h e n a p p a r e n t difficulties and ambiguities arise due to the arbitrariness
of co-ordinate systems. Thus, PIRANI (3) notes t h a t there are ~ technically
a w k w a r d ~> difficulties in defining w h a t he calls <~uniform motion ~> in general
GRA.VITATIONAL F I E L D OF A F R E E L Y M O V I N G MASS 1~5

relativity. H e does not discuss the difficulties because he finds t h a t in the

asymptotic region, even if the definition is not unique, it does not affect the
values of his results. Because the t e r m (, uniform >>as applied to motion does
appear to be ambiguous in general relativity, we prefer to use only the terms
<(freely m o v i n g >>and <(nonaecelerated )> to describe the physical motion which
is analogous to t h a t motion in special relativity for which all three terms are
usually used.
I n Sect. 2 the definition of nonaceelerated motion is considered in more
detail. I n Sect. 3 we obtain the geodesic equation for a <(test )> mass momen-
tarily at rest in ~ frame 0, with respect to which the Schwarzschild mass m
is moving with nonaccelerated motion. The gravitational (~force ~>on the test
m~ss m~ is f o u n d to depend upon the energy of the freely moving mass m.
However, the geodesic equation has a kinematical singularity due to the van-
ishing of the component G00 of the metric tensor, where G denotes the com-
ponents of the metric tensor in the O-frame. This singularity is the kinematical
generalization of the Sehwarzsehild surface for the ease in which the Schwarz-
sehild source is not at rest. F o r sufficiently large values of the co-ordinate
velocity of the Lorentz transformation, the singularity lies outside the physical
dimensions of the mass m. The vanishing of G00 in the O-frame is considered
in Sect. 2.
I n Sect. 4 we show t h a t (~nonaecelerated ~>motion as defined here is a phys-
ically meaningful concept to second-order terms. This is done by obtaining
the Lagrangian to second-order terms lor a moving Schwarzschild source m
and a moving test mass mt b y m a k i n g a Lorentz transformation on the metric
tensor of an S-co-ordinate system. The results are compared with those
obtained b y the usual procedure of integrating the field equations. The exactly
analogous calculation in eleetrodynamies is performed to obtain the interaetion
Lagrangian to second-order terms for a moving source charge and a test charge.
The two sets of calculations have striking similarities, particularly the parallel
roles of a Moller gauge transformation performed in the gravitational ease
and the usual gauge transformation performed in the electrodynamie ease.
The results are discussed further in Sect. 5.

2. - S - s y s t e m c o - o r d i n a t e s and the L o r e n t z t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .

Let x ~ = (t, x, y, z) be a n y asymptotically Lorentz S-co-ordinate system

with Cartesian-like spatial co-ordinates. A Lorentz transformation of the
x~-co-ordinates, t a k e n to be along the xl-axis with relative co-ordinate three-
velocity ~ V leads to new co-ordinates X ' = (T, X, Y, Z), given b y the
equations

I T~-~(t@ Vx),
(2.1)
t X~y(x~ Vt), Y=y, Z=z,
166 ~. SALZMAN

where
7 = (1- V~) -~ .

Thus, the fixed points of the frame determined b y the X"-co-ordinates all
move with a constant x~-co-ordinate three-velocity dx~/dt = 6~,(--V).
The X ' - c o - o r d i n a t e s , defined b y the Lorentz transformation of eqs. (2.1),
are an asymptotically Lorentz co-ordinate system since the x~-co-ordinates
are, i.e. at spatial infinity G#~(X ~) = ~ , where G~,~(X ~) is the metric tensor
in the X~-co-ordinate system. For a given value V of the Lorentz trans-
formation, the X~-co-ordinates determine a frame O, and, at spatial infinity,
the O-frame is a uniquely determined Lorentz frame, independent of the
particular S-co-ordinate system used. As discussed in Sect. 1, for a given value
of V, the total e n e r g y - m o m e n t u m P~ of the mass m with respect to the
a s y m p t o t i c O-frame, defined in eq. (1.1), is also uniquely determined.
F r o m eqs. (1.7), (1.8) and (1.9), and from the fact t h a t at spatial infinity
g,~ = U,~, it follows t h a t at spatial infinity the S-frame Lorentz velocities of
the fixed points X j of the O-frame are equal to their common x~-co-ordinate
three-velocity, i.e. at spatial infinity

r~z)-= dx~/dt = 6~1(-- V) .

Hence, b y specifying the Lorentz frame 0 at spatial infinity, the value of V

of the L o r e n t z transformations of eqs. (2.1) is uniquely determined, inde-
pendent of the S-co-ordinate system.
I n order to consider the properties of the O-frame at finite spatial distances,
we t a k e the co-ordinates x" to be, for simplicity, a t i m e - o r t h o g o n a l system,
i.e. go~= O. Let P be a fixed point of the S-frame with co-ordinates (t, x~)
and denote b y X~ the spatial co-ordinates of the fixed point of the O-frame
which coincides with the point P at time t. Since the x ' - e o - o r d i n a t e three-
velocity of the point X~ is dx~/dt ~-- 6~(--V) we find from eqs. (1.7), (1.8)
and (1.9) t h a t the S-frame Lorentz velocity of the point X~ is

(2.2)
(-gxx(X~,))~
r~)(xl) = ~ (g00(x;:))~ ( - v ) ,

independent of the time co-ordinate t. Consider now another time-orthogonal

system x '~', and let (t', x'pj) be the co-ordinates of the space-time event which
in the x ' - c o - o r d i n a t e system is given b y (t, x~). Let X ' ' be the new co-ordinates
resulting from the Lorentz transformation of eqs. (2.1), O' the frame which
the X ' ' - c o - o r d i n a t e s determine, and X~ the co-ordinates of the fixed point
of the O'-frame which coincides with the point P at the time t'. Since every
fixed point of the X'~-co-ordinate system has an x ' ' - c o - o r d i n a t e three-velocity
d x ' i / d t ' = 6~(--V), it follows from eqs. (1.7), (1.8) and (1.9) that the S-frame
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF A F R E E L Y M O V I N G MASS 167

Lorentz velocity of the fixed point X~~ is

/ 1j

(2.3) V(~(X~, ) = ~ , ,j (-- V)

(goo(xe))89
independent of the t i m e co-ordinate t'. Comparison of eqs. (2.2) and (2.3)
shows t h a t the S-frame Lorentz velocities of the points X~ and X~j are dif-
ferent because, although g0o is a frume-invuriant q u a n t i t y , i.e. goo(X~)= goo(Xp' 'J),
r tj
in general g,,(x~)# g,,(xe ). Thus, for finite spatial distances, t h a t is, if terms
in the metric tensor are k e p t to first or higher order in the gravitational con-
s t a n t G, t h e frames 0 and O' are different frames of reference.
Hence, in general, the co-ordinates X ", defined for a given value V b y
the Lorcntz t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of eqs. (2.1), determine a new f r a m e of reference
which depends u p o n the x ' - e o - o r d i n a t c system. Such a f r a m e is designated
b y O(x'; V), where x" stands for the S-co-ordinate s y s t e m used, and V t h e
velocity of t h e Lorentz transformation. A f r a m e O(x'; V) is physically deter-
mined b y t h e S-invariant speeds of the fixed points of the frame.
For a given f r a m e O(xt'; V), t h e S-frame Lorentz velocities given b y eq. (2.2)
for different points P are, in general, different. However, in the a s y m p t o t i c
region, given in Schwarzsehild co-ordinates b y r>> r~, we find, neglecting
t e r m s of order rG/r in eqs. (1.7), (1.8) and (1.9), t h a t V(s)(X ~ J) equals the
co-ordinate velocity, independent of the a s y m p t o t i c point P, i.e.

(2.4) V~z)(X ~) : 6~(-- V) for r >~ ra.

To this order of approximation, t h e Lorentz t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m a y be described

as leading to (( nearly }> uniform motion, independent of the S-co-ordinate
system.
The c o m p o n e n t s of the metric tensor for the new co-ordinates X ' , G,~(X ~
are obtained f r o m the components g~ b y the usual t r a n s f o r m a t i o n laws

~x ~ ~x~
(2.5) G ~ = g ~ ~X~ ~X~ '

where the p a r t i a l derivatives are found f r o m the Lorentz co-ordinate trans-

f o r m a t i o n of eqs. (2.1). Since the x ' - c o - o r d i n a t c s y s t e m has been assumed
to be a s y m p t o t i c a l l y Lorentz, the components g~ of the metric tensor can
be written for large r as

(2.6) g. = ~ . + h , r>>ra,

where ~,~ is t h e Lorentz metric and h,~ are terms of order ra/r. Substituting
this expression into eq. (2.5) and writing G~ as

(2.7) G = ~]z~~ - / / ~ ,
168 ~. S&LZMAN

we find t h a t , for r ~) rq, //z~ are terms of order ~:ra/r. Since the a s y m p t o t i c
region is usually defined as the region in which the metric tensor is well
a p p r o x i m a t e d b y the Lorentz metric, we see t h a t the asymptotic region for
the XZ-co-ordinates, expressed in terms of the Sehwarzschild radial co-ordinate r,
is given b y

(2.8) r ~ y ~ r G, G ~]~.

Thus, the designated region needed to determine the total energy-momentum

P " of the mass m, defined in eq. (2.1), is a frame-dependent quantity.
The fact t h a t it is possible at a given space-time point to have h in the
x'-co-ordinates negligibly small, b u t H in the trasformed co-ordin~tes X"
arbitrarily large, is often cited as evidence for the supposed physical meaning-
lessness of the metric tensor. The point we wish to make here is that, at least
with respect to Lorentz transformations, this behavior is not a r b i t r a r y b u t
reflects the fundamental p r o p e r t y of the gravitational field t h a t the total
energy of a mass, a frame-dependent quantity, acts as a source of the gravi-
tational field.
I t is of interest to determine the points x~ at which G00 vanishes, i.e. the
surface

eoo(X'~) = o .

With use of eq. (2.5) and the co-ordinate transformation laws of eq. (2.1),
we find

(2.9) Goo : (goo-- 2go~V § g~ V~)~ ~ .

Consider light traveling along the xl-axis and d e n o t e its x ' - c o - o r d i n a t e three-
velocity b y vi, = (v~, 0, 0), where vz,= (dx/dt),. F r o m the null line element of
eq. (1.5), we find t h a t the xl-component vz, satisfies the equation

(2.20) o = goo+ 2go~V,~+ g~v~.

The two solutions of eq. (2.10) for the x ' - e o - o r d i n a t e three-velocity of light
traveling along the xl-axis, in general, are different and represent light trav-
eling in the positive and negative directions. Comparison of eqs. (2.9) and (2.10)
shows t h a t the points x ~ at which GoQ(X~) vanishes have an x#-eo-ordinate
three-velocity, which as for all points of O(xZ; V) is given b y dx~/dt ~ ~,(-- V),
equal to t h a t of light traveling in the same direction. I t follows immediately
from the definition of S-invariant speed of eq. (1.9) t h a t for I V I ~ 0 the
S-invariant speeds of these points are equal to the S-invariant speed of light.
Therefore, the vanishing of G0Q is an O(x,; V)-frame invariant p r o p e r t y : it
cannot be transformed away within the co-ordinate systems of t h a t frame.
I t is generally accepted t h a t a frame is not a physically realizable reference
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF A FREELY ]~IOVING MASS "l~

f r a m e for points for which G0o< 0. Such points h a v e S - i n v a r i a n t speeds equal

to or greater t h a n t h a t of light.
F r o m eq. (2.5) it follows t h a t , in the limit t V ] - + 0 , GoQ---~goo. Therefore,
t h e surface on which Goo vanishes, in t h e limit IVI-+ 0, approaches the Schwarz-
schild surface. I n this sense, the vanishing of Go0 for IVI > 0 is a kinematical
generalization of the vanishing of go0.
Time-orthogonal S-co-ordinate systems are p a r t i c u l a r l y interesting and
n a t u r a l co-ordinates because their existence is a necessary condition for time
s y m m e t r y in t h e rest f r a m e S of t h e mass m. I n t i m e - o r t h o g o n a l co-ordinates,
eq. (2.10) for the xl-component of t h e x~-co-ordinate three-velocity of light
traveling along the x-axis, vt,, becomes simply

(2.11) vz.~- ~ (\ - -g~176

gx.
) 89'

where the positive value is for a r a y of light traveling in the positive

xl-direction a n d t h e negative value for a r a y traveling in the negative direction.
Thus, for all time-orthogonal x " - c o - o r d i n a t e systems, at spatial infinity, where
g~,=~,,, t h e t w o values of v~, are q-1, depending upon t h e direction of
the light along t h e xl-axis, and, at the Schwarzschild radius, where go~= 0,
b o t h values vanish. Since it is assumed t h a t t h e c o m p o n e n t s of the metric
tensor are continuous functions of the co-ordinates, it follows t h a t t h e mag-
nitude of t h e co-ordinate velocity of light traveling in either direction along
the xl-axis is also a continuous function and m u s t t a k e on all values between
zero at the Schwarzschild surface a n d one at spatial infinity. Hence it follows
t h a t , for 1 > 1VI > 0, there exists a point along a n y radius in the region
outside the Schwarzschild surface for which (goo/(--g,,))i=V. Therefore, for
a n y t i m e - o r t h o g o n a l x~-co-ordinate s y s t e m and for 1 > IV 1> 0, there is a
surface on which Goo ~--0 outside t h e Schwarzschild surface.
We now consider explicitly two time-orthogonal S-co-ordinate systems,
t h e Schwarzschild and the isotropic, and for each one we find the S-frame
Lorentz velocities of the fixed points of the L o r e n t z - t r a n s f o r m e d co-ordinates X "
~nd the surface(s) on which the metric tensor c o m p o n e n t G0o vanishes. We
t h e n compare t h e results for t h e two cases. Consider first Schwarzschild
co-ordinates with Cartesian-like spatial co-ordinates x~ = (ts, x~, Ys, zs) in
which the line element is

i--re/rz 1 dxzdxB,

where +?i--~xi~/r~ and r ~ = (x~2 q- y~2 ~ z~) ~ 89

.
The Lorentz t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of eq. (2.1) leads to new co-ordinates X~ which
determine a f r a m e of reference O(x~; V). F r o m eqs. (1.7), (1.8), (1.9) and (2.12),
we find t h a t the S-frame Lorentz velocities of the fixed points X~ of the

1 2 - I1 N u o v o Gimento B.
170 r. SALZMAN

O(x~s; V)-frame with x~-co-ordinates (tz, xs, Ys, Zs) are given b y

(2.13) -- xs/r~))~ (-- V ) ,

1 - - ro/rs

which physically determine the frame O(x~; V). I n the asymptotic region
r~>> ra, eq. (2.13) becomes, to terms of order fairs,

(s.14) i , , ro(l+~ (-v).

2rs \

~ e x t , we find the points for which Go0 vanishes. B y substituting the

appropriate elements of the metric tensor given in eq. (2.12) into eq. (2.9),
we find t h a t the metric tensor component GoQ is given b y

r~Q+ ~VZ)
(2.15) ~oo = 1 - - p r-~ 1--W~/r "

Setting the expression on the right-hand side equal to zero, we find the t h a t
points ~ for which Goo(x~)~ 0 are given, in terms of the radial co-ordinate
r s, b y

(2.1_6) (r,(O))~=y~ro 1---~-sin20 ~=V cos20-4- 4 '

where cos 0 ~ ~ . Thus

for 0 = 0 (r~)~ = p(1 :t: V)r~

and
for 0 = ~ / 2 (r~).+ = p r..

The outer surface on which G0o vanishes, (rs(0)) +, is approximately

given b y

(2.17) (rAO))+~r'~ro .

I n the x~-co-ordinate system the (( radius ~) of the surface (rs(O)) + increases

with y~; whereas, in the X~-co-ordinate system, because of the Lorentz con-
t r a c t i o n associated with the transformations of eq. (2.1), the (( radius ~ of the
surface in the X1-direction (0 = 0) increases with y, while t h a t in the (X2-Xa) -
directions ( 0 : ~ / 2 ) increases with ~z.
F o r sufficiently small values of ~z the surface (rs(O)) + of eq. (2.16) falls
within the physical dimensions of the mass m (which is assumed to e x t e n d
outside of the Schwarzsehild surface r ~ ra) , and the surface is therefore of
no dynamical significance since the line element of eq. (2.12) does not apply.
G R A V I T A T I O N A L F I E L D OF A F R E E L Y M O V I N G MASS 171

However, for sufficiently large values of 7 ~ the surface (rz(O)) + falls outside
the physical extension of the mass m, and thus lies in the physical region in
which the line element holds.
For rs>> ra, eq. (2.15) for Goo becomes, to terms of order ra/rz,

(~.18) Go0 = 1 --y2 ro

r~ (1 + v~W) 9

Since for 7 ~>>1 the outer surface (rs(O)) + on which Goo vanishes lies in the
region of approximation, we find, b y setting the right-hand side of eq. (2.:18)
equal to zero, t h a t for ~,~>> 1 (rs(O)) + is simply given by

(2.19) (r~(O))+~ = r~ro(1 + v~r~).

The other time-orthogonal x~-co-ordinate system which we consider consists

of isotropic co-ordinates, x; ~ (tx, xz, y,, z~), which in terms of the spherical
co-ordinates (rx, 0z, r are related to the Schwarzschild spherical co-ordinates
(rs, 0~, r b y the transformation

(2.20) r~---- 1 + 4 rra~

~ ] 2 r~, where r , = (x~ + y,2 -F z~)89, 0s ~-- 0,, r = r ,

~lso, t a ~-- t I .
Making the appropriate substitutions in eq. (2.12), we obtain for the line
element in isotropic co-ordinates

(2.el) d ~ = \~1~ --~ !ra/4r,~ 2 dt~-- ( ~ + ~rq! ~ 4 (dx~+ dy~ ~- dz~)

The Lorentz transformation of eq. (2.1) applied to the x~-co-ordinates leads

to the co-ordinates X~, which determine the frame of reference O(x~; V).
With the use of eqs. (1.7), (1.8), (1.9) and (2.21), the S-frame Lorentz velocities
of the fixed points X~ of the O(x~; V)-frame, with x~-co-ordinates (tt, xx, y,, zz)
are found to be
j (1 + ra/4rz) 3
(~.22) V<~o(X,)-~ 5~ l _ r a / 4 r z (-- V ) .

In the asymptotic region rl>>r ~ eq. (2.22)becomes, to terms of order ra/rl,

(2.23) (~)~ z/----~1 1 § (--V).

Again, we next find the points for which Go0 vanishes. Substituting the
appropriate metric components given in eq. (2.21) into eq. {2.9) and keeping
172 F. SALZMA~

terms to order ra/rl, we find, for rz>>ra, that Goo is given by

(2.24) Goo:l ro ' I + V ~)

--r~ (

As before, one finds for ~2>>1 t hat the outer surface (r:(O)) + on which Goo
vanishes lies in the region of approximation of eq. (2.24), so that, by setting
the right-hand side of the equation equal to zero, we find that for 72>> 1 Goo
vanishes on a sphere of radius

(2.25) (rx)+~= r ' r.(1 + V ' ) .

Since in the asymptotic region r1))ra, eq. (2.20) yields, if we neglect terms
in ra/rl, simply r ~ : rs; comparison of the S-frame Lorentz velocities of fixed
points of the O(x~; V) and O(x~; V) frames, eqs. (2.14) and (2.23), respectively,
~ ~ and V(s)(Xx)~ J differ to terms of order ra/rs
shows t h a t the velocities V(~)(Xs)
und ro/r~, except for points ou the x~-axis, where t h e y are equal. Hence, the
O(x~; V)-frame differs from the O(x~; V)-frame to terms of first order in the
gravitational constant G, except for points on the x~-axis. I t is, therefore,
not surprising that the expressions for the G0o-components of the metric tensors,
given b y eqs. (2.18) and (2.24) for the X~ and X~ co-ordinates, respectively,
also differ to terms of first order in G. The same is true for the surfaces (r(O)) +
on which the Goo's vanish, which for ~2>>1 are given by eq. (2.19) for the
O(x~; V)-frame and eq. (2.25) for the O(x~; V)-frame. For both frames of
reference, the points (r(O)) + at which the G0o'Svanish are approximately given by

(2.26) (r,(O))+.-.

3. - Gravitational field o f a freely m o v i n g m a s s .

I n this Section, the Schwarzschild co-ordinutes x~ are used as the

S-co-ordinate system and are denoted by x~ = (t, x, y, z). The geodesic equa-
tions are obtained for a test particle mr, momentarily at rest with respect to
the X~-co-ordinates, denoted here by X~ = (T, X , :Y, Z), which are related to
the x~-co-ordinates by the Lorentz transformation of eq. (2.1). The spatial
geodesic equations for the mass mr, momentarily at rest in the X~-co-ordinate
system, are given by

(3.1)
dz 2 F~176
\d~-T ] '
where

roo-- -wo 2ex o

GRAVITATIOlqAL FIELD OF A F R E E L Y M O V I N G MASS 173

The metric tensor components G for the Xs~-co-ordinate system, obtainer

by means of the transformation laws of eq. (2.5), where the g~fs are given in
the line element of eq. (2.12), are

G0o ~l--y2r-~q 1 + rot

Grx = Gxr = - - :y r \ 1 - - r a / r ] '
r 1 - - ra/r] '

Gzo
~--
G o z = V "~ra 1 +
~ r
(
l - - ra/r] ' Gzx ~- Gxz = - - y ~ \ 1 - - ra/r] '

,:
(3.2) Gro = Got ~ V y r \ 1 - r~/r]' r \1 --ro/r] '

Gzo = Goz = V y r \ l - - r a / r ] ' Gz~. = G~,z = - - r \1- r~/r] '

Gxz=--l--y rg V~§
- r i-- ra/r] ' \1 --ra/r] '

where ~ = x ~ / r and x ~ are functions of the X~ through the inverse trans-

formations of eq. (2.1). The Christoffel symbols /'oo for the X$-co-ordinate
system can either be calculated from eqs. (3.1) and (3.2), or, since they trans-
form as tensor components under the Lorentz transformation of eq. (2.1),
they c~n be calculated by the usual tensor transformation laws from the
Christoffel symbols in the Sehwarzsehild co-ordinate system. Performing either
calculation, one finds that the Christoffel symbols for the X~-co-ordinate
system, expressed as functions of the x~-co-ordinates, are given by

Foxo_mGy3~[lra r2 r
V~[
1--ra/r
ra~
2(1--V~) -- + 3 ~
]}

(3.3) and
t

where, for simplicity, Z ( z z) has been taken to be zero.

Substituting eqs. (3.3) into eqs. (3.1) and noting that for a particle momen-
tarily at rest ( d X ~ we find

d2X _ m G y ~ ~]x I1

and
dv ~ Goo r ~ l r 1--ra/r 2(1--~) 7 + 3~
(3.4)
[
dT 2 Goo r ~ [ r 1--ra/rJ '

where Goo is given in eq. (3.2), and the Schwarzschild co-ordinates are functions
174 r. SALZMAN

of the X~-co-ordinates. F o r r>> ra, the a s y m p t o t i c region in the S-frame,

eqs. (3.4) become

dsX mG? 3
d~S- 600 ~7 ( 1 - 3~*-v~} '
(3.5) and
d~y
dT 2 600 r~

Using the inverse transformations of eq. (2.1)

t = y(T-- VX) ,
(3.6)
x = :~(X- VT), y= Y, z=Z,

we can write

(3.7) r = (xS+ y2_~_ zS)89 r(X~o, + (1 -- V2)(Y2-~ - ZS)) 89,

where X,,~ = X - - V T is the relative X - c o - o r d i n a t e of the mass mt with respect

to the m o v i n g mass m at the time T. We set

(3.8) /~ = (X ~o2
s + y s + Z2) 89 and X~= R cosO,

and, using these expressions in eq. (3.7), we find

(3.9) r = yR(1 -- V 2 sinSO) 89.

Substituting eqs. (3.8), (3.9) and (3.6) into eq. (3.5) and setting z = Z = 0,
we obtain for r >> r a the equations of motion for the mass mt in terms of
the X~-co-ordinates :

dsX mG~, cos O f

dv s 6~ ns(1-: 1 - - V 2 sin s OJ '
(3.~o) and
d2:Y mG sin O ~1 + 2 V s sin s O vs ossO /
d~ s Goo7 R2(1 - - ~ s i n 2 0 ) ~ [ y2(1 - - V ~ sin s O) 1 - - V ~ sin s O]

where Goo, given in eq. (3.2), is now also expressed in terms of the X~-co-
ordinates.
The a s y m p t o t i c region in the O(x~s; V)-frame is given b y r>> 72ra, since
it is in this region t h a t the approximation G~ = ~ holds. Assuming r >> ~s ra
and letting G0o= 1, we find for a given value of the radial co-ordinate R
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF A F R E E L Y M O V I N G MASS 175

Chat eqs. (3.10) become

for 0 = 0
d2X raG7
d~ ~ - R~ { 1 - - 3 V 2 } ,
(3.11)
d~y
d~-~ = o ,

and

for O = g / 2
d2X
d~ =~ '
(3.12)
d ~Y mG7 ~
d~ 2 - R~ [ 1 + 2 V ~ } .

Writing eq. (3.1) in the f o r m

d2X /
m~j-~ =/~,

where ] 4 = _mtr~oo(dXO/d~)2, we n o t e t h a t , since d~Xi/d~ 2 are the spatial

components of the c o n t r a v a r i a n t four-acceleration and mt is the i n v a r i a n t
inertial mass, t h e quantities ]/ can be identified as the spatial components
of the c o n t r a v a r i a n t force on the mass mt due to the g r a v i t a t i o n a l field of the
moving source m. Thus, for r >> ~2 ra and for a given value of R, the (~force ~
on the mass mt located along t h e line of motion, 0 = 0, obtained f r o m
eq. (3.11), lies along the line of motion, and the m a g n i t u d e of the (( force i>
is proportional to m~F(V2), where F ( V 2) is the expression in the brackets
on the r i g h t - h a n d side of the equation. Since f r o m eqs. (1.1), (1.3) and (1.4)
it follows t h a t t h e t o t a l energy E of the mass m with respect to the a s y m p t o t i c
0(x~; V)-frame is

E=m7,

we find, for r >> ~,2r a and for given R, t h a t

for 0 = 0 I x = E F ( V ~) ,
]~= o.

T h e factor F ( V ~) causes the m a g n i t u d e of the c o m p o n e n t ix to decrease as IV I

increases f r o m 0, until it passes t h r o u g h zero at V 2 = 89 F o r values of IVI
close to one, F ( V ~) is a slowly v a r y i n g function of IV] and as I V ] - + 1 ,
~v(V 2 ) - > - 2 . F r o m eqs. (3.10) we see t h a t the m a g n i t u d e of the <(force,)
176 F. S ~ L Z M A ~

component ix remains of the same magnitude for a wide range of angles

AO ~ ~/4 about 0 ---- 0; the magnitude of the ~(force ~>component ]r is smaller
t h a n ]x b y a factor :1/72. Thus, for values of IV[ close to one, and for a wide
range of angles about the forward direction 0---- 0, as the velocity increases,
the magnitude of the ~ force ~> on a test mass, momentarily at rest in t h e
asymptotic region, increases like E, the total energy of the moving mass m.
I n the equatorial plane 0 ~-~/2, i.e. the plane which contains the m o v i n g
source m and is perpendicular to its motion, and for a given value of the radial
co-ordinate R, the <(force)) on the test mass mr, obtained from eq. (3.12),
lies along a line perpendicular to the motion, and its magnitude is proportional
to mv2G(V2), where G(V 2) is the expression in the brackets on the right-hand
side of the equation. Again, noting t h a t E = my, we find for r>> 72ra and
for a given value of R, t h a t

for 0 = ~/2 ]x= 0 ,

]r oc ETG(V2 ) .

The factor G(V 2) is of order u n i t y for all ]V I. F o r large values of the m a g n i t u d e

of the velocity, IV] ~ :1, the factor (1-- V ~ sin20) ~ in the denominator of
eqs. (3.10) is small for a small range of values of order of magnitude A O ~ 1/7
about the value 0 ~ ~/2, and hence ]r is large only for a range of values
A 0 ~ 1 / 7 about O = n / 2 . F r o m eq. (3.10) we see t h a t the component ]z
becomes comparable to ]7 for values A 0 > 1 / 7 2 about 0 = - ~ / 2 . Hence, for
values of IV] close to one, and in the equatorial plane 0 ----7t/2, as the velocity
increases, the magnitude of the gravitational <~force ~>on a test mass, momen-
tarily at rest in the asymptotic region, increases like ET, but ]r is large only
in a range of values AO,-~I/}, about the value 0--~ n/2.
Thus, the region of importance and the energy dependence of the gravi-
tational field of a rapidly moving mass differ considerably from the region
of importance and the energy dependence of the electromagnetic field of a
rapidly moving charge. At a given distance R from the rapidly moving charge,
the electric field along the line of motion ( 0 ~ 0) decreases as 7 -~ with
increasing speed V of the charge. I n the equatorial plane ( 0 = z/2), t h e
electric field increases b y a factor 7, but is large only in a range of values
A 0 ~ 1 / 7 about the value 0 ~ : ~ / 2 . Thus, as is well known, there is an
increasing contraction of the electromagnetic field into a wedge-shaped region
of width A O ~ l / y about the equatorial plane 0 ~ ~/2, with increasing speed
of the charge, and the field increasingly resembles t h a t of a plane electro-
magnetic wave.
I n the exact geodesic equation for the motion of the test mass mr, given
in eq. (3.4), we note t h a t the expression in the brackets cancels the zero of G0o
only for the special case V---- 0. As pointed out in the discussion of eq. (2.17)
which gives an approximate expression for the outer surface on which Goo
GRAVITATIONAL F I E L D OF A F R E E L Y MOVING MASS 177

vanishes, i.e. (rs(O))+,,,~,~ra, for sufficiently large 7 ~, t h e surface (rs) + falls

outside the physical extension of t h e m o v i n g mass m. F o r ~2>>1, (rs)+>> ra
and we see f r o m eqs. (3.10) t h a t t h e test mass mr m o m e n t a r i l y at rest outside
the generalized Schwarzschild surface (rz)+ feels an increasingly strong gravi-
tational (( force ~) the closer it is to t h e surface, and at t h e surface the (( f o r c e ,
becomes infinite.
As discussed in Sect. 2, for [ V ] ~ 0 the points of the O(x~; V)-frame
which lie on t h e generalized Schwarzschild surfaces h a v e S-invariant speeds
equal to t h a t of light. Thus, for IV] ~ 0, the test m a s s mr m o m e n t a r i l y at
rest in the O(x~; V)-frame has an S-invariant speed which approaches t h a t
of light, the closer the test mass is to the generalized Sehwarzschild surface,
and becomes equal to the S-invariant speed of light at the surface. The test
mass mr, m o m e n t a r i l y at rest in t h e O(x~; V)-frame just outside the outer
generalized Schwarzschild surface, has an S-frame radial co-ordinate r ~ (rz) +
and, for I V I > 0 , r ~ ( r ~ ) + > r ~ . Hence, for IVI>O, goo(r)>O, and we find
f r o m eq. (1.12) t h a t the S-invariant energy of the mass mt is greater, the closer
the mass, m o m e n t a r i l y at rest in t h e O(x~; V)-frame, is to t h e surface (rs)+,
i.e. the closer its S-invariant speed is to t h a t of light, and becomes infinite
for a test mass, m o m e n t a r i l y at rest in the O(x~; V)-frame at the surface,
where its S - i n v a r i a n t speed equals t h a t of light.
L e t ?~>>1, and consider a t e s t mass mr, m o m e n t a r i l y at rest in the
O(x~; V)-frame just outside the outer generalized Schiwarzschld surface, so
t h a t its Schwarzschild radial co-ordinate r .~ (rs)+>>r,~ and its S-invariant
speed V(s) ~ 1. F o r r>> ra, the S-invariant energy of t h e test mass, eq. (1.12),
is given b y

mt
(3.13) E~- (i -- v~s
)T~)'89

Consider now t h e same t e s t mass mr, located at spatial infinity in the S-frame,
with an energy Et equal to t h a t of t h e mass when located at r ~ (r s)~, + given
b y eq. (3.13), and therefore to t h e order of a p p r o x i m a t i o n of eq. (3.13), with
the same S-invariant speed V(~). At spatial infinity, the S-invariant speed
of the mass mt is equal to its co-ordinate speed, and since the gravitational
field of the mass m can be t a k e n to be zero, the mass mt moves freely with
co-ordinate speed V(s~ with respect to t h e a s y m p t o t i c rest f r a m e S of the
mass m.
The g r a v i t a t i o n a l <~force >>which t h e mass mr, m o v i n g freely in the spatially
a s y m p t o t i c S - f r a m e with co-ordinate speed V(s~, exerts on a mass at rest ia
the S-frame, a s y m p t o t i c a l l y far f r o m it, can be found with the use of eq. (3.11),
where R is now the Schwarzschild radial co-ordinate f r o m the mass mr,
V ~ V(s~, and m--~ mr. Along t h e line of m o t i o n of the mass mr, and for
given value of t h e radial co-ordinate, the <~force ~> on a n o t h e r mass at rest
178 r. SALZ~AN

in the S-frame, spatially asymptotically far from the mass mr, is proportional
to Et = mtyt, where yt = (1 -- V~s))-89
I t appears likely t h a t for IV] > 0 the same physical result holds if the
test mass mt momentarily at rest in the O(x~; V)-frame is instead located just
outside the surface (rs) +, t h a t is, for sufficiently large S-invariant energy Et,
its gravitational field will increase like E~. I n this case the closer the test
mass m o m e n t a r i l y at rest in O(x~; V) is to the surface (rs) +, the greater is
its S-invariant energy Et, and thus, also, the greater is the gravitational
~( force ~>it exerts on another mass momentarily at rest in S. Thus, eq. (3.4)~
obtained under the assumption t h a t the mass m is in a force-free region of
space, p r o b a b l y does not hold for a test mass m~, m o m e n t a r i l y at rest in the
O(x~; V)-frame, arbitrarily close to the surface (rs) +.

4 . - L a g r a n g i a n to terms o f s e c o n d order.

Let the mass m move in nonaccelerated motion with a constant co-ordinate

velocity 11, taken to be in the Xl-direction, with respect to a co-ordinate
system X v and consider another mass ml moving with an XV-eo-ordinate
velocity V~ in the given gravitational field of the mass m. I n this Section
we assume t h a t the two masses are spatially far apart, t h a t the XV-co-ordinate
s y s t e m is an asymptotically Lorentz co-ordinate system, and t h a t the co-ordinate
velocities of the two masses are small compared to one. Thus we t a k e G
and V 2, where V denotes the speed of either mass, to be parameters of
smallness and find the Lagrangian of the m o t i o n of the mass m~ in the given
gravitational field of the freely moving mass m to terms of second order, i.e.
to terms of order V ~, V~G and G 2, where it is assumed t h a t V 2 and G are
c o m p a r a b l y small. This L a g r a n g i a n is compared to the one in the literature
which describes %he motion of two interacting masses correctly to Serms of
second order. I n order to facilite the comparison, in this Section we use
isotropic co-ordinates as the S-co-ordinates of the mass m.
The standard Lagrangian 13 which describes the motion of the mass ml
in a given external gravitational field is given, in an arbitrary co-ordinate
system X ~, b y
d~ i
(4.1) L --~ - - ml ~-~ = - - ml(Goo ~- 2Go, V~ + G~j V~ V,) 89

where V~ ~ d X i / d T is the X i - c o m p o n e n t of co-ordinate velocity of the mass ml.

Since the X~-co-ordinates are asymptotically Lorentz, we set

Goo= 1 + ttoo ,
(4.2) Goi ~ 1~oi ,
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF A F R E E L Y MOVING MiSS 179

where the expressions H~, ure at m o s t of order G. E x p a n d i n g the Lagr~ngian

of eq. (4.1) to t e r m s of second order, we obtain, neglecting the constant term,

(4.3) _~:_ ~ m V~l_~ ~ m l V ~ _ 89 ~ml(l~oo)~ mlito, Vl -

1_. 2 x
- - a m l H o o V 1 - ~ m l H i ~ V 1 V~ .

F r o m this e q u a t i o n it follows t h a t , in order to h a v e L correct to t e r m s of

second order, we need to h a v e

H0o to t e r m s of power G 2, G V 2,

(4.4) H0~ to t e r m s of power G V and

H~j to t e r m s of power G,

where V is the X g - c o - o r d i n a t e velocity of the mass m.

The line element for the gravitational field of the mass m in the S-frame
isotropic co-ordinates is given b y eq. (2.21), and we now denote the isotropic
co-ordinates with primes, x '~' ~- (t', x', y', z'). The c o m p o n e n t s of the metric
t
tensor g,v to t h e order of ~ p p r o x i m a t i o n are given b y

, __ 2mG__ m(~7_)2
goo = 1 r' + 2 ,

(4.5) , ( 2mG~ Oij

g~ = - - 1 + r ~ ] ,

!
go~ = 0 .

New co-ordinates X '~ are introduced b y the Lorentz t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of

eq. (2.1). The new metric tensor components G',v are found b y the trans-
f o r m a t i o n laws of eq. (2.5) and are expressed in t e r m s of the X ' ' - e o - o r d i n a t e s .
The corresponding expressions H '~,, defined in eq. (4.2), are, to the order of
a p p r o x i m a t i o n given in eq. (4.4),

2rag
~oo- •, ~+~3 V~ +~1 V~ 1
R,~]] + 2
~-! '

4raG V(~ ,
(4.6)

/2mG\

where X ' t e l -- - - X ' - - V T ' and R ' = (X r'~

el
-t- Y'~-t- Z'~) 89 are the relative X '1 and
180 F. SALZMA~

radial co-ordinates, respectively, of the mass m~ with respect to the mass m

at t h e t i m e T'.
I n order to symmetrize certain terms in the Lagrangian with respect t o
the velocities of the masses m and rex, a Moller gauge transformation, defined
b y eq. (1.6), is now performed, where the new co-ordinates X ~ are related
to the X'V-co-ordinatcs b y the equations

{ X'1'-- X ~ ,
(4.7)
~'= T +/(x,'),

where ] : (mG/2)(~R/~T), and R = ( ( X - - UT)2+ y2_r Z~)89 and where U de-

notes the X~-component of the three-velocity U ~ whose other components
are zero, i.e. U~= U6~, and U is a constant with respect to the time T.
F r o m these expressions it follows t h a t

mG
(4.s) ]- 2 U.n, w h e r e n : R/R and R i = ( X - - UT~ 17, Z).

The transformation equation for the X~-component of the co-ordinate

three-velocity in the X '~- and X ' - c o - o r d i n a t e systems for a particle m o v i n g
in the Xl-direetion, obtained from eq. (4.7), is given b y

dX'l dX1/dT
(4.9)
aT' 1 + (~]/~X1)(dXI/dT) + ~]/~T '

where dX2/dT, dX3/dT= O. F r o m eqs. (4.7) and (4.8) we find in general

~] mG U~ + (U.n)n~]
~X~ = 2R [-
(4.1o) and
d] mG US
dT- ~ [- + (U'n)Z] "

Substituting eqs. (4.10) into (4.9), we obtain

dX~l
(4.11) dT' --

dX1/dT
1 + (mG/2R)[-- U + (U.n)nl](dX1/dT) - (mG/2R)[-- U s + ( U . n ) 2]

Consider a particle with X~-co-ordinate three-velocity dX~/dT= U5~. I n

this case we find from eqs. (4.7) and (4.11) t h a t the particle's X'~-co-ordinate
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF A FREELY MOVING MASS 181

three-velocity equals its X~-co-ordinate three-velocity, i.e.

dX1i
dT'-- ~;"
We now set
(4.12) U : V,

so t h a t the mass m has the same constant co-ordinate three-velocity VSl with
respect to both the X '~- and X~-co-ordinate systems.
The new metric tensor components G~ are obtained, as before, by the
transformation laws of eq. (2.5). We find that the corresponding expressions
for H , to the required order of approximation, are

Hoo = Hoo + 2 %T '

Hok = Ho~ + ~X~

and
Htt Ht
= it*

Since/~', given in eq. (4.6), and /~, given in eq. (4.7), satisfy the relation

R = .R' + o(av),

the quantities H~,, obtained with the use of eqs. (4.10) and (.4.12) and expressed
in terms of the X'-co-ordinates, are to the required order of approximation

B0~= ~ (Trot + (r.n)n~)

(4.13)
and
2mG
Hi1-- R (~ii.

From eqs. (4.13) and (4.3), we obtain the Lagrangian to terms of second
order

(4.14) i = m l V~ ml V~
2 +~-+
-1-~ 1-t-~(V~-I - V ~ ) - S V ' V ~ - ~ ( F ' n ) ( V V n ) --'2-~,R! '
182 F. SALZMA~

where n = R / R and the v e c t o r R, expressed in t e r m s of the position vectors R~,

of t h e mass m~ and R~ of the mass m at the same t i m e T, is given b y

R : Rm-- Rm.

The force ]1~ acting on t h e particle ml is, in the L a g r a n g i a n formalism, given

b y t h e equation
8L
Ilk- ~Xlk,

a n d t h e Euler-Lagrange equations which describe t h e motion of the mass m~

in t h e given gravitational field are

(4.]5) d~lk ~L dX 1
d T - - Ilk, w h e r e Pl~ - - 8 j : ~ , a n d X ~ - - d T

Terms in the Lagrangian which depend upon t h e co-ordinates of a particle

are called <(interaction )~ t e r m s since t h e y c o n t r i b u t e to the force ]k acting
on the particle.
I n general relativity it is possible to describe a s y s t e m of interacting masses,
t r e a t e d as point particles, b y a Lagwangian to t e r m s of fourth order in t h e
expansion p a r a m e t e r s V ~ a n d G because the effects of radiation and r a d i a t i o n
d a m p i n g do not occur until t e r m s of fifth order. The L a g r a n g i a n for two
i n t e r a c t i n g masses m a n d ml, with position vectors R,~ and R~, and veloci-
ties V and V1, respectively, at a given t i m e T, is, to t e r m s of second order,
given b y (')

1 1
(4.]6)
G2~nml (
+-~- l+~(r~+ v~)-~v.v~- (V.n)(V~.n) ~.~ ,m + m~).

W e n o t e t h a t the only (~interaction ~>t e r m which the L a g r a n g i a n of eq. (4.14)

lacks c o m p a r e d to t h a t of eq. (4.16) is the t e r m in G2mm~. Hence, the equa-
tions of m o t i o n for the mass ml, obtained b y t h e Euler-Lagrange equations,
eq. (4.5), f r o m the two Lagrangians, are the same with respect to t h e second-
order t e r m s V ~, GV ~, and t h e G ~ t e r m p r o p o r t i o n a l to m2ml. I n t h e limit
in which t e r m s of order ml/m are neglected c o m p a r e d to unity, i.e. t h e par-
ticle ml is considered to be a (( t e s t ~>mass, the L a g r a n g i a n of eq. (4.16) gives
rise to t h e same equations of motion as t h a t of eq. (4.14). The kinetic-energy

(7) L. D. LANDAU and E. M. LIFSHITZ: The Classical Theory o/ Fields, I I I Edition

(Oxford, 1971), p. 331.
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF A F R E E L Y M O V I N G MASS 183

t e r m s of t h e mass ml are generated b y the L a g r a n g i a n of eq. (4.14), while

those for t h e mass m are not, due to the coupling of the co-ordinate velocity V,~
to t h e (~p o t e n t i a l )), i.e. to t h e tensor G , , as can be seen in eq. (4.1).
E x c e p t for the interaction t e r m G~mm~ in the L a g r a n g i a n of eq. (4.16),
all the second-order interaction t e r m s arise f r o m the relativistic effects of t h e
gravitational field of the u n p e r t u r b e d , freely moving mass m. We show now
t h a t a similar p r o p e r t y holds for t h e second-order t e r m s of t h e classical electro-
d y n a m i c i n t e r a c t i o n between two m o v i n g charges. I n this case, however, since
the t h e o r y is a linear one, an expansion is m a d e only in the velocities of either
charge. Thus, t h e second-order t e r m s of the interaction are proportional
to V ~, where V represents the speed of either charge, and t h e y can be shown
to arise solely f r o m the relativistic effects associated with t h e electromagnetic
field of a nonaccelerated m o v i n g charge.
Consider a charge e of mass m m o v i n g in nonaccelerated m o t i o n w i t h con-
stant velocity V, t a k e n to be in the Xl-direction in a Lorentz f r a m e with
co-ordinates X ~, and another charge e~ of mass m~ m o v i n g with velocity V1
in the given electromagnetic field of the charge e. The L a g r a n g i a n which
describes t h e m o t i o n of the charge e~ in the given electromagnetic field of the
charge e is given b y

(4.17) L ~-- -- m~(1 -- V~) 8 9 J ~ A s ,

where J f is t h e current four-vector of the charge el with c o m p o n e n t s

Jf---- (e~, e~ V1), and A s is the c o v a r i a n t four-vector p o t e n t i a l of the charge v
with c o m p o n e n t s A s : (~b,--A). I n order to h a v e 15 correct to t e r m s of
second order in t h e velocities of t h e charges, we need to h a v e

(4.18) r to t e r m s of power e V 2 and A to t e r m s of power e V .

I n the rest f r a m e of the charge e, the co-ordinates are designated b y

x s = (t, x, y, z), and the four-vector p o t e n t i a l of the charge e b y a s - - (q~, -- a),
where ~ e/r a n d a ~ - 0 . The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to t h e L o r e n t z f r a m e with
co-ordinates X s is m a d e with t h e use of eq. (2.1). The corresponding Lorentz-
t r a n s f o r m e d four-potential A s = ( r A) is, in t e r m s of the XS-co-ordinates
and to the order of a p p r o x i m a t i o n required b y eq. (4.18), given b y

r = ~ el1 1 + ~ (V,-- (V.,,),) ]

(4.19)
eV
A=~-,

where R - ~ Re,-- R~, R~I and R~ are t h e position vectors of the charge el and e,
1~4 F. SALZMAN

respectively, at time T, n ~ R / R , and

R = ((x- vT)~+ ]~+ z~) ~ .

I n order to symmetrize the interaction Lagrangian with respect to the

velocities of the two charges, a new four-potential A /' z- ---( q ~ ' , - - A ' ) is intro-
d u c e d b y the gauge transformation

A , ---- A ~ - - ~ X , ,
<4.2o)
e 8R
r _-- ~b- ~1 with 1-- 2 ~T
~T

Using t h e definition of R given in eq. (4.19) and performing the same calcula-
t i o n which leads to the results of eqs. (4.10), we find

ev.n,

~] e V(5~ + (V. n)nk]

~X k -- 2R I-
(4.21)
and

3-~ = 2R [ - v 2 + ( v ' n ) 2 ] "

Substituting eqs. (4.19) and (4.21) into eq. (4.20), we obtain the gauge-trans-
formed potential A' ~ (q~', -- A')

R
(4.22) and
A' e
= 5-~ [V + (V" u) u] .

T h e interaction t e r m of the Lagrangian given in eq. (4.17) is, in terms of the

four-potentiM A'

L I = -- J~A'~, ,

a n d substituting the expressions for J~ given in eq. (4.17) and for A' given
in eq. (4.22), we find the interaction, to terms of second order,

~, , eel eel
(4.23) - - J 1 A ~ , = - - - ~ + ~ [V.V~ + ( V . n ) ( V ~ ' n ) ] .
GRAVITATIOI~AL FIELD OF A FI~EELY MOVING MASS 185

I n classical electrodynamics it is possible to describe the m o t i o n of a system

of interacting point charges b y a L a g r a n g i a n to terms of second order in the
velocities of t h e particles, because in this t h e o r y radiation effects do not occur
until third order. The interaction p a r t of the L a g r a n g i a n for two interacting
charges, to t e r m s of second order, is t h e same as t h a t of eq. (4.23) (8). Thus,
all the second-order t e r m s of the force which a charge experiences due to its
electromagnetic interaction with a n o t h e r moving charge arise f r o m the rela-
tivistic effects associated with the m o t i o n of a nonperturbed, freely m o v i n g
c arge.
Since the interaction L a g r a n g i a n of eq. (4.23) is s y m m e t r i c in the velocities
and co-ordinates of the two charges e and el, it also correctly describes the
force which t h e charge e experiences due to the electromagnetic field of el.
This, of course, is to be expected, since eq. (4.23) agrees with the interaction
Lagrangian for t w o interacting charges to terms of second order.

5. - Discussion.

The relatively simple results obtained in the previous Section are physically
significant. First, t h e y further d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t the definition of a freely
moving, nonaccelerated mass w i t h respect to a restricted set of reference
frames and co-ordinate systems is a physically meaningful and useful concept,
and t h a t such m o t i o n of a mass has physical properties which are the same
as those characteristic of a freely m o v i n g particle in special relativity. Second,
the calculations show the close similarities between the gravitational field of
a freely moving, nonaceelerated mass in general r e l a t i v i t y and t h e electromag-
netic field of a freely moving, nonaccelerated charge in electrodynamics.
I n each of t h e two points just mentioned, there are, as well, i m p o r t a n t
differences which are discussed in the paper, such as the nonuniqueness of
the L o r e n t z - t r a n s f o r m e d frames O(x~; V) and the a m b i g u i t y in general rela-
t i v i t y of the t e r m (( uniform ~> as applied to motion.
There are striking parallels shown in the previous Section between the
Moller gauge t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the co-ordinates introduced in the gravitational
case and the gauge t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the electromagnetic potential introduced
in the electrodynamic case. The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is m a d e in each case in order
to s y m m e t r i z e t h e interaction L a g r a n g i a n with respect to the velocities of the
two particles involved, and the two gauge functions are of t h e same form.
The r e m a r k a b l e similarity in the two calculations supports the idea, stated
in the I n t r o d u c t i o n , t h a t the Nloller gauge t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , which does not
change the f r a m e of reference, should properly be regarded as the gravitational

(s) L . D . LANDAU a n d E . M. LIFSHITZ: The Classical Theory o/ _Fields, I I I E d i t i o n

( O x f o r d , 1971), p . 168.

13 - I1 Nuovo Cimento B.
186 r. SALZ~A~

analogue of the gauge t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e electromagnetic potential in elec-

t r o d y n a m i c s , which does not change the electromagnetic fields.
Hence, the general covariance of general r e l a t i v i t y t h e o r y under a r b i t r a r y
co-ordinate transformations, which permits a r b i t r a r y changes in the f r a m e s
of reference, m a y be viewed as elevating the ~ usual ~ gauge p r o p e r t y to w h a t
WEI~]~ERG has t e r m e d a (~d y n a m i c a l s y m m e t r y ~). However, it is possible,
and p e r h a p s even necessary, to formulate certain physical concepts within
restricted frames of reference and co-ordinate systems.
The energy dependence of the gravitational (( force ~ of a freely moving,
nonaecelerated mass on a t e s t mass m o m e n t a r i l y at rest is discussed in some
detail in Sect. 3. For a r a p i d l y moving source and a test mass m o m e n t a r i l y
a t rest along t h e line of m o t i o n , the energy dependence is equal to t h e energy
of t h e freely moving source times an energy-dependent factor of order unity.
Hence, t h e implications of an energy-dependent gravitational interaction,
m e n t i o n e d in the I n t r o d u c t i o n , do h a v e to be t a k e n into account, since the
g r a v i t a t i o n a l field of a t e s t mass of sufficiently high energy, falling freely in
t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l field of a massive Schwarzschild source, is not negligible.
This p r o b l e m has been investigated b y SALZ~[A~ and SA~Z~rA~, and will be
r e p o r t e d u p o n subsequently.
An i m p o r t a n t theoretical question in the proposed definition of a freely
m o v i n g mass in general r e l a t i v i t y which is left unresolved here concerns t h e
possibility t h a t , for sufficiently large 7, a region exists in the Lorentz-
t r a n s f o r m e d co-ordinates X ~ for which values of t h e metric c o m p o n e n t Goo~<0
occur in the region exterior to the physical extension of the Schwarzschild
source. I t has been shown t h a t such a region m u s t exist for sufficiently large y
for t h e co-ordinate systems obtained b y Lorentz transformations of b o t h t h e
Schwarzsehild and isotropic S - c o - o r d i n a t e systems. F r o m the general f o r m
of Goo, it appears likely t h a t such a region will exist for the co-ordinate s y s t e m s
obtained b y Lorentz t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s of all t i m e - o r t h o g o n a l S - c o - o r d i n a t e
systems.
As n o t e d earlier, it is generally believed t h a t the co-ordinates X ~ in t h e
region in which Goo< 0 define a nonrealizable f r a m e of reference and, therefore,
are a poor choice of co-ordinates in this region. The generally accepted pro-
cedure is to m a k e a co-ordinate t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to new co-ordinates, which
r e m o v e s this difficulty. Since the sign of G0o of the fixed points of a f r a m e
of reference is f r a m e invariant, a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n which changes t h e sign
necessarily changes the f r a m e of reference. H o w e v e r , a r b i t r a r y changes in
t h e f r a m e of reference are not consistent with the extension of the definition
of a freely moving mass t h a t is proposed here.
I n special relativity pseudo-Cartesian co-ordinates connected b y L o r e n t z
co-ordinate transformations which change the f r a m e of reference are m a t h e -
m a t i c a l l y equivalent and define physically realizable Lorentz frames of refer-
ence. I n general relativity all co-ordinate systems, connected b y co-ordinate
GRAVITATIOI~A.L F I E L D OF A F R E E L Y M O V I N G MASS 187

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s with nonvanishing Jacobians, are m a t h e m a t i c a l l y equivalent.

However, it is generally accepted t h a t not all co-ordinate systems in general
relativity necessarily define physically realizable frames of reference, as in
the case in which the metric tensor c o m p o n e n t Goo~<O.
SALZMA~ and SALZMAN (1), however, h a v e argued, in spite of the region
of the S-frame within the Schwarzschild surface for which goQ<O, t h a t the
S-frame should be regarded as a preferred f r a m e of reference. An i m p o r t a n t
dynamical q u a n t i t y , the t o t a l energy of a freely falling test mass mr, is a con-
stunt of the m o t i o n only because this f r a m e exists for all values of the Schwarz-
schild radiM co-ordinate r ~ 0 . F u r t h e r m o r e , the value of the energy of the
test mass mt is an S-invariant. (As discussed in the I n t r o d u c t i o n , the condition
t h a t the t o t a l energy of the Schwarzschild source m h a v e the physically reason-
able value E - - - - m in its rest f r a m e requires only t h a t the S-frame exists in
the a s y m p t o t i c region g , ~ = ~ , . ) According to the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of SALZMA~r
and SALZ~A~, the vanishing of g0o at the Schwarzschild surface represents
a d y n a m i c a l singularity at which a test mass falling freely in the given
Schwarzschild gravitational field is accelerated to the speed of light.
The fixed points of the L o r e n t z - t r a n s f o r m e d f r a m e of reference O(x~; V)
for which G0o<0 h a v e S-invariant speeds equal to, or greater than, t h a t of
light. Although t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in which the fixed points have i n v a r i a n t
speeds equal to, or greater than, t h a t of light with respect to the original f r a m e
of reference are formally permissible in general r e l a t i v i t y in t h a t t h e y do not
alter the underlying geometry, i.e. the components of the l~iemann tensor
remain nonsingular, such t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s should be regarded as being physically
questionable. Hence, if we assume t h a t the S-frame is preferred, then transfor-
mations in which the fixed points h a v e S-invariant speeds IV(s)]>1 in the
physical region should p r o b a b l y not be allowed.
I n this case the definition of a freely moving mass suggested here would
be i n a d e q u a t e for values of ~ such t h a t the outer generalized Schwarzschild
surface r~+ lies in the region exterior to the physical dimensions of the mass.
I f we let 7o be t h e value of y at which r + assumes values of the same order of
m a g n i t u d e as t h e physical extension of the mass, as given b y Schwarzschild
and isotropic co-ordinates, t h e n for the Sun ? 0 ~ 500, and for a nucleon yo~]0~9;
for a (~black hole ~) Y0 is a n y value greater t h a n 1. I f such high values of 7
are relevant in the t h e o r y of gravitation, or if (( black holes )~ exist and are
assumed to h a v e properties consistent with those of a freely moving mass,
this point would need further consideration.

I wish to t h a n k G. SALz~A~r for helpful discussions and for a critical reading

of t h e m a n u s c r i p t . I also wish to t h a n k the Aspen Center for Physics for the
hospitality e x t e n d e d to me during p a s t summers, when p a r t s of this work
were done.
 188 r. s~z~As

9 RIASSUIqTO (*)

Si p r o p o n e u n a definizione nella r e l a t i v i t ~ g e n e r a l e di u n ~ m a s s a ehe si m u o v e l i b e r a m e n t e

basa~a su p r o p r i e t ~ del m o t o a n a l o g o nella r e l a t i v i t ~ speeiale. Si p o s s o n o p e r lo pifi
e l i m i n a r e le a m b i g u i t ~ helle c o o r d i n a t c f a e e n d o uso d i q u a n t i t ~ <~i n v a r i a n t i ~ e h e svol-
gono nella relativit~t generale il r u o l o di (~i n v a r i a n t i di g a u g e )> r i s p e t t o a t r a s f o r m ~ z i o n i
di c o o r d i n a t e che n o n c a m b i n o il s i s t e m a di r i f e r i m e n t o . Si calcola la (~forz~ >>g r a v i t a -
zion~le e s e r c i t a t a d a u n a s o r g e n t e e h e si m u o v e l i b e r a m e n t e , s u p p o s t o ehe sia u n a m a s s a
di S e h w a r z s e h i l d , su u n a m a s s a e a m p i o n e m o m e n ~ a n e a m e n t e in quiete, o su u n ' a l t r a
m a s s a m o m e n t a n e a m e n t e in q u i e t e in posizione ~ s i n t o t i e a m e n t e l o n t a n a e si m o s t r a
che gli e f f e t t i dei due c o r p i p o s s o n o essere i m p o r t a n t i a n c h e nel easo di u n a m a s s a
(~c a m p i o n e )>. Si d i m o s t r a e h e l a definizione d i m a s s a che si m u o v e liberamenCe h a
significato fisico fino ai t e r m i n i di s e c o n d o g r a d o . I1 caleolo p r e s e n t a delle s t r e t t e somi-
glianze con quello p e r il m o t o a n a l o g o d i u n a e a r i c a che si m u o v e l i b e r a m e n t e i n elet-
t r o d i n a m i c a , il ehe r a f f o r z a l ' i d e a ehe u n i n s i e m e ristret~o di t r a s f o r m a z i o n i delle co-
o r d i n a t e nella r c l a t i v i t h g e n e r a l e e o r r i s p o n d e alle t r a s f o r m a z i o n i di g a u g e d e l l ' e l e t t r o -
d i n a m i c a nella r e l a t i v i ~ speeinle.

(*) Traduzione a eura della Redazione.

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