All Chapters Biology XII

DR.
ARIJO’S BIOLOGY
CHAPTER # 01
HOMEOSTASIS
HOMEOSTASIS
A mechanism by which internal environment of body is kept at normal values
THERMOREGULATION
A mechanism by which body temperature is controlled by physiological and behavioral means
THERMOGENESIS
Production of heat
FEED BACK MECHANISM
Check and balance mechanism operating in the body is termed as feed back mechanism
POSITIVE FEED BACK
It refers to the series of similar effects produced which lead to the enhancement of change
under consideration
NEGATIVE FEED BACK
Mechanism of homeostatic response in which the out put cancels the input
OSMOREGULATION
A mechanism of maintenance a balance between water and solute contents of cells
HYPERTNIC SOLUTION
A kind of solution which has higher solute (salts) concentration and less solvent (water)
concentration
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
A kind of solution which has less solute (salts) concentration and more solvent (water)
concentration
ISOTONIC SOLUTION
If a solution has same concentration of solute as it is in cytosol of the cell, such solution is called
isotonic solution
HYDROPHYTES
Plants which use water as their habitat are called hydrophytes. These plants don’t have cuticle
and have large stomata. E.g. water lily.
HALOPHYTES
Plants which grown in saltish or saline soils are called halophytes. These plants have salts glands
on leaves. The salt glands help in removal of excess salts. E.g. Glass wort.
MESOPHYTES
Plants which grow in well watered soil are called Mesophytes.
XEROPHYTES
Plants, which are capable to grow in deserts. They have sunken (closed) stomata.
SUCCULENTS
Plants which store lot of water in Parenchymatous cells of stem or leaves are called succulent
plants.
FLAME CELLS
These are blind bulb like cells present in Planaria. They help in excretion.
PROTONEPHRIDIA
Same as above
Dr. Abdullah Arijo Page 1

DR. ARIJO’S BIOLOGY
METANEPHRIDIA
Excretory organ of earth worm. It starts from one segment and ends at other segment. Its
starting opening is called nephrostome and closing opening is called nephridiopore
PERITONIUM
Membrane which covers the kidneys is called peritoneum
HILUS
Point at which renal artery and renal vein enters and leave the kidney
PYRAMIDS
Cone shape structures present in medulla part of kidney are called pyramids
PELVIS
Funnel shaped spaces of the ureter into which urine is continuously dropped
PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE
A tubule, which lies in the cortex of kidney. This tubule may go into medulla and after making u
shape, it returns back into cortex
LOOP OF HENLE
Narrow U shape part of proximal convoluted tubule is called loop of Henle
DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE
A tubule which is formed by the ascending limb of loop of Henle.
NEPHRON
A nephron is the basic unit of structure in the kidney. A nephron is used separate to water, ions
and small molecules from the blood, filter out wastes and toxins, and return needed molecules to the
blood
RENAL PARAMIDS
Renal pyramids are kidney tissues that are shaped like cones. Another term for renal pyramids
is Malpighian pyramids. Between seven and eighteen pyramids exist in the innermost part of the
kidney, which is called the renal medulla; in humans, there are usually only seven of the pyramids.
BOWMANS CAPSULE
The Bowman’s capsule is an expansion at the closed end of a renal tubule. A kidney’s renal
corpuscle is composed of tangled clusters of blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a thin-walled,
saclike structure called the Bowman’s capsule, which surrounds the glomerulus. The Bowman’s capsule
is composed of two layers of cells: an inner layer that closely covers the glomerulus, and an outer layer
GLOMERULUS
a cluster of nerve endings, spores, or small blood vessels, especially a cluster of capillaries
around the end of a kidney tubule.
JUXTA MEDULARY NEPHRON
juxtamedullary nephron is a nephron whose renal corpuscle is near the medulla, and whose
proximal convoluted tubule and its associated loop of Henle occur deeper in the medulla than the
other type of nephron, the cortical nephron.
CORTICAL NEPHRONS
Cortical nephrons (the majority of nephrons) start high in the cortex and have a short loop of
Henle which does not penetrate deeply into the medulla

ULTRA FILTRATION
n renal physiology, ultrafiltration occurs at the barrier between the blood and the filtrate in the
glomerular capsule (Bowman's capsule) in the kidneys. ... Blood flows into these capillaries through the
afferent arterioles and leaves through the efferent arterioles.
RE-ABSORPTION
n renal physiology, reabsorption or tubular reabsorption is the process by which the nephron
removes water and solutes from the tubular fluid and returns them to the circulating blood.
TULAR SECRETION
RENLA ARTERY
The renal arteries normally arise off the left interior side of the abdominal aorta, immediately
below the superior mesenteric artery, and supply the kidneys with blood.
AFFERENT ARTERY
The afferent arterioles are a group of blood vessels that supply the nephrons in many excretory
systems. They play an important role in the regulation of blood pressure as a part of the
tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism. The afferent arterioles branch from the renalartery, which
supplies blood to the kidneys.
EFFERENT ARTERY
The efferent arteriole carries blood away from the glomerulus. Because it has a smaller
diameter than the afferent arteriole, it creates some resistance to blood flow, producing the back-up of
blood in the glomerulus which creates higher pressure in the glomerular cavity.
CALCULUS
A stone in the kidney (or lower down in the urinary tract). ... The word "calculus" (plural: calculi)
is the Latin word for pebble. Renal stones are a common cause of blood in the urine and pain in the
abdomen, flank, or groin. Kidney stones occur in 1 in 20 people at some time in their life.
LITOTRIPSY
Lithotripsy is a medical procedure that uses shock waves or a laser to break down stones in the
kidney, gallbladder, or ureter
KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION
Kidney transplantation or renal transplantation is the organ transplant of a kidney into a patient
with end-stagerenal disease. Kidney transplantation is typically classified as deceased-donor (formerly
known as cadaveric) or living-donor transplantation depending on the source of the donor organ.
ADH
It refers to Antidiuretic hormone which is responsible for the permeability of walls of the
collecting ducts to water
VASPPRESSIN
It is alternate name foe ADH hormone
ALDOSTERONE
A hormone secreted by adrenal cortex. It is responsible to control the concentration of sodium
ions.
PARATHROMONE
A hormone secreted by parathyroid gland. It is responsible to increase the reabsorption of
calcium in nephron

LITHOTRIPSY
It is a method for removing kidney and ureteral stones. In this process, ultrasonic ways are used
to break up the calculi (stones) for removal
RENAL FAILURE
A condition in which kidneys fail to filter waste products from blood
DIALYSIS
It is a technique which is used to remove waste products from blood.
HAEMODIALYSIS
A kind of dialysis in which kidney machine is used to remove waste products form blood
through dialysis membrane
PERITONEAL DIALYSIS
A kind of dialysis in which catheter is inserted into peritoneal cavity and waste is removed
KIDNEY TRANSPLANT
A method in which failure kidney is replaced by a healthy kidney. 80% cases are successfully
treated.
ECTOTHERM
Animals which obtain heat energy from environment are called ecto-therms
ENDOTHERMS
Animals which obtain heat energy from physiological reactions of body are called endotherms
HETEROTHERMS
Animals in which temperature ranges between few degrees. E.g. humming bird
SUB-CUTANEOUS FAT
Subcutaneous fat is the fat visible just under the skin. Subcutaneous fat is normally harmless
and may even help regulate the body temperature.
SHIVERING THERMOGENESIS
One method to raise temperature is through shivering. It produces heat because the conversion of the
chemical energy of ATP into kinetic energy causes almost all the energy to show up as heat.
PYROGEN
A chemical substance which increases the temperature of body so that at high temperature,
micro-organisms may not feel comfortable and die.


What is Homeostasis?
Homeostasis is the maintenance of constant internal conditions, such as salt or water levels, body
temperature or levels of oxygen in the blood.
For animals, it is essential that the water and solute composition of their body fluids should
remain constant. When ever, we eat or drink, and due to many other reasons, the concentration of
body fluids changes. In case the normal concentration of body fluids is disturbed at large, there may be
number of problems which may lead an animal to death. Therefore an animal has to maintain natural
normal status in body. In order to do so, if therefore is deficiency of anything, the problem may be
solved by increasing intake and in case if something is surplus, it may be removed from body by the
process of excretion.
What is Excretion?
Excretion may be defined as a process by which the waste products of body are removed. There
are many waste products and there are many ways to get rid of them. For example, urine is a waste
product, which is expelled to the outside of the animal. Carbon dioxide is excreted from skin, gills or
lungs. Salts and water are excreted in sweat and other skin secretions. The excretory systems of
animals are responsible to the maintenance of internal environment in. This target is achieved in three
main ways:
1. Control of normal body water content
2. Maintenance of normal solute composition
3. Excretion of metabolic waste products
WHAT IS CONCEPT OF FEED BACK?

The organization of our body works on the principle of checks and balance system. This system
is called feed back system. The working pattern of feed back system is very easy and efficient.
In fact, there are receptors in living organisms, which are responsible to detect any kind of
change in the normal status of living body. These changes are reported to the brain, which orders the
body to perform the job accordingly and keep the normal status.
There are two types of feed back system, which work together.
Negative Feed Back System

It is a kind of feed back system, which produces the opposite effect with in the body. For
example, when a person eats a kind of food, which increases the level of glucose within the body, the
negative feed back system will take necessary steps to decrease the level of glucose in body. If the
extra amount of glucose is not decreased and allowed to stay in body, it may be cause of many
diseases.
Positive Feed Back System

In certain condition, the positive feed back system works and gives lot of benefit to our body. In
this feed back system; the body produces positive effect in its fever. Some times, it may harm the body
as well. For example if a person has been walking in hot summer season under shiny hot sun, his body
temperature will rise and if it cross the limit, the person may suffer from heat stroke.

WHAT IS OSMOREGULATION?
Osmoregulation may be defined as “The control of gain and loss of water and dissolved solutes
in an organism”.
Plants and animals live in different types of environment and respond in different way to the
external environment. This is basically due to difference in the structure of cell in plants and animals.
Plant cells have cell wall which has power of resistance against may factors, whereas animals only have
cell membrane which can not resist as the cell wall does.
For example, if a plant is grown in soil, where water of soil around the roost is Hypotonic
(Which means that the concentration of water outside the plant cell is higher), than the water will
enter into plant cells. As a result, the plant cell will gradually be filled and finally will become turgid (full
of water) When plant cells will become turgid, the cell wall will create hindrance and will not allow
more water to enter into cell from outside. This is highly beneficial for plants, because if this does not
occur, than plant cells will be ruptured.
On the contrary, if an animal lives in a kind of environment, where the concentration of water
outside body is higher, more water will enter into body cells, which may rupture because the cell
membrane of animals cells does not have resistant power. This is why; animals maintain their body
fluids at same water potential called isotonic solution.
How plants do Osmoregulation?

Plants live in different types of environmental conditions and have learnt to survive. Some
plants have enough water (such as hydrophyte plants), where as others have sever problem of water
shortage (such as in xerophyte plants).
Generally plants are divided into four groups on the basis of kind of environment in which they
live successfullly.
1. Hydrophytes
There are many plants, which are found in water.
Water lily and lotus plants are examples of hydrophytes. In
order to manage water problem hydrophytes have changed
their structure. For example they don’t have cuticle around
stem and leaf and they have large stomata where from the
loss of water takes places.
2. Halophytes
Halophytes are those plants, which grow in saline soil.
Saline soil is that where amount of salt is quite high. In saline soil,
mostly plants fail to grow, but halophytes are adapted to saline
environment and live a successful life. Halophytes have two
different mechanisms to manage in saline environment.
(1) They have salt glands in their leafy areas, where from they
remove salts not required by body.
(2) Some plants store salts in leaves and trap water from atmosphere.

3. Mesophytes
These plants grow in ideal environment where water
availability is not a problem. When a mesophyte plant gets enough
water, it is transpired from its aerial parts into air in the form of
water vapors. In case, if there is little shortage of water, that the
rate of transpiration is reduced. For this purpose, mesophytes have
waterproof cuticle, which stops water loss.
4. Xerophytes
Plants, which grow in deserted areas, are known as xerophytes. A desert is a type of terrestrial
ecosystem where there is acute shortage of underground and rainwater. Since xerophytes have very
little water available, therefore they cannot afford the luxury of transpiration. In order to manage their
water problem, xerophytes have brought many morphological and physiological changes in them.
Some of those changes are given below.
a. Xerophytes plants develop deep roots so that these roots may absorb water from soil where
water table is very low.
b. Very few people know that water present in the soil is also evaporated from the surface of soil.
In order to capture that water, some xerophyte plants (E.g. Cactus) develop superficial roots,
which also absorb soil water before it evaporates into air.
c. In order to reduce the rate of transpiration, Xerophyte plants reduce the number of stomata.
d. The lamina of leaf in Xerophyte plants is small so that is should have few stomata
e. Xerophyte plants generally close their stomata to stop the water loss
f. In case if some time Xerophyte plants receive enough water, they do not transpire, it but stores
some water in their parenchymatous tissues of stem and leaves. The water thus stored may be
used in the process of photosynthesis.

HOW TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS PERFORM OSMOREGULATION?
The atmosphere around the terrestrial animals is generally dry; therefore there are more
chances of water loss. Like plants, animals live in different types of ecosystems. In some ecosystems,
water availability is a major problem. Many animals have to survive for longer periods without water.
As we know that some animals of tropical Africa, depend on rainwater which is stored in small
ponds. If for any natural reason, rain does not fall, than the water pond may become dry and animals
will be facing water shortage problem. In order to overcome such kind of problems, terrestrial animals
have brought many morphological and physiological changes, which are described as under.
1. Development of water proof body covering:

If terrestrial animals have to stop water loss, they must develop water proof body covering. In
many terrestrial animals, including birds, reptiles and mammals, the external body covering is made up
of Keratin protein. The keratin protein is waterproof and allows water to go out of body. The external
body covering in Phylum arthropoda (E.g. All Insects) is composed of Chitin material, which is also
waterproof.
2. Absorption of water before it is excreted:

When animals drink water, most of it is used in the body, whereas remaining water is excreted
out of body. Before excretion, animals store that water. For example, human beings store their waste
water in urinary balder. When urinary bladder becomes, full than water is excreted in the form of
urine. If animals feel that there is deficiency of water in their body, they absorb some water from that
water which is ready to be excreted out of body.
3. Use of Metabolic water:

Many animals deposit lot of fat on their body. For example, camel, which is known to survive
without water for many days, can deposit lot of fat on its body. Whenever, there is deficiency of water,
camel and such other animals, metabolize their fat. When fats are metabolized, water is produced,
which is used by camel. That is why camel is not crazy for water.

HOW FRESH WATER ANIMALS PERFORM OSMOREGULATION?
Animals living in fresh water have many ways to perform the water balance.
Amoeba: It has contractile vacuole. If there is more water within the cell of amoeba, it is excreted
through contractile vacuole.
Paramecium: Like amoeba, paramecium also posses contractile vacuoles, which are used for excretion
of water.
Fishes: The body fluids o fishes are hypertonic. Therefore, they remove lot of water in the form of
urine. It is believed that during excretion of water, fresh water fishes also loose some inorganic salts,
but regain these salts by absorbing them from water present on their outside.
HOW MARINE WATER ANIMALS PERFORM OSMOREGULATION?

The water present in the body of marine fishes is more concentrated than water present
outside their body. Therefore water it excreted out regularly. In order to maintain the water balance,
marine fishes drink lot of water. While drinking marine water the lot of salts also come into the body of
fish, but fishes have excretory cells in their gills where from these salts are filtered and excreted out.
Hence, these salts do not produce any problem for fishes.

DEFINE EXCRETION? WHO EXCRETION OCCUR IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
The role of excretion is to maintain the normal solute composition of body fluids, to regulate the
body water content and to remove nitrogenous wastes from the body fluids.
Nitrogenous Wastes
Excretion may be defined as removal of waste products from body. There are many waste
products, but the most popular are salts, water and toxic substances. Question is that how these waste
products are produced in our body. Simple explanation is that when animals and plants metabolize
food material, particularly proteins, the waste products are produced. These waste products must be
removed otherwise they may create serious health problems for living organisms.
Different living organisms, produce different types of waste products, and have different ways
of excretion.
Nitrogenous Wastes
Excretion in plants:
As compared to the animals, plants are relatively safe. Plants produce mainly three waste
products, which are (1) Nitrogen (2) CO2 and (3) water.
The nitrogen is one of the most important requirements of plants; therefore it is not excreted
by plants but is reused by plants. However, plants excrete CO 2, Water and Oxygen into atmosphere.
The oxygen released by plants is used by animals in respiration and CO 2 and water released by plants is
added to the atmosphere to maintain the natural balance.

Excretion of Water in Plants:
Excretion of water is called Transpiration. It may be
defined as evaporation of water particles from plant surfaces
into atmosphere. Plants have three different ways in which
water is excreted.
(1). Stomata: These are small opening present in the leaf and
are formed when guard cells open due to turgor pressure of
mesophyll cells found in leaves. Some plants have few
stomata where as others have great number of stomata. The
number of stomata determines, how much water will be
excreted from plant.
Removal of water from Stomata of leaf is called Stomatal Transpiration.

(2) Lenticels: In the stem of plants, there are small holes called lenticels. In plants, water can also
transpire from these lenticels.
Removal of water from lenticels is called lenticular Transpiration.
(3) Cuticle: Mostly plants transpire water from their general body surface called cuticle.
Removal of water vapors from cuticle is called Cuticular Transpiration
Guttation: It is also a method of removal of water, but at nighttime. In some plants there are
Hydathodes present at their leaf margin. At night, when the stomata of plants are closed, the water is
removed from Hydathodes.
DIFFERENCE IN TRANSPIRATION AND GUTTATION

TRANSPIRATION GUTTATION
 It occur during day time.  It occur at night.
 Water is remove din the form of  Water is removed in the form of
vapors. drops.
 Stomata, lenticels and cuticle is  Hydathodes are used.
used.
These water drops explain guttation

EXCRETION IN ANIMALS:
Animals are known to excrete Ammonia, Urea, Uric acid Creatinine, Trimethylamine oxide,
Hypoxantine as waste products. In animals the removal waste are removed in different forms
depending on the habitat in which animals live. It means there is a correlation between waste product
and habitat of organism. For example, those animals, which live in water (E.g. Fishes), excrete
Ammonia as waste product, while animals (E.g. Elephant) living on land prefer to excrete Urea as a
water product. Some animals (E.g. Birds) like to excrete their waste products in the form of Uric acid.
Removal of Ammonia as waste product:

Ammonia is the nitrogenous waste and is formed by metabolism of protein. Ammonia is very
soluble in water and is highly toxic for the health of aquatic animals. Many aquatic animals (including
fishes) excrete ammonia as their nitrogenous waste. Since ammonia is highly soluble in water,
therefore, animals living water remove it as a waste product. Some animals like water invertebrates,
ammonia is removed from entire body surface, wile in fishes gill are used for this purpose.
Urea as Waste Product

Terrestrial animals generally convert the ammonia to a less toxic nitrogenous waste.
Invertebrates such as earthworms and snails, and vertebrates such as amphibians and mammals,
convert ammonia to urea.
The urea is formed as a waste product through a biochemical cycle of reactions, called the urea
cycle. In this cycle, ammonia condenses with carbon dioxide it forms urea. Urea is less toxic than
ammonia but is still very soluble.
The urea is not only excreted by land animals. There are some aquatic animals also (E.g. Shark,
Amphibians, and some Bony fishes), which also excrete Urea as a waste product. It
Uric Acid as Waste Product:

Some terrestrial animals, such as insects, reptiles and birds, convert ammonia to an even less
toxic and highly insoluble nitrogen waste product, uric acid, by a series of metabolic reactions called
uricogenesis. This conversion involves a larger number of specific enzymes and intermediate reactions,
and an even greater expenditure of energy. Spiders and scorpions excrete guanine, which is similar to
uric acid. Animals generally excrete uric acid in the form of thick paste
Advantages and disadvantages of waste products:

There are relative advantages and disadvantages associated with ammonia, urea, uric acid and
guanine as a nitrogenous waste. Ammonia contains only one nitrogen molecule per atom, so every
nitrogen atom is equivalent to an osmotic particle that requires water for excretion, and it is also very
toxic. However, it is extremely soluble and no energy is expended in its synthesis. Urea is less toxic
than ammonia and the excretion of nitrogen as urea requires less water than ammonia because each
molecule of urea contains two nitrogen atoms. However, the synthesis of urea from ammonia requires
the expenditure of energy, so there is a metabolic cost to urea excretion. Uric acid contains four
nitrogen atoms per molecule, so its excretion conserves even more water; it is also highly insoluble and
non-toxic but its synthesis requires even more energy expenditure than urea synthesis. Guanine,
another purine, is also nearly insoluble and, like uric acid, can be excreted with little water loss.

Terrestrial animals generally do not excrete ammonia. Because it is so soluble, ammonia would
have to accumulate to toxic levels in the body fluids for it to be excreted across their body surface as a
gas and too much water would be required for its excretion in urine. Nevertheless, ammonia is the
primary nitrogenous waste for terrestrial isopods and a few other crustaceans, mollusks and insects,
which can excrete gaseous ammonia across their body surface or via faeces. Terrestrial animals
generally convert ammonia to a less toxic form, either highly soluble urea or insoluble purines (uric
acid, guanine). Terrestrial worms and some snails excrete urea. Lungfishes produce urea rather than
ammonia when they become dormant (aestivate) out of water. Most terrestrial amphibians excrete
urea and a few semi-aquatic tortoises excrete urea. Mammals excrete urea. Most terrestrial insects
and snails, reptiles and birds, and some crabs, excrete uric acid whereas spiders and scorpions excrete
guanine.
Aquatic animals generally excrete ammonia, but cartilaginous fishes excrete urea. Terrestrial animals
generally excrete urea or purines (uric acid, guanine) but a few excrete gaseous ammonia.
EXCRETION IN HYDRA
Hydra is a multicellular invertebrate. Its entire body is exposed to water where it lives. Some
water also goes into body through mouth. In Hydra, Ammonia is produced as waste product and is
easily released from body surface through simple diffusion method.
EXCRETION IN PLANARIA
Planaria has a well-developed excretory system, which consists of longitudinal tubules running
from anterior to the posterior end of body. Each tube has excretory pore towards outside and flame
cells towards inner side. The flame cells in Planaria are called Protonephridia. The flame cells contain
cilia inside. When water (in which ammonia is dissolved) enter into flame cells, The cilia of flame cells
push the solution into excretory canal where from it is removed out from excretory pores.
EXCRETION IN INSECTS
Insects also have a well-developed excretory
system based on Malpighian tubules, which are located
at the junction of mid gut and hind hut. The waste
products in insects are removed in following way
1. Wastes form the blood enters the Malpighian tubules

via diffusion. These tubules are in direct contact with
the blood, since the insects have an open circulatory
system.
The materials then pass into the intestines where
water and nutrients are reabsorbed by the body and sent
to the tissues. The nitrogen compound, uric acid, passes
out of the body via the anus.

EXCRETION IN EARTHWORM
Earthworm has well developed excretory system, which is based on metanephridia. In earthworm its
body cells are not in direct contact with its environment, so a system of removal is required. The waste
products in earthworm are excreted in following way.
1. As the body fluid (plasma-like) leaks into the tissues, it
enters the nephrostome (beginning of metanephridia) and
the cilia in the metanephridia sends it through the tubes
prior to the bladder, which are highly vascularized and
loop several times over.
2. At the end of the looping tubes, the fluid collects in the
bladder, which is emptied into the environment through
the nephridiopore (which is the end of metanephridia
tube).
3. The solution leaving the body through the nephridiopore is
diluted urine. It contains water, salts, ammonia, and urea
4. The blood vessels surrounding the looping tubules are
bringing metabolic waste collected from the body, while
absorbing glucose and water.
EXCRETION IN MAN
Human being has a highly developed excretory system, by which they remove, extra water, and
other waste products in different forms. It is generally believed that in human beings, urine is the only
waste product and kidneys are the only excretory organs. Fact is that humans remove many waste
products and other than kidneys, certain other external and internal organs (such as liver) and tissues
(such as skin) also play important role.
Kidneys maintain osmoregulation, Liver excretes nitrogenous waste and skin excretes salts.
LIVER AN IMPORTANT ORGAN

Liver helps clear toxic substances, such as drugs and alcohol, from the bloodstream. It does this by
absorbing the harmful substances, chemically altering them, and then excreting them in the bile.

Metabolism of Carbohydrates and lipids:
One of the liver’s primary jobs is to store energy in the form of glycogen, which is made from a
type of sugar called glucose. The liver removes glucose from the blood when blood glucose levels are
high. Through a process called glycogenesis, the liver combines the glucose molecules in long chains to
create glycogen, a carbohydrate that provides a stored form of energy. When the amount of glucose in
the blood falls below the level required to meet the body’s needs, the liver reverses this reaction,
transforming glycogen into glucose.
Liver is also responsible to break proteins into amino acids and convert them into carbohydrates
(glucose). It also removes lipids from blood and stores them as fat.
Deamination and Urea formation:

It is liver where proteins are broken into amino acids. From amino acids, the amino group (NH 2)
is converted into ammonia, which combines with CO2 and is converted into urea. The urea finally is
removed from body through kidneys.
Production of Bile:
Bile consists of
(1) Bile pigments (such as biliverdin and bilirubin)
(2) Bile salts (such as sodium glycholate),
(3) Cholesterol,
(4) Phospholipids
(5) And mucous
The bile pigments are produced when RBCs are ruptured after completing their life f 12o days.
Detoxification of Cholesterol:
Liver has ability to change the shape of any toxic drug before it harms our body. Liver has an
enzyme called Catalase. This enzyme performs wonderful function. Whenever we take medicines,
Hydrogen oxide is produced as by product and may be harmful for human health. The liver breaks
hydrogen per oxide into hydrogen and oxygen with the help of Catalase enzyme. This is how we are
safe from the toxic effects of medicines.
(6) Formation of Cholesterol:

If the amount of cholesterol is more that requirement, liver removes it in bile. If the cholesterol
is not removed from body and stores in gall bladder, it may form stone there or may produce a
dangerous disease called Jaundice
Storage of Vitamins:
Liver is known for its ability to store the vitamins. Liver stores vitamins A, D, E, and K. The B
vitamins are also stored here, including a two- to four-year supply of Vitamin B12.
Thermoregulation:
Since lot of metabolic activities, are performed by liver, hence it is also involved in the
maintenance of body temperature.

EXPLAIN HUMAN URINARY SYSTEM?
Urinary System is a system of organs that produces and excretes urine from the body. Urine is a
transparent yellow fluid containing unwanted wastes, mostly excess water, salts, and nitrogen
compounds. The major organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, a pair of bean-shaped organs that
continuously filter substances from the blood and produce urine. Urine flows from the kidneys through
two long, thin tubes called ureters. With the aid of gravity and wavelike contractions, the ureters
transport the urine to the bladder, a muscular vessel. The normal adult bladder can store up to about
0.5 liter of urine, which it excretes through the tube like urethra.
An average adult produces about 1.5 liters (3 pt) of urine each day, and the body needs, at a
minimum, to excrete about 0.5 liter (1 pint) of urine daily to get rid of its waste products. Excessive or
inadequate production of urine may indicate illness and doctors often use urinalysis (examination of a
patient’s urine) as part of diagnosing disease. For instance, the presence of glucose, or blood sugar, in
the urine is a sign of diabetes mellitus; bacteria in the urine signal an infection of the urinary system;
and red blood cells in the urine may indicate cancer of the urinary tract.
DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF HUMAN KIDNEYS?
Anatomical structure of kidney

Kidney are paired organ whose functions include removing waste products from the blood and
regulating the amount of fluid in the body. The basic units of the kidneys are microscopically thin
structures called nephrons, which filter the blood and cause wastes to be removed in the form of
urine. Together with the bladder, two ureters, and the single urethra, the kidneys make up the body’s
urinary system. Human beings, as well as members of all other vertebrate species, typically have two
kidneys.
Like kidney beans, the body’s kidneys are dark red in color and have a shape in which one side
is convex, or rounded, and the other is concave, or indented. The kidneys of adult humans are about 10
to 13 cm (4 to 5 in) long and about 5 to 7.5 cm (2 to 3 in) wide—about the size of a computer mouse.
The kidneys lie against the rear wall of the abdomen, on either side of the spine. They are
situated below the middle of the back, beneath the liver on the right and the spleen on the left. Each
kidney is encased in a transparent, fibrous membrane called a renal capsule, which helps protect it
against trauma and infection. The concave part of the kidney attaches to two of the body’s crucial
blood vessels—the renal artery and the renal vein—and the ureter, a tube like structure that carries
urine to the bladder.
A primary function of kidneys is the removal of poisonous wastes from the blood. Chief among
these wastes are the nitrogen-containing compounds urea and uric acid, which result from the
breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids. Life-threatening illnesses occur when too many of these
waste products accumulate in the bloodstream. Fortunately, a healthy kidney can easily rid the body of
these substances.

The outermost layer of the kidney is called the cortex. Beneath the cortex lies the medulla, an
area that contains between 8 and 18 cone-shaped sections known as pyramids, which are formed
almost entirely of bundles of microscopic tubules. The tips of these pyramids point toward the center
of the kidney. The cortex extends into the spaces between the pyramids, forming structures called
renal columns. At the center of the kidney is a cavity called the renal pelvis.
The task of cleaning, or filtering, the blood is performed by millions of nephrons, remarkable
structures that extend between the cortex and the medulla. Under magnification, nephrons look like
tangles of tiny vessels or tubules, but each nephron actually has an orderly arrangement that makes
possible filtration of wastes from the blood. The primary structure in this filtering system is the
glomerulus, a network of extremely thin blood vessels called capillaries. The glomerulus is contained in
a cuplike structure called Bowman’s capsule, from which extends a narrow vessel, called the renal
tubule. This tube twists and turns until it drains into a collecting tubule that carries urine toward the
renal pelvis. Part of the renal tubule, called Henle’s loop, becomes extremely narrow, extending down
away from Bowman’s capsule and then back up again in a U shape. Surrounding Henle’s loop and the
other parts of the renal tubule is a network of capillaries, which are formed from a small blood vessel
that branches out from the glomerulus.
The nephron tubule, which extends from the renal capsule, consists of an initial proximal convoluted
tubule and a subsequent distal convoluted tubule.
Blood enters the kidney through the renal artery. The artery divides into smaller and smaller
blood vessels, called arterioles, eventually ending in the tiny capillaries of the glomerulus. The capillary
walls here are quite thin, and the blood pressure within the capillaries is high. The result is that water,
along with any substances that may be dissolved in it—typically salts glucose or sugar, amino acids, and
the waste products urea and uric acid—are pushed out through the thin capillary walls, where they are
collected in Bowman's capsule. Larger particles in the blood, such as red blood cells and protein
molecules, are too bulky to pass through the capillary walls and they remain in the bloodstream. The
blood, which is now filtered, leaves the glomerulus through another arteriole, which branches into the
mesh like network of blood vessels around the renal tubule. The blood then exits the kidney through
the renal vein. Approximately 180 liters (about 50 gallons) of blood moves through the two kidneys
every day.
Urine production begins with the substances that the blood leaves behind during its passage
through the kidney—the water, salts, and other substances collected from the glomerulus in
Bowman’s capsule. This liquid, called glomerular filtrate, moves from Bowman’s capsule through the
renal tubule. As the filtrate flows through the renal tubule, the network of blood vessels surrounding
the tubule reabsorbs much of the water, salt, and virtually all of the nutrients, especially glucose and
amino acids, which were removed in the glomerulus. This important process, called tubular
reabsorption, enables the body to selectively keep the substances it needs while ridding itself of
wastes. Eventually, about 99 percent of the water, salt, and other nutrients is reabsorbed.
At the same time that the kidney reabsorbs valuable nutrients from the glomerular filtrate, it
carries out an opposing task, called tubular secretion. In this process, unwanted substances from the
capillaries surrounding the nephron are added to the glomerular filtrate. These substances include
various charged particles called ions, including ammonium, hydrogen, and potassium ions.
Together, glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion produce urine,
which flows into collecting ducts, which guide it into the microtubules of the pyramids. The urine is
then stored in the renal cavity and eventually drained into the ureters, which are long, narrow tubes
leading to the bladder. From the roughly 180 liters (about 50 gallons) of blood that the kidneys filter
each day, about 1.5 liters (1.3 qt) of urine are produced.

WHAT IS ROLE OF HORONES IN THE EXCRETION OF WASTE PRODUCTS?
Antidiuretic Hormone:
In addition to cleaning the blood, the kidneys perform several other essential functions. One
such activity is regulation of the amount of water in the blood. This process is influenced by
antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also called vasopressin, which is produced in the hypothalamus. When
the amount of salt and other substances in the blood becomes too high, the pituitary gland releases
ADH into the bloodstream. When it enters the kidney, ADH makes the walls of the renal tubules and
collecting ducts more permeable to water, so that more water is reabsorbed into the bloodstream.
Aldosterone Hormone
The hormone aldosterone is produced by the adrenal glands. It interacts with the kidneys to
regulate the blood’s sodium and potassium content. High amounts of aldosterone cause the nephrons
to reabsorb more sodium ions, more water, and fewer potassium ions; low levels of aldosterone have
the reverse effect. The kidney’s responses to aldosterone help keep the blood’s salt levels within the
narrow range that is best for crucial physiological activities.
Aldosterone also helps regulate blood pressure. When blood pressure starts to fall, the kidney
releases an enzyme called rennin, which converts a blood protein into the hormone angiotensin. This
hormone causes blood vessels to constrict, resulting in a rise in blood pressure. Angiotensin then
induces the adrenal glands to release aldosterone, which promotes sodium and water to be
reabsorbed, further increasing blood volume and blood pressure.
Parathromone Hormone:
This hormone is secreted by Parathyroid gland, which is present inside thyroid gland. The main
function of paratromone hormone is to increase the reabsorption of calcium ions within the nephrons.
WHAT ARE MAJOR KIDNEY PROBLEMS AND HOW THEY ARE TREATED?
Kidney stones:
Some times stone formation may occur in kidneys. It is now a common disorder all over the world.
Stones are small-crystallized substances mainly formed due to three reasons (1) Calcium Oxalate or
Phosphate (2) Calcium, Magnesium, and Ammonium sulphate (3) Uric acid.
Calcium oxalate is one of the composing materials in stone formation. About 70 percent kidney
stone are formed from Calcium Oxalate, which is in fact an end product of metabolic activities. Calcium
oxalate is directly related with diet. If a person eats lots of Tomatoes, Spinach and leafy vegetables, he
is at risk, because these food items are rich in calcium oxalate. Nearly 20 percent of kidney stone cases
are due to Calcium, Magnesium and Ammonium phosphate. It is believe that 5 percent cases of kidney
stone are due to uric acid.
Kidney stones are very dangerous. Stones formed with smooth surface may not create pain,
unless they grow extra large. But if stones are formed with sharp edges, they may create lot of pain. It
is therefore must to get rid of stones from kidneys. There are many techniques by which stones may be
removed from kidney.
Urinary calculi, commonly known as kidney stones, result from the gradual buildup of crystallized salts and
minerals in the urine. Kidney stones can cause intense pain if they obstruct a passageway that carries urine.
Usually, the stones pass through and out of the urinary tract on their own. If they fail to pass out of the body,
they can be removed surgically or broken up nonsurgically by an ultrasound technique called lithotripsy.

LITHOTRIPSY:
In previous years, removal of kidney stones was possible through surgery. But now removal of
stone has become possible without surgery. The development of computers has made it possible to
see the image of internal body parts. Therefore in lithotripsy, the image of kidney is seen in screen, and
the stone is targeted with ultrasonic waves, which break the stone into minute pieces, which are
removed from body through urine.
RENAL FAILURE:
One of the most serious disorders of kidneys is renal failure, which slows or stops the filtration
of blood, causing toxic waste products to build up in the blood. Renal failure, which occurs suddenly,
may be caused by bacterial infection, injury, shock, congestive heart failure, drug poisoning, or severe
bleeding after surgery. Treatment may include drugs to address the underlying cause or to stimulate
proper kidney function, blood transfusions, surgery, or, in some cases, kidney dialysis, in which the
blood is mechanically filtered.
KIDNEY DIALYSIS:
Kidney Dialysis, also known, as hemodialysis is a medical treatment used to remove waste
materials from the blood of patients lacking renal function. During this process, blood from an artery is
pumped through a dialyzer, or artificial kidney, where it flows past a semi permeable membrane.
Dialysis fluid passing on the other side of the membrane removes unwanted elements in the blood by
diffusion. The blood is then returned to the body through a vein. Dialysis is done generally for 6-10
hours and three times in a week.
KIDNEY TRANSPLANT:
Kidney transplants are the most common of all transplant operations and have excellent
success rates of 89%. Unfortunately, there are not enough kidneys available for the people who need
them. More than 38,000 people in the United States alone wait for a kidney transplant each year, and
fewer than 12,000 of them receive this life-sustaining organ.
In a kidney transplant, the donated kidney may come from a close living relative of the patient or
from a person who has recently died. The donor kidney is removed by clamping and cutting the renal
vein and artery (1). The diseased kidneys in the patient may be left in place, or one or both may be
removed if they cause persistent infection or high blood pressure (2). The donor kidney is placed in
the pelvis region of the recipient and the organ's renal vein and artery are attached (3). Both the
donor and the recipient can survive in good health with only one functioning kidney to filter and
regulate the composition of blood.
The above diagram show normal and abnormal condition of kidneys

WHAT IS THERMOREGULATION?
Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries,
even when temperature surrounding is very different. This process is known as homeostasis: a dynamic
state of stability between an animal's internal environment and its external environment.
Whereas an organism that thermoregulates is one that keeps its temperature constant and adapts to
the temperature of the environment, thermoconformer changes its body temperature according to the
temperature outside of it’s body.
Temperature regulation
Life on earth exists within a narrow range of temperature which is stabilized by the unique
properties of water within the bodies of organisms including animals; enzymes become denatured at
temperature extremes and metabolic reactions occur best at certain temperatures; both endotherms,
which control the build-up of heat from aerobic respiration (homeotherms) and ectotherms
(poikilotherms) can thermoregulate but only the endotherms (birds and mammals) can maintain a
stable body temperature by using their nervous, endocrine, respiratory and circulatory systems.
Heat gains and losses in animals
1. Conduction - heat escapes from your body when you sit on a cold rock.
2. Convection - cooler air currents remove heat from the surface of your skin.
3. Evaporation - evaporative cooling occurs when water (often from perspiration) leaves the skin
surface as a gas, lowering the body temperature by cooling blood vessels in the dermis.
4. Radiation - e.g. acquisition of heat from solar radiation (e.g. snakes "sunning" on a cold day).
Types of thermoregulation
There are two types of thermoregulation that are used by animals:
1. physiological regulation: This is when an organism changes its physiology to regulate body
temperature. For example, our body tends to sweat inorder to cool our body down. Another
example is when our bodies get cold, it likes to shiver so that the body can create some heat.
2. behavorial regulation: This is when an organism changes its behavior to changes it body
temperature. For example, when your body starts to get hot because of the sun, you may want
to find a shade to cool yourself down.
Physiological temperature regulation in vertebrates

Ectotherms
Even though fishes are ectotherms some have developed the ability to remain functional even
when the water temperature is below freezing and some even use natural antifreeze to resist ice
crystal formation in their tissues; amphibians (also ectotherms) must cope with the loss of heat
through their moist skins by evaporative cooling; reptiles, like amphibians must warm their bodies by
behavioral adaptations; the stratum corneum they possess limits heat loss by evaporative cooling.
Endotherms
Main article: Endotherms
Birds avoid overheating by panting since, unlike the mammals, their thin skin has no sweat
glands. Down feathers trap warm air acting as excellent insulators (sometimes used by humans). Hair
in mammals also acts as a good insulator; mammalian skin is much thicker than that of birds and often
has a continuous layer of insulating fat beneath the dermis - in marine mammals like whales this is
referred to as blubber.

Heat production in birds and mammals
In cold environments, birds and mammals can compensate for heat loss by:
1. utilizing small smooth muscles (arrector pili in mammals) which are attached to feather or hair
shafts; this shivering thermogenesis distorts the surface of the skin as the feather/hair shaft is
made more erect (called goose flesh or pimples).
2. animals in cold climates tend to be larger (easier to maintain core body temperature) than
similar species in warmer climates.
3. be capable of storing energy as fat for metabolism
4. have reduced extremities
5. some have countercurrent blood flow in extremities (e.g. timber wolves) to avoid freezing of
tissues.
In warm environments, birds and mammals avoid overheating by:
1. behavioral adaptations like living in burrows during the day and being nocturnal
2. evaporative cooling by perspiration and panting
3. storing fat reserves in one place (e.g. camel's hump) to avoid its insulating effect
4. elongate, often vascularized extremities to conduct body heat to the air.
Behavioral temperature regulation

In addition to human beings, a number of animals also maintain their body temperature by
physiological and behavioral adjustments. For example, a desert lizard alters their location
continuously during a day. In the morning, some portion of its body, which is head, emerges from its
burrow and later the entire body comes out of its hiding place and basks in the sun to aborb solar heat.
As the sun gets stronger, a lizard hides under the rock or goer back to the burrows. Interestingly, as the
sun goes down and the temperature is cooler, it emerges again.
By changing its behavior, a lizard can keep the body temporature to some degree. However,
since a lizard is an ectoderm, she is not able to control the body temperature through metabolic
regulation.
Some animals living in cold environment maintain their body temperature, preventing heat
loss. They let their fur grow more to increase the insulation. Some arctic animals allow their body
extremities to cool to very low temperature. Compared to the core body temperature, their legs or
nose are extremely low nearly zero celsius, so they have nothing to lose heat in legs or nose. Because
the extremities are not insulated well, high temperature in foot and hooves is hard to maintain.
Hibernation estivation and daily torpor

Rather than cope with limited food resources and low temperatures, some mammals "punt" in
a sense by hibernating in underground burrows; in order to remain in "stasis" for long periods these
animals must build up brown fat reserves and be capable of slowing all body functions; True
hibernators (e.g. groundhogs) keep their body temperature down throughout their hibernation while
the core temperature of false hibernators (e.g. bears) varies with them sometimes emerging from their
dens for brief periods; bats are true hibernators which rely upon a rapid, nonshivering thermogenesis
of their brown fat deposit to bring them out of hibernation.
Estivation occurs in summer (like siestas) and allows some mammals to survive periods of high
temperature and little water (e.g. turtles burrow in pond mud).
Daily torpor occurs in small endotherms like bats and humming birds which temporarily reduce
their high metabolic rates to conserve energy.
PRACTICE SHEET#01
1. Set of regulatory mechanism which are involved in maintaining an organism’s internal
environment is called
(a) Osmoregulation (b) Homeostasis (c) Feedback mechanism
2. The check and balance mechanism operating in the body is called
(a) Receptors (b) Feedback system (c) Both (d) None
3. Any change in internal environment is detected by
(a) Effectors (b) Receptors (c) Negative Feedback (d) None
4. Organs which receive appropriate response are called
(a) Effectors (b) Receptors (c) Both a&b (d) None
5. The opposite effect produced in relation to any change in the body is termed as
(a) Negative feedback (b) Positive back (c) Both a&b (d) None
6. Series of similar effects produced which lead to the enhancement of change under
consideration is called
(a) Positive feedback (b) Negative feedback (c) Both a&b (d) None
7. One of the following refers to the water and solute contents of cells
(a) Osmoregulation (b) Homeostasis (c) feedback (d) None
8. The water moves in and out of cells by a process called
(a) Osmosis (b) Diffusion (c) active transport (d) All
9. The potential energy of water molecules is termed as
(a) Osmotic pressure (b) Water potential (c) Both a&b (d) All
10. The water potential of cell sap is termed as
(a) Solute potential (b) Water potential (c) Both a&b (d) None
11. A solution which has high concentration of solvent than solute is called
(a) Hypotonic (b) Hypertonic (c) Isotonic (d) None
12. A solution which has high concentration of solute than solvent is called
13. A solution which has equal concentration of solute and solvent is called
14. If a cell is placed in pure water, the water comes in continuously, but cell will not burst
because it has
(a) Cell wall (b) Vacuole (c) Both a&b (d) None
15. When a cell is placed in hypotonic solution, there is net movement of water from cell to
outside. Such cell is called
(a) Flaced cell (b) Turgid cell (c) Both a&b (d) None
16. Plants growing in aquatic habitat are called
(a) Xerophytes (b) Halophytes (c) Hydrophytes (d) None
17. Plants growing in deserted habitat are called
18. Plants growing in saline habitat are called
19. Condition during which water is removed from cell and shrinkage of protoplasm occur is
known as
(a) Plasmolysis (b) Water shortage (c) De-plasmolysis (d) All
20. In one of the following, transpiration occur in liquid rather than vapor form
(a) Transpiration (b) Guttation (c) Both a&b (d) None
21. In order to prevent loss of water Mesophytes plants have develop
(a) Cuticle (b) Thorns (c) Hairs (d) All
22. Salt glands are present in
(a) Mesophytes (b) Halophytes (c) Xerophytes (d) All
23. Following types of plants develop deep vertical roots
(a) Xerophytes (b) Mesophytes (c) Both a&b (d) None
24. Xerophytes, which store water in parenchymatous tissues of stem, and leaves are called
(a) Succulent (b) Non-succulent (c) Both a&b (d) None
25. As compared with aquatic animals, terrestrial animals are likely to lose
(a) More water (b) Less water (c) Equal (d) None
26. Amoeba and paramecium perform osmoregulation by
(a) Gullet (b) Contractile vacuole (c) Both a&b (d) None
27. Cockroaches and other insects have excretory system which consists of long, thin, blind
tubules called
(a) Flame cells (b) Malpighian tubules (c) Metanephridia (d) None
28. Which one statement is not correct?
(a) Kidneys maintain osmoregulation and eliminate wastes
(b) Liver excrete waste, bile pigments
(c) Skin excrete salts along with sweat during perspiration
(d) Salts are never excreted a waste product
29. Liver can make plasma proteins like
(a) Prothrombin (b) fibrin (c) globulin (d) A.O.T
30. If glucose and glycogen are fully used, and body fulfils its energy requirement from
(a) Amino acids (b) Lipids (c) Brown fat (d) None
31. Human body cannot store proteins and amino acids; therefore they are broken down
(a) True (b) False
32. When amino acid is breaking down, the carboxyl group is converted into
(a) carbohydrate (b) Glycogen (c) Starch (d) None
33. When amino acid is breaking down, the amino part is converted into
(a) Ammonia (b) Urea (c) Uric acid (d) None
34. Since ammonia is very toxic, therefore, it is combined with CO 2 to make it less toxic chemical
called
(a) Uric acid (b) Urea (c) Nitrogen (d) None
35. Hydrogen peroxide is a bi-product of many chemical pathways; therefore, it is broken down
to -----------by anenzyme called catalase
(a) Hydrogen (b) Oxygen (c) Hydrogen and oxygen (d) None
36. Excess amount of cholesterol in gall bladder can precipitate to form
(a) Gall stone (b) Jaundice (c) Both a&b (d) None
37. Each human kidney is --------cm long
(a) 10 (b) 20 (c) 22 (d) None
38. Membrane that encloses kidneys is called
(a) Melatonin (b) Ketene (c) Peritoneum (d) None
39. Site at which renal arteries and veins enter and leave the kidneys is called
(a) Junction (b) Hilus (c) Hilum (d) Mcrum
40. Each human kidney is composed of about a million microscopic tubules known as
(a) Neuron (b) Nephrons (c) Pelvis (d) None
41. Ultra-filtration refers to the filtration at molecular level.
(a) True (b) False
42. The wall of Bowman’s capsule is sieve like in nature, which permit all molecules except
(a) Plasma protein (b) Blood cells (c) Both a&b (d) None
43. Each day, the ----------to ----------liters blood flows through the kidneys
(a) 1100 to 2000 (b) 1100 to 2500 (c) 1100 to 3000 (d) None
44. The nephrons and collecting ducts process about --------liters of filtrate
(a) 190 (b) 180 (c) 175 (d) None
45. The nephrons and collecting ducts process about 180 liters of filtrate, but kidneys excrete
about- ---to--- liters ofurine
(a) 1-1.5 (b) 1-2 (c) 2 (d) None
46. The re-absorption of filtrate such as glucose, amino acids, water and salts occurs in
(a) Proximal Convoluted tubule (b) Renal medulla
(c) Both a&b (d) None
47. During process of excretion, ---percent of water is re-absorbed
(a) 90 (b) 95 (c) 80 (d) None
48. The degree of concentration of urine is determined by the length of
(a) Loop of Henle (b) Juxta medullary nephron
(c) Renal cortex (d) None
49. The greater demand of water conservation is linked with number of Juxta medullary nephron
in kidneys
(a) True (b) False
50. The permeability of the walls of the collecting ducts to water is regulated by
(a) Antidiuretic hormone (b) Vasopressin
(c) Both a& are same thing (d) None
51. Due to presence of ADH, the re-absorption of water in the collecting duct is
(a) Increased (b) Decreased (c) Variable (d) None
52. The concentration of sodium ions in the body is controlled by
(a) Aldosterone (b) Parathormone (c) ADH (d) None
53. The concentration of calcium ions in the body is controlled by
(a) Aldosterone (b) Parathormone (c) ADH (d) None
54. Urine of a normal human being contains
(a) 95% water (b) 5 % solids (c) Both a&b (d) None
55. About 70% of kidney stone or a calculus is due to
(a) Magnesium (b) Calcium oxalate or phosphate
(c) Calcium (d) All
56. Combination of calcium and magnesium cause
(a) 20% kidney stone (b) 5% stone (c) 70% stone (d) None
57. Uric acid is responsible for -----percent kidney stones
(a) 10% (b) 15% (c) 20% (d) 5%
58. A recent method for removing kidney stone, in which shock waves or ultra-violate rays are
used to break thestone into small pieces is called
(a) Peritoneal dialysis (b) Dialysis (c) Lithotripsy (d) All
59. In case of kidney failure, the waste products from blood are removed by
(a) Dialysis (b) Lithotripsy (c) Both a&b (d) None
60. Kidney transplant is a surgical procedure of replacing failure kidney with normal one. The rate
of success is
(a) 70% (b) 75% (c) 80% (d) None

PRACTICE SHEET#01
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B B B A A A A B B B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A B C C A C A B A B
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A B A A B B B D D A
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A A B A C A A C B B
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
A C A B B A B B A C
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
A B A A B A D C A C

PRACTICE SHEET#02
1. Homeostasis is the process of maintaining a constant __________ environment despite
_____________ conditions.
(a) External, internal (b) Internal, external (c) Both A and B (d) None of these
2. Homeostasis is based on
(a) Thermoregulation only (b) Catabolism
(c) Feedback mechanism (d) Anabolism
3. Two major control centers for homeostasis are
(a) Exocrine and Endocrine glands (b) Apocrine and Heterocrine glands
(c) Receptors and Effectors (d) Brain and Endocrine glands
4. Which of the following activity is regulated by Homeostasis
(a) Temperature (b) Water balance
(c) Blood sugar level (d) All A, B and C
5. What should be the "Regulator" in this chart?
(a) Medulla oblongata (b) Pituitary gland

(c) Spinal cord (d) Hypothalamus
6. What are the components of feed back mechanism?
(a) Receptors, Insulators, Effectors (b) Receptors, Suppressors, Effectors
(c) Receptors, Regulators, Effectors (d) Receptors, Depressors, Effectors
7. A cell is placed in a solution and swells. This solution is
(a) Isotonic to cell (b) Hypertonic to cell
(c) Hypotonic to cell (d) None of these
8. In an isotonic solution there would be
(a) No net movement of water (b) Net movement of water into the cell
(c) Net movement of water out of the cell (d) Bursting of the cell
9. A cell whose internal salt concentration is 0.3 /liter is placed in a solution having salt
concentration 0.5 /liter. The solution is
(a) Isotonic to the cell (b) Hypotonic to the cell
(c) Hypertonic to cell (d) None of these
10. Osmosis is defined as
(a) Flow of solvent (water) through Semipermeable membrane from higher to less
Concentrated solution
(b) Flow of solvent (water) through Semipermeable membrane from less to higher
Concentrated solution
(c) Flow of a solute from a Semipermeable membrane
(d) Flow of water without membrane
11. Plasmolysis of a human red blood cell would occur if the cell were
(a) In an isotonic solution (b) In a hypertonic solution
(c) In a hypotonic solution (d) None of the above
12. When an animal cell is placed in a hypotonic environment, it will
(a) Undergo cytolysis (b) Undergo plasmolysis
(c) Be at equilibrium (d) Its turgor pressure decreases
13. The contractile vacuole of a paramecium should be active when the paramecium is in
(a) An isotonic environment (b) A hypotonic environment
(c) A hypertonic environment (d) Any environment
14. The tendency of a solution to take up water when separated from pure water by a selectively
permeable membrane is called
(a) Osmotic pressure (b) Turgor pressure
(c) Diffusion pressure deficit (d) Water potential
15. Xerophytes have
(a) Deep roots for water uptake (b) Succulent stems for storage of water
(c) Few stomata to limit water loss (d) All A, B and C
16. A plant without cuticle in leaves and stem, having increased number of stomata, partially or
completely submerged in water is
(a) Mesophytes (b) Hydrophyte (c) Both A and B (d) Halophyte
17. The entry of water from salty soil into the roots of halophytes takes place because the root
cells of halophytes develop
(a) High water potential (b) Low osmotic pressure
(c) Low water potential (d) All of these
18. ______________ are animals that do not adjust their internal osmolarity and are isotonic
with their environment.
(a) Osmo-conformers (b) Osmo-regulators
(c) Thermoregulators (d) Thermo-confirmers
19. ______________ are animals that are not isotonic with their environment and have
developed mechanisms to regulate their internal solute and water concentrations.
(a) Osmoconformers (b) Osmoregulators
(c) Thermoregulators (d) Both A and B
20. What is correct for diagram below?
(a) Cell "A" will lose H2O, Cell "B" will gain H2O, Cell "C" neither gain nor loses H2O
(b) Cell "A" neither gain nor loses H2O, Cell "B" will gain H2O, Cell "C" will lose H2O
(c) Cell "A" will gain, Cell "B" neither gain nor loses H2O, Cell "C" will lose H2O
(d) Cell "A" will gain H2O, Cell "B" will lose H2O, Cell "C" neither gain nor loses H2O
21. An increase in blood sugar level triggers the release of the hormone insulin by the pancreas,
the hormone insulin lowers blood sugar level restoring the body to its original blood glucose
level by converting glucose to glycogen. This is an example of
(a) Positive feed back (b) Negative feed back
(c) Homeostatic imbalance (d) None of these

22. A fish in fresh water
(a) Produces dilute urine (b) Have a hypertonic body
(c) Produces concentrated urine (d) A and B
23. Sea water is _________________________ to Hag-fishes.
(a) Isotonic (b) Hypotonic (c) Hypertonic (d) None of these
24. A fish in marine water
(a) Produces concentrated urine (b) Have a hypotonic body
(c) Produces dilute urine (d) A and B
25. Metabolic water is
(a) Water outside the cells of animals (b) Produced by oxidation of fats
(c) Useful to desert mammals (d) B and C
26. Plants do not excrete ammonia, urea and uric acid because
(a) They lack nitrogenous compounds (b) Their metabolism is protein based
(c) Their nitrogenous products are recycled (d) All A, B and C
27. Plants excrete
(a) Excess water (b) Excess oxygen
(c) Excess carbon dioxide (d) All A, B and C
28. Which one of the following has maximum toxicity?
(a) Ammonia (b) Urea (c) Uric acid (d) Creatinine
29. Which one of the following has medium toxicity?
(a) Ammonia (b) Urea (c) Uric acid (d) Water
30. Which one of the following has least toxicity?
(a) Ammonia (b) Urea (c) Uric acid (d) All are highly toxic
31. Guttation takes place through
(a) Stomata (b) Injured tissue (c) Lenticels (d) Hydathodes
32. The excretory organs of Planaria are known as
(a) Protonephridia (b) Flame cells (c) Both A and B (d) Metanephridia
33. Tubular excretory system of Earth worm consist of
(a) Protonephridia (b) Coxal glands
(c) Malpighian tubules (d) Metanephridia
34. The internal opening of the metanephridium is known as
(a) Nephrostome (b) Nephridiopore (c) Excretory pore (d) All A, B and C
35. Liver Synthesize
(a) Non-essential amino acids (b) Plasma proteins
(c) Cholesterol (d) All A, B and C
36. In humans, excess nitrogen is eliminated from the body by mainly converting it to
(a) Urea (b) Uric acid (c) Ammonia (d) Amine phosphate
37. The liver is
(a) Smallest internal organ (b) Medium-sized internal organ
(c) Body's largest internal organ (d) All options are incorrect
38. The three major body fuels managed by the liver are
(a) Protein, vitamins, and minerals (b) Carbohydrate, fat, and protein
(c) Glucose, fructose, and sucrose (d) Glucose, iron, and protein
39. Pigments found in bile are formed during ______________ catabolism
(a) Haem catabolism (b) Globin catabolism

(c) Cholesterol Catabolism (d) Both A and C
40. The nephron is
(a) The site of urine storage (b) The functional unit of the kidney
(c) The site where ADH is produced (d) Also called the "Bowman's capsule"
41. From the distal convoluted tubule, filtrate will then be carried to the:
(a) Renal corpuscle (b) Collecting duct
(c) Nephron loop (d) Proximal convoluted tubule
42. All the following are normally found in urine except
(a) Sodium ions (b) Uric acid (c) Creatinine (d) Glucose
43. _______________ hormone regulates the transfer of sodium from the nephron to the blood.
(a) Parathormone (b) Anti-diuretic (c) Aldosterone (d) Vasopressin
44. Conversion of ammonia into urea, occurs in
(a) Kidneys (b) Lungs (c) Intestine (d) Liver
45. Separation of amino acid into amino and carboxyl group is known as
(a) Amination (b) Excretion (c) Deamination (d) Egestion
46. Uric acid is the chief nitrogenous waste material in the excretory system of
(a) Reptiles (b) Birds (c) Insects (d) All of these
47. Which of the following is not structure of kidney
(a) Cortex (b) Medulla (c) Pelvis (d) Ureth
48. In mammalian kidney, the pyramids are seen in
(a) Cortex (b) Medulla (c) Pelvis (d) Hilus
49. The number of nephrons in ONE kidney of man is
(a) 4 million (b) 2 million (c) 8 million (d) 1 million
50. ADH increases __________ of ___________ from the collecting duct.
(a) Absorption, sodium (b) Diffusion, chlorine
(c) Absorption, water (d) Diffusion, Ammonia
51. Two counter-current systems are formed in the kidney by the
(a) Henle’s loop and PCT (b) Henle’s loop and DCT
(c) Henle’s loop and Collecting duct (d) Henle’s loop and Vasa rectae
52. Cholesterol is excreted in the
(a) Sebum (b) Bile (c) Sweat (d) Both A and B
53. Malpighian body is composed of
(a) Bowman’s capsule only (b) Glomerulus only
(c) Bowman’s capsule & Glomerulus (d) Henle’s loop and Vasa rectae
54. Daily urine output of man is
(a) 1-2 liters (b) 1-3 liters (c) 1-4 liters (d) 1-5 liters
55. Tubular structure which carries urine from bladder to outside
(a) Ureter (b) Hilus (c) Pelvis (d) Urethra
56. Ultrafiltration occurs in
(a) Bowman’s capsule (b) Proximal convoluted tube
(c) Henle’s loop (d) Distal convoluted tube
57. The greater the demand of conserving water, the greater would be the number of
(a) Juxta-medullary nephrons (b) Cortical nephrons
(c) Capillaries of glomerulus (d) Both A and B

58. Each kidney is enclosed by a thin membranous covering called
(a) Peritonium (b) Peritreme (c) Perizonium (d) All A, B and C
59. pH of human urine is
(a) 7.4 (b) 3.5 (c) 5.00 (d) 8.00
60. The hormone which increases the reabsorption of calcium ions in nephron is
(a) Aldosterone (b) Parathormone (c) Anti-diuretic (d) Vasopressin
61. The process by which some poisonous substances are secreted from preitubular capillaries
into nephric filtrate is termed as
(a) Tubular reabsorption (b) Tubular secretion
(c) Counter-current exchange (d) None of these
62. It is a cyclic process of enzymatic reactions which operates in the liver cells as result of which
urea is formed from ammonia, carbon-dioxide and NH2 group
(a) Ornithine cycle (b) Citruline cycle (c) Arginine cycle (d) All of these
63. Select the correct for nitrogenous wastes in this diagram
(a) "A" Urea "B" Ammonia "C" Uric acid (b) "A" Uric acid "B" Ammonia "C" Urea
(c) "A" Ammonia "B" Urea "C" Uric acid (d) "A" Ammonia "B" Uric acid "C" Urea
64. Blood enters the kidney through a branch of the aorta called
(a) Afferent arteriole (b) Renal artery (c) Efferent arteriole (d) Renal vein
65. A capillary tuft from which fluid leaves the circulatory system.
(a) Bowman's capsule (b) Proximal convoluted tube
(c) Glomerulus (d) Loop of Henle
66. In ectotherms and endotherms heat can be lost through
(a) Evaporation (b) Radiation (c) Convection (d) All A, B and C
67. About _______% of kidney stones are composed of Calcium oxalate or phosphate.
(a) 5% (b) 20% (c) 70% (d) 90%
68. About _______% of kidney stones are composed of Uric acid.
(a) 5% (b) 20% (c) 70% (d) 90%
69. Dialysis cleans the blood by
(a) An artificial kidney (b) Filtering it within abdomen
(c) Removing glucose from blood (d) Both A and B
70. Hemodialysis means
(a) Removing the blood (b) Cleaning the blood
(c) Diluting the blood (d) All options are correct

71. These are animals that produce metabolic heat at low rates and rely primarily on thermal
conditions of their surroundings.
(a) Endotherms (b) Heterotherms (c) Ectotherms (d) Both B and C
72. These are animals capable of varying degrees of endothermic heat production, but they
generally do not regulate body temperature within as narrow a range as endotherms.
(a) Ectotherms (b) Poikilotherms (c) Heterotherms (d) None of these
73. It is technique of breaking kidney stones inside kidneys, ureters, and urinary bladder
(a) Lithotrophy (b) Lithography (c) Lithotripsy (d) All options are correct
74. Mammals maintain their body temperature within a range of
(a) 25 C˚ to 35 C˚ (b) 30 C˚ to 40 C˚ (c) 36 C˚ to 43 C˚ (d) 36 C˚ to 38 C˚
75. Birds maintain their body temperature within a range of
(a) 25 C˚ to 35 C˚ (b) 30 C˚ to 40 C˚ (c) 41 C˚ to 43 C˚ (d) 36 C˚ to 38 C˚
76. Regulation of body temperature in homiotherms during high environmental temperature
involve
(a) Vaso-dilation (b) Lowering the hairs
(c) Reduction in sub-cutaneous fat (d) All A, B and C
77. Regulation of body temperature in homiotherms during cold environmental temperature
involve
(a) Vaso-constriction (b) Erection of hairs
(c) Increase in sub-cutaneous fat (d) All A, B and C
78. ____________ displace the set point of hypothalamus above the normal point of 37 C˚
(a) Pyrenins (b) Pyridoxins (c) Pyrogens (d) All A, B and C
79. An animal when taken into hot area looses heat by sweating and when to cold area increases
muscular activity to produce more heat. The animal in this thought is
(a) Homeothermic (b) Poikilothermic (c) Ectothermic (d) None of these
80. Which cycle is shown in this diagram
(a) Ornithine cycle (b) Urea cycle (c) Urine cycle (d) Both A and B
PRACTICE SHEET#02
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B C D D D C C A C B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B A B A D B C A B D
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
B D A D D C D A B C
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
D C D A D A C B A B
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
B D C D C D D B D C
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
D B C A D A A A C B
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
B A C B C D C A D B
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
C C C D C D D C A D

CHAPTER # 02
SUPPORT AND LOCOMOTION
IRRITABILITY
Ability of a living body to feel and respond is called irritability
MOVEMENT
Ability of living body to move without changing location is called movement
PARENCHYMATOUS TISSUE
Parenchyma
Parenchyma tissues have following characters
 They are composed of cells which are large
 They have thin primary cell wall
 They have pectin-rich middle lamella
 They have large vacuole which fills most of the cell
 They have an active nucleus with dispersed chromatin.
 Parenchyma cells are commonly polyhedral (many-sided) and loosely packed together,
separated by a network of intercellular spaces.
Collenchyma
The collenchyma tissues have following characters
 They are supporting tissues.
 They give strength to plant parts where bending and flexibility are required.
 These tissues are commonly found in leaf stalks (petioles), leaf laminas and young
stems.
 Collenchyma cells have thick cell wallswith additional cellulose.
 Although the cell wall is extra thick, but it is flexible and can be stretched.
Sclerenchyma
The Sclerenchyma have following characters
 Sclerenchyma is also a supporting tissue
 It gives rigidity as well as strength due to presence of lignin.
 Because the cell wall is so thick, in mature Sclerenchyma cells the protoplasm usually
degenerates to leave a gap or lumen in the center of the cell.
Fibers: they are elongated cells with tapering end walls. They are often arranged in a continuous layer
in stems or in vascular tissue.
Sclereids or stone cells: They are branched or more or less even-shaped, and play a role of protection
as much as support. They form the hard tissue of seed coats and give pears and some other fruits their
gritty texture.
Types of Movement in Plants
There are 2 types of movement in plants
1. Autonomic movement
It is the movement of plants due to internal stimuli
2. Induced movement
It in the movement of plants due to external stimuli

AUTONOMIC MOVEMENT:
This type of movement may be further divided into three more type which are as under
Locomotory movement. It is movement of (a) whole plant body (b) whole plant organ (c) whole
material within cell. This is also called movement of locomotion. Movement of whole protoplasm in
cytoplasm, movement of whole chromosomes during cell division and, flagellary locomotion of Euglena
are examples of Locomotory movement
Growth and Curvature movement: It is movement of part of plants due to growth. This type of
movement is further divided into following types.
NUTATION: When growth takes place in the young stem in zigzag manner due to alternate growth
on opposite side, it is called nutation. E.g. Movement of climber
NASTIC MOVEMENT: It is the growth in the parts of plants due to differences in the rate of
growth on two opposite sides. If the growth is in the anterior part, it is called Epinastic and if it is in the
posterior part, it is Hypo-nastic.
TURGER MOVEMENT: It is the movement of part of plant due to Turgor pressure. For example,
when plant cells intake water, their size changes and some movement occur from original place. Turgor
movement may result due to loss and gain of water.
PARATONIC MOVEMENT
It is the movement of plants due to external stimuli. There are following types of paratonic movement
1. Tropic movement: It is the movement of part of plant towards or away from the external stimuli.
This type of movement is directional, which means that the plant part will move towards the
direction of stimuli. Tropic movement is further divided into following types
Phototropism: It is movement of part of plant due to light stimuli. If the part of plant moves towards
the light, it is called positive phototropism (E.g. movement of shoot towards light) and when plant part
move away from light, is called negative phototropism (E.g. movement of roots towards soil away from
light).
Geotropism: It is movement of part of plant towards gravitational attraction of earth. E.g. movement
of roots towards soil.
Chemotropism: It is movement of part of plant due to chemical attraction. E.g. Pollen grains transfer to
stigma due to the attraction of sugar substance called Malic acid.
Hydrotropism: It is the movement of part of plant in relation to water. For example roots are called
positively hydrotropic because they are stimulated by water in the soil.
Thigmotropism: It is movement of part of plant in response to touch. Such type of movement may be
seen in climber plants.
Nastic Movement: It is the movement of part of plant, but here the movement is non-directional. In
this type of movement, plant part will move in opposite to the direction of stimuli. Depending on the
type of stimulus, nastic movement is of many types such as following
a) Photonastic: Against light
b) Thermronastic:Against temperature
c) Sesminastic: Against touch
d) Nictinastic: Against day and light

SESSILE ANIMALS
The animals, which can move but can not Locomote
E.g. Man
MOTILE ANIMALS
Animals, which can move, and Locomote
e.g. Sea anemone
BILATERAL SYMMETRY
Division of body into two halves from longitudinal angle. e.g. man.
RADIAL SYMMETRICAL
Division of body into two halves from many angles
e.g. Sea anemone
PROPULSION
Movement of body in one (usually forward) direction
EXO-SKELETON
A hard-external skeleton that protects an animals. It is made up of chitin protein.
e.g. insects
HYDROSTATIC SKELETON
A skeletal system composed of fluids called hydrostatic fluids. e.g. Earth worm
ENDO SKELETON
A hard-bony skeleton present mainly in vertebrate animals e.g. man
SUTURE JOINT
It is a type of immovable joint which is present in skull of man
HINGE JOINT
It is slightly movable joint which can move the bone in one direction e.g. Knee joint
BALL AND SOCKET JOINT
A type of joint that allows the limb to rotate in all directions e.g. Shoulder joint
SKELETAL MUSCLES
The muscles which are present on bones
STRATED VOLUNTARY
Same as above
CARDIA MUSCLES
The muscles only found in heart. Because heart pumps all the time, so it needs lot of energy,
therefore there are too many mitochondria in these muscles as compared to other muscles
STRATED INVOLUNTARY
Same as above
SMOOTH MUSCLES
These are thin and spindle shape muscles and are not attached with bones.
e.g. muscles of intestine, liver, lungs and spleen
INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES
Same as above
SARCOPLASM
The cytoplasm of muscle cell
SARCOLEMMA
The outer membrane of muscle cell
MYOSIN
The thick filament of muscle fiber. It is a protein
ACTIN
The thin filament of muscle fiber. It is also a protein
ACTO-MYOCIN
The Actin and Myosin together are called actomyosin. They help in muscular movement
SARCOMERE
The region between Z line is called Macromere
ACTOMYOSIN ATP
When actin and myosin combine with ATP is called actomyosin ATP.
CREATINE PHOSPHATE
A compound, which supplies energy if the ATP stock is finished
SINOAURICULAR NODE
A small tissue present in right ventricle of heart and control the heart beat
PACE MAKER
Same as above
Axial Skeleton: It consists of all bones in skull, bones of ribs and sternum and vertebrae.
Appendicular skeleton: It consists of all bones of pelvic girdle, pectoral girdle, arms and legs.
Functions of skeleton:
Generally human skeleton has following functions
• It provides supporting frame work
• It gives shape to body
• It Protects organs
• It helps body in movement
• The bone marrow produce RBCs
• It supplies calcium and phosphorus to blood
Cleft palate: It is a kind of genetic skeletal disorder in which the bones of upper jaws are not properly
formed. Therefore, the child will be a cut in his upper lip.
Microcephaly:
This is another kind of genetic skeletal deformation in which the child is born with extremely
small size of skull. Such children look ugly and their brain never develops properly
Osteoarthritis:
This is another kind of genetic skeletal deformation in which there is over deposition of calcium
between the joints. Due to over deposition, the person will be unable to move the joints and will feel
lot of pain
Hormonal disorders:
This is a kind of skeletal deformation in which the bones are not properly formed due to
hormonal problem. Some examples are given as under
Osteoporosis:
This is a kind of deformation of skeleton due to decrease in the level of estrogen hormone in
females. This condition generally appears in old age. In this disease bones become very soft, thin and
weak.
Nutritional disorders:
Sometimes, bones are deformed due to nutritional deficiencies. Some examples of such kind of
disorders are as under
Rickets:
It is a kind of skeletal disorders due to deficiency of vitamin D. In this condition, the pelvis and
legs are mostly affected.
DISC SLIP
It may be defined as a condition in which Displacement or rupture of cartilaginous ring of disc
takes place. The cartilage ring of vertebrae is called inter-vertebral discs. The inter-vertebral disc acts
as shock observer and provides mobility to vertebrae.It also helps in avoiding Grinding.
Symptoms of disc slip
Following symptoms are observed in disc slip
• It causes severe pain
• Person is unable to move
• Prolong rest on hard bed
• Pain killers may help
SPONDYLOSIS:
This is a kind of problem associated with the bones of neck region in which deformity of joint of
2 vertebrae of neck region takes place.The vertebrae press the nerve and cause severe pain in neck,
shoulder & upper limb.
Symptoms of spondylosis
The main symptoms are as under
 Pain in neck area
 Head feels heavy and may not be turned around
 Person feels difficulty in walking and driving
ARTHRITIS:
It may be defined as skeletal problem in which the joints are over filled with calcium. Therefore,
bones may not be moved at all.
Reasons
• Joint become swollen, painful an immovable
• It may be due to heredity
• It may be due to viral infection
• It may be due to aging
SCIATICA
It may be defined as sever pain of hind limb which occur when Sciatic plexus nerve is pressed at
the location of pelvic girdle.
Causes of sciatica
There are following causes of sciatica
• Disc slip
• Damageof sciatic nerve due to needle of syringe when injection is done in iliac vein
Symptoms of sciatica
• leg is highly painful
• Virtually immovable
• Recovery is very slow
• Sometimes never complete
Tetany: It is sudden contraction of muscles due to decrease in the level of calcium in blood.
When the level of calcium decreases in blood, than the neuron cells produces twitching of the muscles
very rapidly, due to that the tetany occurs.
Cramps: It may be defined a muscle pull due to dehydration or decrease of sugar level in blood.
This condition arises mostly due to over exercising
PSEUDOPODIA
A temporary Locomotary organ in class Sarcodina
e.g.Amoeba.
FLAGELLA
A long thread like Locomotary organ in class Flafellata e.g. Euglena and Trypanosoma
FLAGILIN
A protein present in flagella
CILIA
Series of small thread like locomotary organs in class cilliata e.g. Paramecium and Balantidium
GLIDING LOCOMOTION
A type of locomotion in which organs are not required e.g. Plasmodium
LOOPING
Type of locomotion in which hydra can move without attaching its tentacles with substratum
SUMMERSAULTING
A type of locomotion in which hydra attaches its tentacles with substratum and basal disc is
freed for some time
JET PROPULSION
Type of locomotion found in Jelly fish. Here the contraction of jelly fish will through water out
of body and relaxation of body will allow water to enter in again with force which moves body forward
in jet manner.
TUBE FEET
Structures which helps the star fish in locomotion. This system is called hydraulic or water
vascular system
LIGAMENT
A point where two bones are connected
TENDON
The point of attachment of muscle with bone.
ANTAGONISTIC MUSCLE
When a pair of muscle on bone work against each other, such muscle is called antagonistic
muscle
BICEP MUSCLE
If a muscle is attached to bone by two tendon
TRICEP MUSCLE
If a muscle is attached to bone by three tendon
PROTECTOR MUSCLE
A muscle which pulls the lower part of limb in forward direction
RETRACTOR MUSCLE
The muscle which pulls the limb in backward direction
ADDUCTOR MUSCLE
The muscle that pulls the limb towards body
ABDUCTOR MUSCLE
The muscle that pulls the limb away from body
ROTATOR MUSCLE
The muscle which help in rotation of bone in all directions
FLEXOR MUSCLE
The muscles which bring two parts of limbs close to each other
EXTENSOR MUSCLE
Muscles which pulls the limb away from each other
CARTILAGE
The soft bones of body e.g. bones of nose, ears and penis
SYNOVIAL CAVITY
A cavity between two bones at the point of joint
SYNOVIAL FLUID
A fluid present in synovial cavity. It lubricates the joints.
PLANTIGRADE
A type of locomotion in which the animals touch whole of the foot sole with ground e.g. Man
and Bear
DIGITIGRADE
A type of locomotion, in which animal Locomote with fingers tips. E.g. Dogs and cats, rabbit,
lion
UNGULIGRADE
In some animals, the fingers are changed into hoof, and when locomotion is done with hoof, it
is called Unguligrade



SUPPORT AND LOCOMOTION
INTRODUCTION
Movement: One of the basic characters of living organisms is to perform movement and locomotion.
There is some difference in these two conditions. Movement refers to the activity in which organisms
does not leave its place, where as in locomotion, organisms leave their place.
The process of movement takes place at various levels
Cellular level movement: For example, movement of protoplasm within cytoplasm (cyclosis).
Organ level movement: For example movement of limbs, lungs, and heart.
Support: In order to maintain their shape and size, all living organisms are in need of internal and
external support. Without it organisms can neither maintain posture, nor can they erect and balance
their body. Plants and animal have different support systems.
SUPPORT IN PLANTS: All plants need support. Higher plants need more support as compared to
lower plants because of their length. In higher plants, some supporting tissues are present which give
them support. These tissues are not present in lower plants. The detail of these tissue systems is given
below.
A plant grows throughout its life because it has meristem tissue. Meristem tissues work as
embryonic tissue and produce the other three tissues found in vascular plants. These three tissues are
(a) ground tissues, (b) dermal tissues, and (c) vascular tissue.
Three types of meristem tissue carry out active cell division. They produce new cells, resulting in
different types of growth depending on the tissue’s location. Apical meristem, for example, produces
primary growth at tips of roots and stems.
Vascular plants have three major tissue systems: the dermal (covering), ground (supporting) and
vascular (transport) systems. All these arise from apical meristem tissues

Dermal tissues
The dermal system forms the outer covering of a plant. The major tissue type is the epidermis,
which consists of a layer of closely packed cells which secrete a cover of water-resistant cuticle. For
example epidermal layer in roots make root hairs which help in water absorption.
Vascular tissues: These tissues are located below epidermal tissues. They are responsible for
making vascular bundles such as xylem and phloem. Xylem help in up-take of water from soil to leaves
through roots and phloem helps in distribution of food material from leaves into whole body of plants.
Lower plants only make primary xylem and phloem, while in higher plants, secondary xylem and
phloem are also formed.
Ground Tissue
The word ground tissue refers to basic plant tissues, which forms most of the body of a plant. There
are mainly three types of tissues present in plants, which provide support to plant body. It is composed
of three tissue types. These tissues are (a) Parenchyma, (b) Collenchymas and (c) Scelerenchyma.
Parenchyma
Parenchyma tissues have following characters
 They are composed of cells which are large
 They have thin primary cell wall
 They have pectin-rich middle lamella
 They have large vacuole which fills most of the cell
 They have an active nucleus with dispersed chromatin.
 Parenchyma cells are commonly polyhedral (many-sided) and loosely packed together,
separated by a network of intercellular spaces.
Parenchyma is of different types on the basis of functions
Photosynthetic parenchyma: They are also called chlorenchyma. They contain chloroplasts and are
found in leaves and the outer regions of photosynthetic stems.
Storage parenchyma: They contain either nutrient reserves in the form of starch granules or oil
droplets, or various metabolic products which are stored in the vacuole.
Aerenchyma: They are present in aquatic plants. These tissues have network of air spaces, which
allows aeration of tissues in an environment low in oxygen.
Parenchyma cells are living, vacuolated cells with thin primary cell walls. They form the major
component of the ground tissue system.

Collenchyma
The collenchyma tissues have following characters
 They are supporting tissues.
 They give strength to plant parts where bending and flexibility are required.
 These tissues are commonly found in leaf stalks (petioles), leaf laminas and young stems.
 Collenchyma cells have thick cell walls with additional cellulose.
 Although the cell wall is extra thick, but it is flexible and can be stretched.
Scelerenchyma
The Scelerenchyma have following characters
 Scelerenchyma is also a supporting tissue
 It gives rigidity as well as strength due to presence of lignin.
 Because the cell wall is so thick, in mature Scelerenchyma cells the protoplasm usually
degenerates to leave a gap or lumen in the centre of the cell.
Types of Scelerenchyma
There are two types (a) fibres (b) sclereids.
Fibers: they are elongated cells with tapering end walls. They are often arranged in a continuous layer
in stems or in vascular tissue.
Sclereids, or stone cells: They are branched or more or less even-shaped, and play a role of protection
as much as support. They form the hard tissue of seed coats and give pears and some other fruits their
gritty texture.
Vascular Tissue: Vascular tissue consists of xylem and phloem. These two types of vessels run
side-by-side, extending from roots to leaves. They provide channels for the transport of water and
nutrients.
Xylem transports water upward from the roots. Tracheids and vessel elements are the components
and both are thick-walled cells which are dead at maturity. Elongated tracheids with tapered ends are
connected by pits in their walls. Adjacent vessel elements lack separating cell walls and are stacked in
columns forming continuous tubes called vessels.

Phloem transports dissolved carbohydrates, hormones, and ions. The conducting cells are sieve tube
members (or cells) with cytoplasm but no nuclei. Adjacent conducting cells are connected by clusters
of pores called sieve plates. Neighboring companion cells connect with sieve tube members (cells) and
their nuclei control both cells.
Vascular Cambium: A young stem has only primary tissues produced by apical meristem. In an
older stem, secondary growth begins in the vascular cambia. Secondary xylem is produced toward
the inside and secondary phloem toward the outside. Increase in the width of a stem is called
secondary growth. It is the result of cell division in lateral meristems.

As secondary growth continues for several seasons secondary xylem accumulates. Cork cambium, a
meristem beneath the epidermis, contributes to formation of bark.
Bark contains cork, cork cambium, and phloem. The cork cambium produces cork cells which
waterproof and protect the plant. Vascular cambium continually produces new phloem, but phloem
does not accumulate like xylem. Wood is formed from secondary xylem. Seasonal variation in moisture
influences the size of the xylem cells and this produces growth rings.
Significance of secondary tissues: When plants grow, they can not depend on primary growth,
therefore they have to do secondary growth. The secondary growth may be defined as a kind of
growth which is formed by vascular cambium and cork cambium.
How secondary tissues develop:

If you look at the picture given below, you may see that initially there is primary and secondary
xylem and phloem. Between them is vascular cambium. In order to produce secondary, tissues, the
cells in vascular cambium divide. As result of this division, secondary xylem and secondary phloem are
produced. When this process continues for years, the phloem and xylem forms wood. The wood
consists of trachnids, vessels and fibers.
In some plants, the secondary xylem is accumulated in the form of rings called annual rings. The
annual rings consist of spring and summer wood and these rings help in calculating the exact age of
plants.
Changes in older plants: When plants grow older, following changes occur in their rings which
are given below
1. Due to physical changes towards the center of rings, the conducting cells of xylem and phloem
block
2. Parenchyma cells die
3. Pigments such as resin, tannins, and gums are deposited
4. xylem becomes non-functional

MOVEMENT IN PLANTS:
Like animals, plants also perform movement in response to the external and internal stimuli.
The movement in plants may be divided into following types
Types of Movement in Plants
There are 2 types of movement in plants
1. Autonomic movement
It is the movement of plants due to internal stimuli
2. Induced movement
It in the movement of plants due to external stimuli
AUTONOMIC MOVEMENT:
This type of movement may be further divided into three more type which is as under
Locomotory movement: It is movement of (a) whole plant body (b) whole plant organ (c) whole
material within cell. This is also called movement of locomotion. Movement of whole protoplasm in
cytoplasm, movement of whole chromosomes during cell division and, flagellary locomotion of Euglena
are examples of Locomotory movement
Growth and Curvature movement: It is movement of part of plants due to growth. This type of
movement is further divided into following types.
Nutation: When growth takes place in the young stem in zigzag manner due to alternate growth on
opposite side, it is called nutation. E.g. Movement of climber
Nastic movement: It is the growth in the parts of plants due to differences in the rate of growth on two
opposite sides. If the growth is in the anterior part, it is called epi-nastic and if it is in the posterior
part, it is hypo-nastic.
TURGER MOVEMENT:
It is the movement of part of plant due to turgor pressure. For example, when plant cells intake water,
their size changes and some movement occur from original place. Turgor movement may result due to
loss and gain of water.
PARATONIC MOVEMENT
It is the movement of plants due to external stimuli. There are following types of paratonic movement
1. Tropic movement: It is the movement of part of plant towards or away from the external stimuli.
This type of movement is directional, which means that the plant part will move towards the direction
of stimuli. Tropic movement is further divided into following types

Phototropism: It is movement of part of plant due to light stimuli. If the part of plant moves towards
the light, it is called positive phototropism (E.g. movement of shoot towards light) and when plant part
move away from light, is called negative phototropism (E.g. movement of roots towards soil away from
light).
Geotropism: It is movement of part of plant towards gravitational attraction of earth. E.g. movement
of roots towards soil.
Chemotropism: It is movement of part of plant due to chemical attraction. E.g. Pollen grains transfer to
stigma due to the attraction of sugar substance called Malic acid.
Hydrotropism: It is the movement of part of plant in relation to water. For example roots are called
positively hydrotropic because they are stimulated by water in the soil.
Thigmotropism: It is movement of part of plant in response to touch. Such type of movement may be
seen in climber plants.
Nastic Movement: It is the movement of part of plant, but here the movement is non-directional. In
this type of movement, plant part will move in opposite to the direction of stimuli. Depending on the
type of stimulus, nastic movement is of many types such as following
a) Photonastic: Against light
b) Thermronastic: Against temperature
c) Sesminastic: Against touch
d) Nictinastic: Against day and light
ROLE OF GROWTH SUBSTANCES IN PLANT MOVEMENT

Movement in plants is generally observed in the form of their growth. Some plants grow only
up to few inches, whereas many plants grow very tall. Such tall growth is not possible without any
special support. Plants get that special support from chemical substances called Hormones. In plants,
there are many types of hormones which perform many functions, but their main function is to
increase the process of cell division. As cell division occurs, new cells are formed. These new cells are
added into previous cells, that is why the height and width of plant increases. Hormones which support
the process of growth in plants are called Plant Growth Hormones. The most popular hormones are (a)
Auxins (b) Gibberellins (c) Cytokinins. All these hormones are collectively called Phytohormones.
SUPPORT AND LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS

All animals, weather protozoa or metazoan, invertebrates or vertebrates have got some kind of
support. Protozoa are made up of single cell. Their cell is of a particular shape, which is internally
supported by special structures called Microtubules. Invertebrates and vertebrates have special kind of
support of skeletal system.
Skeletal system:
It is a kind of system which provides rigidity and support to animals. In some animals skeletal
system is external, whereas in other animals, the skeletal system is internal. Generally skeletal systems
are of three types. All types are made up of different material.
Hydrostatic Skeleton:
This kind of skeletal system is generally found in invertebrates. It has following characters
 It is made up of hard hydrostatic fluids which are also called Coelomic fluids.
 It is found in soft bodied organisms.
 The fluids which make it are little harder

Some people think that how some fluids can make animal body strong. Answer to this question
is very simple. For example if air is filled into a balloon, which is tied with thread, the balloon gets a
shape and it is not easy to rupture a balloon without applying force. It is therefore concluded that if air
can make a balloon strong, why the fluids can not do same job. In fact fluids are heavier than gases, so
they make provide more support and rigidity to animal body.
There are many animals which have hydrostatic type of skeleton. Some very common animals are
Earthworm, tapeworms, roundworms, etc.
Exoskeleton:
This is a kind of skeleton, found on the external side of animal body. The exoskeleton has following
characters
 It is s made up of different material in different animals. For example, in diatoms, it is made
up of silica, in snails, it is made up of lime and in insects it is made up of chitin
 It is dead in nature
 It is water repellant
Although, exoskeleton provides support and rigidity to animal body, but there are some
problems with it. For example, once it is formed, it becomes dead and has not ability of flexibility.
Animals, in which exoskeleton is present feel difficulty in growth and development. When animal
increase in size, the old exoskeleton becomes miss-fit on body. Therefore that exoskeleton is removed
and a fresh layer of exoskeleton is formed
Endoskeleton:
It is a kind of skeleton found inside the body. It is generally found in vertebrate animals.
Endoskeleton is mostly made up of bones and cartilages. Bones are hard and cartilage is soft. There are
few differences between bones and cartilage which are given below.
BONES CARTILAGE
• Made up of chondrocytes • Made up of Osteocytes
• Secrete collagen • Secrete collagen, calcium phosphate and osteoblasts
• They are soft • They are hard
Human skeleton
Human beings have 206 bones in body. All bones are divided into two regions.
Axial Skeleton: It consists of all bones in skull, bones of ribs and sternum and vertebrae.
Appendicular skeleton: It consists of all bones of pelvic girdle, pectoral girdle, arms and legs.
List of various bones present in axial and appendicular bones is given in table below
Functions of skeleton:
Generally human skeleton has following functions
• It provides supporting frame work
• It gives shape to body
• It Protects organs
• It help body in movement
• The bone marrow produce RBCs
• It supplies calcium and phosphorus to blood

JOINTS:
Joint may be defined as a place where two bones meet with each other. The point where two
bones link with each other is called Ligament. When two bones make a joint, they never touch each
other because there is some space known as synovial cavity. The synovial cavity is filled with a fluid
called synovial fluid. The purpose of fluid is to provide lubrication to the bones and help them in
bending. Without the fluid, the bones will touch each other a person may feel pain while walking.
Types of Joints:
Inhuman beings there three types of joints (a) Suture (b) Hinge (c) Ball & Socket
Suture Joint: The joints found in skull bones is called suture joint. These joints bring bones very close
to each other; therefore the bones are unable to move. The suture joint is also called immovable joint.
Hinge Joint: This is a type of joint where two bones are linked up with each other in such a way that
any one bone may be moved in one direction. For example the ankle joint, knee joint etc can only be
moved in one direction. The hinge joint is also called slightly movable joint.
Ball & socket joint: This is a kind of joint where two bones are linked up with each other in such a
way the one bone may be moved in any direction. Bones at pelvic and pectoral girdle are example of
ball & socket joint. These joint are also called movable joints.
Deformation of skeleton: The abnormal formation of bones of skeleton is called deformation.
Reasons of deformation: There are mainly tow reasons for deformation of skeleton
Genetic disorders: When a person gets skeletal defect from parent, it is known as genetic disorders.
Some genetic disorders are as under
Cleft palate: It is a kind of genetic skeletal disorder in which the bones of upper jaws are not properly
formed. Therefore the child will be a cut in his upper lip.
Microcephaly:
This is another kind of genetic skeletal deformation in which the child is born with extremely
small size of skull. Such children look ugly and their brain never develops properly
Osteoarthritis:
This is another kind of genetic skeletal deformation in which there is over deposition of calcium
between the joints. Due to over deposition, the person will be unable to move the joints and will feel
lot of pain
Hormonal disorders:
This is a kind of skeletal deformation in which the bones are not properly formed due to some
kind of hormonal problem. Some examples are given as under
Osteoporosis:
This is a kind of deformation of skeleton due to decrease in the level of estrogen hormone in
females. This condition generally appears in old age. In this disease bones become very soft, thin and
weak.
Nutritional disorders:
Sometimes, bones are deformed due to nutritional deficiencies. Some examples of such kind of
disorders are as under
Rickets:
It is a kind of skeletal disorders due to deficiency of vitamin D. In this condition, the pelvis and
legs are mostly affected.
WRITE SHORT NOTES ON FOLLOWING

DISC SLIP
It may be defined as a condition in which Displacement or rupture of cartilaginous ring of disc
takes place. The cartilage ring of vertebrae is called inter-vertebral discs. The inter-vertebral disc acts
as shock observer and provides mobility to vertebrae. It also helps in avoiding Grinding.
Symptoms of disc slip
Following symptoms are observed in disc slip
• It causes severe pain
• Person is unable to move
• Prolong rest on hard bed
• Pain killers may help
SPONDYLOSIS:
This is a kind of problem associated with the bones of neck region in which deformity of joint of
2 vertebrae of neck region takes place. The vertebrae press the nerve and cause severe pain in neck,
shoulder & upper limb.
Symptoms of spondylosis
The main symptoms are as under
 Pain in neck area
 Head feels heavy and may not be turned around
 Person feels difficulty in walking and driving
Treatment of Spondylosis:
• Use of hard collar around neck
• The collar keeps vertebrae apart
• The pressing of nerve is released
ARTHRITIS:
It may be defined as skeletal problem in which the joints are over filled with calcium. Therefore
bones may not be moved at all.
Reasons
• Joint become swollen, painful an immovable
• It may be due to heredity
• It may be due to viral infection
• It may be due to aging
Symptoms
Joints become stiff and hard to move
SCIATICA
It may be defined as sever pain of hind limb which occur when Sciatic plexus nerve is pressed at
the location of pelvic girdle.
Causes of sciatica
There are following causes of sciatica
• Disc slip
• Damage of sciatic nerve due to needle of syringe when injection is done in iliac vein
Symptoms of sciatica
• leg is highly painful
• Virtually immovable
• Recovery is very slow
• Some times never complete
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
The muscular system is made of muscles. There are three types of muscles which are
structurally and functionally different from each other.
Smooth Muscles
These are very simple types of muscles. They are spindle in shape and uni-nucleated. The
smooth muscles are voluntary in function and are slow working. Except for heart and muscles found on
skeleton, all other organs of body are made up smooth muscles.
Cardiac Muscles:
The cardiac muscles are the muscles which make the wall of heart. These muscles are striated
in shape and involuntary in function. There are many mitochondria found in cardiac muscles as
compared to other muscles. The reason behind so many mitochondria is that heart works day and
night therefore it needs lot of energy which is generated by mitochondria.
The heart muscles work in a rhythmic order and have a fixed pace. The pace of heart is
controlled by a small piece known as Sino-auricular Node, which is located in the lower right atrium. A
human heart beats 72 times in 60 seconds in man and 76 times in 60 seconds in woman. This pace may
change in various conditions.
Skeletal muscles
Skeletal muscle (Voluntary) - It is the most common type of muscle found in the body. its cells are
striated, or long and narrowed and staggered in rows next to each other. This striation allows for
better movement. This type of muscle is attached to the bones by tendons.
Since the person has conscious control over the movement – or lack of movement – of a joint, this type
of muscular action is called voluntary. This is because the person “voluntarily” moves the area of the
body involved. Skeletal muscles have two definite ends. The first one is called the point of origin. The
origin of a muscle is the end that attaches to the end of a bone that does not move when a muscle
contracts. This is usually the end of the muscle toward the trunk of the body. The other end is the point
of insertion. This is where the muscle attaches to the bone that does move during a contraction. It is
usually found farther away from the trunk of the body
EXPLAIN IN DETAIL THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

Define following:
Tetany: It is sudden contraction of muscles due to decrease in the level of calcium in blood. When the
level of calcium decreases in blood, than the neuron cells produces twitching of the muscles very
rapidly, due to that the tetany occurs.
Cramps: It may be defined a muscle pull due to dehydration or decrease of sugar level in blood. This
condition arise mostly due to over exercising
LOCOMOTION IN PROTOZOA
Protozoa are single cellular, eukaryotic organisms. They mostly live in aquatic medium, such as
water, blood or tissue fluids. All protozoa have property of movement and locomotion. They may or
may not have locomotory organs, but they all locomote.
Locomotion in Amoeba:
Amoeba proteus is a single cellular organism which
loves in stagnant water. It does not have any permanent
locomotory organs, but it has ability to make locomotory
organs when ever they are needed. Such locomotory organs
are called Pseudopodia. The pseudopodia are produced by
projecting the cell membrane outwards. The number and
size of pseudopodia vary. The pseudopodia are temporary
feet which are made at the time of need and late on dis-
appear. The locomotion with pseudopodia is called
pseudopodial locomotion. Because this kind of locomotion is
common in amoeba proteus, therefore it is called amoeboid locomotion.
Locomotion in Paramecium:
Paramecium caudatum is also a single cellular, eukaryotic
organism. It lives in stagnant water. It has permanent locomotory
organs called cilia. The cilia resemble with eye lashes and are found
all around the cell membrane of paramecium. They are many in
number and perform very fast locomotion. While locomotion, the
cilia are brought forward, then they make curve backward and pull
the water backside and paramecium moves forward. The locomotion
done by cilia is also called cilliary locomotion.
Locomotion in Euglena:
Euglena is a very interesting single cellular organism. It has some characters which are plant like
while others are animal like. Due to this Botanists claim it as plant organism while Zoologists claim as
animal organism. The fact is that it is a connecting link between plants and animals.
In euglena there are permanent locomotory organ which is called Flagellum. It is a thread like
structure which arises from anterior part of body from a point known as Kinetoplast. The locomotion
done by flagellum is called flagellary locomotion. Because euglena is the most common example,
therefore it is also called Euglenoid locomotion.
Locomotion in jelly fish

Jelly fish is multi-cellular organism. It belongs to phylum Cnideria, and is found in marine
water. It is invertebrate and performs very efficient locomotion. Its body shape helps the jelly fish in
locomotion. The doom shape body is filled with water. Than the doom is shrinked. As the doom
shrinks, the water goes out of body. In next movement, the doom is relaxed and the water comes back
into body with pressure. The pressure of water pushes the body of jelly fish forward. The jelly fishes
have tentacles on the border of the body doom. These tentacles help in changing the direction during
locomotion. The locomotion in jelly fish is called Jet Propulsion.
Locomotion in earth worm:

The earthworm is a multi-cellular organism. It belongs to phylum annelida and lives in sub-soil
area in the earth. Its body is segmented, elongated and rounded. There are longitudinal muscles which
make the elongate part of body and circular muscles make the rounded part of body. On the lower
body side there are tiny invisible structure called Setae which help the earthworm in locomotion.
In order to perform locomotion, the earthworm fixes its anterior part of body with ground with
the help of seate. The posterior part of body is detached from ground. The longitudinal muscles shrink
and the circular muscles come under pressure. As result of this pressure, the posterior part of body
comes forward. The setae of posterior part are now fixed with ground, and setae of anterior muscles
are detached from ground. Due to pressure from posterior part of body the anterior part of body
moves forward.
Locomotion in snail

Snails are multi-cellular organisms. They belong to phylum molluska and may live in water or on
land. Their body is enclosed into a shell. At the time of locomotion, the soft body comes out and
spreads whole on ground that is why, the whole body of snail is called foot. While locomotion, the snail
body produces undulating muscular movement and snail moves forward. In order to save the body
from any physical damage, the snail produce slime mucous which is thrown in front and the snail
sweaps on its slime mucus.
Locomotion in Star fish:

The underside of the starfish is covered with hundreds
of tube feet, which it uses for walking around, for
attaching tightly to rocks, and for holding on to prey.
To move, each tube foot swings like a leg, lifting up and
swinging forward, then planting itself on the ground
and pushing back

PRACTICE SHEET#01
1. In living organisms, movement can occur at --------
(a) Cellular level (b) Organ level (c) Whole body level (d) All of above
2. Terrestrial animals need more support because, air does not provide support like water
(a) True (b) False
3. The lower plants, particularly, Bryophytes are entirely made up of -------------tissues
(a) Parenchyma (b) Collenchyma’s (c) Sclerenchyma (d) All
4. Since parenchyma tissues do not have lignin material, in their cells, hence, they support the
plant by
(a) Turgidity (b) Water potential (c) Both a&b (d) None
5. ---------------kind of tissues become dead on maturation
(a) Parenchyma (b) Collenchyma’s (c) Sclerenchyma (d) All
6. When secondary growth continues up to number of years, secondary xylem accumulates in
the form of
(a) Cambium (b) Wood (c) Cork (d) None
7. By counting the annual ring, ------of plant may be calculated
(a) Age (b) Size (c) Girth (d) All
8. -----------may be defined as any action taken by living organs to reduce its irritability produced
by stimuli
(a) Support (b) Movement (c) Response (d) All
9. Movement which occur due to internal stimuli is termed as
(a) Autonomic (b) Spontaneous (c) Induced (d) Both a&b
10. Movement of whole plant body is called--------------
(a) Movement of locomotion (b) Movement of curvature
(c) Induced locomotion (d) None
11. Cyclosis of protoplasm is example of
(a) Movement of locomotion (b) Movement of curvature
(c) Induced locomotion (d) None
12. Alternate change in growth rate on opposite of apex is termed as --------
(a) Nutation (b) Turgor movement (c) Both a&b (d) None
13. Movement in plant parts due to differences in the rate of growth is called
(a) Paratonic movement (b) Nastic movement
14. When movement occurs due to faster growth on upper side of the organ it is termed as---------
(a) Epinastic movement (b) Hyponastic movement
15. When movement occurs due to faster growth on lower side of the organ it is termed as---------
16. When cell loses or gains water, its size changes. Such type of movement is called
(c) Both a&b (d) Turgor movement
17. Movement which is result of external stimuli is called
(a) Paratonic movement (b) Induced movement

18. Movement of a part of plant organ due to light stimulation is called
(a) Hydrotropism (b) Geotropism (c) Phototropism (d) None
19. Movement of part of plant in response to the touch stimuli is termed as ---------
(a) Hydrotropism (b) Geotropism (c) Phototropism (d) Thigmotropism
20. Non-directional movement of part of plant is termed as ----------------------------
(a) Nastic (b) Tropic (c) Tactic (d) None
21. Since plants are sessile organisms, so they mainly show their movement tin the form of
growth
(a) True (b) False
22. -----------is a plant growth hormone, which was discovered by Went (1928).
(a) Auxins (b) Cytokine (c) Gibberellins (d) None
23. Human endoskeleton is about -------------–percent of the total body weight
(a) 10 (b) 18 (c) 20 (d) 22
24. The longest and strongest bone in human body is
(a) Femur (b) Tibia (c) Fibula (d) None
25. The smallest bone of body is present in middle ear, and it is called -----------
(a) Vesicles (b) Auditory ossicles (c) Both a&b (d) None
26. Cartilage is a kind of soft bone and is made up of -------------cells
(a) Collagen (b) Ossicles (c) Chondrocyte (d)None
27. Main protein in the matrix of the bones is------------------
(a) Melanin (b) Fibrin (c) Collagen (d) All
28. Cells of bones are called ------------
(a) Collagen (b) Ossicles (c) Chondrocytes (d) Osteocytes
29. -----------joint connects the bones of ankle and wrist
(a) Sliding joint (b) Ball & socket (c) Both a&b (d) None
30. Small skull bones is a disorder termed as ---------------
(a) Microcephaly (b) Arthritis (c) Cleft palate (d) None
31. Arthritis of joints is called---------------
(a) Microcephaly (b)Arthritis (c) Cleft palate (d) Osteoarthritis
32. Displacement of inter-vertebral discs is called ----------
(a) Disc slip (b) Sciatica (c) Both a&b (d) None
33. Deformity of the joint of two vertebrae of the neck is termed as
(a) Spondylosis (b) Sciatica (c) Both a&b (d) None
34. A condition in which joints become swollen, painful and immovable is termed as -----
(a) Sciatica (b) Arthritis (c) Disc clip (d) All
35. Over deposition of calcium in the joints is cause of ---------
(a) Sciatica (b) Arthritis (c) Disc clip (d) All
36. A man and women have same number of bones and muscles
(a) True (b) False
37. Skeletal muscles work under
(a) Voluntary control (b) Involuntary control (c) Both a&b (d) None
38. Under microscope, skeletal muscle cells look striped, hence they are called-----
(a) Un-straited (b) Striated (c) Both a&b (d) None
39. There are ------bones in human body
(a) 205 (b) 206 (c) 207 (d) 106

40. There are ------muscles in human body
(a) 205 (b) 300 (c) 500 (d) 600
41. The accumulation of lactic acid in the muscles produces tiring condition of the muscles known
as
(a) Fermentation (b) Aerobic respiration
(c) Trauma (d) Fatigue
42. The mode of locomotion in jelly fish is termed as --------
(a) Propulsion (b) Jet like propulsion (c) Jetting (d) None
43. Water vascular system is a Locomotory system used by
(a) Snail (b) Jelly fish (c) Starfish (d) All
44. Animals that use 4 legs in locomotion are called
(a) Bipedal (b) Tripodal (c) Tetra-pedals (d) None
45. Muscles which have 2 attachments on same bone are called
(a) Triceps (b) Bicep (c) Tendon (d) Ligament
46. Organisms which remain attached with an object are called
(a) Sessile (b) Motile (c) Both a and b (d) None
47. Animals having similarity in their lateral side are called
(a) Radially symmetrical (b) Bilaterally symmetrical
(c) Both a & b (d) None
48. Sea anemone is example of
(a) Radially symmetrical (b) Bilateral
(c) both a and b (d) None
49. Displacement of an animal from it place is called
(a) Locomotion (b) Movement (c) Both (d) None
50. One of following is not necessary for locomotion
(a) Support (b) Stability (c) Propulsion (d) Repulsion

ANSWER KEY:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D A A A C B A C A A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A A B A B D B C D A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A A B A B C C D A A
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
D A A B B A A B B D
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
D B C C B A B A C D

PRACTICE SHEET#02
1. Movement takes place at
(a) Cellular level (b) Organ level (c) Organism level (d) All A, B and C
2. The whole body of Bryophyta is made up of
(a) Collenchyma cells (b) Sclerenchyma cells
(c) Parenchyma cells (d) Aerenchyma cells
3. Collenchyma can be distinguished from parenchyma by
(a) Being dead cells (b) Without large vacuole
(c) Increased thickness of their cell walls (d) All A, B and C
4. A tissue whose function is support and it performs that function while it is dead is ______.
(a) Collenchyma (b) Parenchyma (c) Sclerenchyma (d) A and B
5. In angiosperms the tissue that produces secondary xylem and secondary phloem is
(a) Protoderm (b) Ground meristem (c) Intercalary meristem (d) Vascular cambium
6. The unspecialized packing tissue found in epidermis, cortex and pith is
(a) Parenchyma (b) Collenchyma (c) Sclerenchyma (d) Cork cambium
7. Xylem vessels have walls impregnated with
(a) Cutin (b) Chitin (c) Keratin (d) Lignin
8. The ___________ covers the plant but is replaced by ________________.
(a) Cuticle, epidermis (b) Endodermis, Epidermis
(c) Epidermis, cork (d) All A, B and C
9. Secondary growth in plants begins with the formation of
(a) Vascular cambium only (b) Cork cambium only
(c) Vascular and cork cambium (d) Inter-calary meristems
10. Cork is waterproof because its cell walls are impregnated with
(a) Chitin (b) Suberin (c) Keratin (d) Pillin
11. It is the xylem in the center of the tree that has stopped conducting water and minerals and is
storing waste products from the plant.
(a) Sap wood (b) Heart wood (c) Peripheral wood (d) Both B and C
12. It is the portion of the xylem that is conducting water and minerals and hasn't started storing
waste products.
(a) Sap wood (b) Heart wood (c) Central wood (d) Both A and C
13. Select the correct option for Label "A" and "B" in the following diagram?
(a) "A" New Phloem, "B" New Xylem (b) "A" New Cork, "B" New Cortex
(c) "A" New Cork, "B" New Phelloderm (d) "A" New Xylem, "B" New Phloem
14. Lenticels are necessary for
(a) Photosynthesis (b) Gaseous exchange
(c) Water absorption (d) All options are correct

15. Movement of Railway creeper around any rope is an example of
(a) Nutation (b) Turgor movement
(c) Tropic movement (d) Seismonastic movement
16. ______________ is directional movement response that occur in response to a directional
stimulus.
(a) Nutation (b) Tropism (c) Both A and B (d) Turgor movement
17. Tropic movement in response to touch is known as
(a) Geotropism (b) Aerotropism (c) Thigmotropism (d) Both B and C
18. The growth of the pollen tube is always towards the ovules, it is due to
(a) Geotropism (b) Thigmotropism (c) Phototropism (d) Chemotropism
19. The movement of a plant in response to a touch or contact is
(a) Nyctinastic (b) Thermonastic (c) Haptonatic (d) Hyponastic
20. The flowers of Oxalis and Portulaca open in the day and close at night. It is
(a) Nyctinastic movement (b) Thermonastic movement
(c) Haptonatic movement (d) Thigmonastic movement
21. Exoskeleton in Diatoms is made up of
(a) Protein (b) CaCO3 (c) Silica (d) Chitin
22. Molluscs have an exoskeleton in the form of
(a) Proteinteous shell (b) Siliceous shell (c) Calcareous shell (d) Chitineous shell
23. The periodic shedding of exoskeleton in arthropods is known as
(a) Moulting (b) Ecdysis (c) Both A and B (d) Stridulation
24. Human endoskeleton is about _____________ of the total body weight.
(a) 80% (b) 70% (c) 40% (d) 18%
25. The tooth bearing bone of lower jaw is
(a) Atlas (b) Innominate (c) Incus (d) Dentary
26. An adult human endoskeleton consists of
(a) 363 bones (b) 639 bones
(c) 206 bones (d) Number varies by the individual
27. The lower two pairs of ribs are
(a) True ribs (b) False ribs (c) Floating ribs (d) All A, B and C
28. Total number of ribs in your axial skeleton is
(a) 12 (b) 24 (c) 33 (d) 26
29. The original number of vertebrae in human vertebral column is
(a) 12 (b) 24 (c) 33 (d) 26
30. The visible number of vertebrae in human vertebral column is
(a) 12 (b) 24 (c) 33 (d) 26
31. Humerus forms a ball and socket joint with
(a) Clavicle (b) Sternum (c) Innominate (d) Scapula
32. The bones of lower arm are
(a) Tibia and fibula (b) Radius and ulna
(c) Carpals and metacarpals (d) Phalanges
33. Which one of these makes bones hard?
(a) Carbohydrates (b) Minerals (c) Proteins (d) Fats
34. Which of the following is not part of the axial skeleton
(a) Sternum (b) Vertebrae (c) Femur (d) Skull

35. In human’s back bone the Caudal vertebrae are reduced to 4 in number and are fused to form
the
(a) Sacrum (b) Innominatum (c) Coccyx (d) Ischium
36. Bones are joined to each other at joints by
(a) Tendons (b) Ligaments (c) Hyaline cartilage (d) Both A and B
37. Muscles are attached to bones by
(a) Tendons (b) Ligaments (c) Synovial membrane (d) Both A and C
38. It is a _____________________ joint that allows the skull to rotate on our spine.
(a) Hinge joint (b) Fibrous joint (c) Sliding joint (d) Pivotal joint
39. Between each vertebrae are pads of __________________ called intervertebral disks which
absorb shock and assist in limited movement of disks.
40. (a) Collagen fibers (b) Osteonectin protein (c) Cartilage (d) All A, B and C
The normal backbone is not straight, but has four curves. The curve in the region of the neck
is composed of seven vertebrae and is known as the
(a) Lumbar region (b) Sacral region (c) Coccygeal region (d) Cervical region
41. The 12 vertebrae in the second curve of vertebral column are known as
(a) Cervical vertebrae (b) Thoracic vertebrae
(c) Lumbar vertebrae (d) Sacral vertebrae
42. The shoulder girdle consists of two bones
(a) Humerus and Scapula (b) Humerus and Ulna
(c) Clavicle and Scapula (d) Ilium and Ischium
43. The pelvic girdle is composed of three pairs of fused bones
(a) Ilium, Ischium and frontal (b) Clavicle, Scapula and pubis
(c) Malleus, Incus and stapes (d) Ilium, Ischium and pubis
44. Select the correct option for label "16" in the following diagram.
(a) Patella (b) Fibula (c) Tibia (d) Radius

45. The bones of the wrist are called
(a) Carpals (b) Metacarpals (c) Tarsals (d) Metatarsals
46. The joint found between the flat bones of the skull is classified as
(a) Immovable (b) Movable (c) Slightly movable (d) None of these

47. These cells are in bone tissue
(a) Chondroblasts (b) Osteocytes (c) Fibroblasts (d) Chondrocytes
48. Chondroblasts produce
(a) Basement membranes (b) Bone matrix
(c) Cartilage matrix (d) Endothelium
49. Gliding joints are present between
(a) Carpals and tarsals (b) Humerus and ulna
(c) Femur and innominate (d) Vertebrae
50. Which type of joint is the most mobile?
(a) Pivot joint (b) Gliding joint
(c) Ball and socket joint (d) Fibrous joint
ANSWER KEY:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D C C C D A D C C B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B A D B A B C D C A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
C C C D D C C B C D
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
D B B C C B A D C D
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
B C D C A A B C D D

CHAPTER # 03
COORDINATION & CONTROL
PHYTOHORMONES
Hormones secreted by plants are called Phytohormones. They are responsible for chemical
control of life activities
TROPISM
Movement of part of plant towards direction of stimuli is called tropism. It is of 2 types
(phototropism and geo tropism)
BIOLOGICAL CLOCK
A set point developed by organisms to perform their activities in relation with time is called
biological clock. Human beings, plants and animals have a biological clock and it tells each plant,
human and animal when to eat, sleep and when to wake up. In addition to this, we are able to reset
this clock to fit in more usefully with our everyday life.
PHOTOPERIODISM
Effect of light duration on flowering and fruiting is called photoperiodism. Plants have a wide
variety of flowering strategies involving what time of year they will flower and, consequently,
reproduce. In many plants, flowering is dependent on the duration of day and night; this is called
photoperiodism.
HEAT SHOCK PROTEINS

Proteins produced by plants to save their natural body proteins from denaturing due to high
temperature are called heat shock proteins. Since high temperature is dangerous and may denature
the bio-chemicals (particularly enzymes). Plants handle this problem mainly through transpiration. In
certain conditions, when temperature increases over 40 C, they produce Heat Shock Proteins which
will maintain the natural status of plant proteins.
HERBIVORY
Grazing of plants (particularly grasses) by herbivorous animals is called herbivory. In green
pastures, plants are exposed to open grazing. Animals may eat whole plants which may be terrible
situation. In order to avoid herbivory, plants use many strategies, such as they develop thorns, and
make them dis-tasteful so that animals may avoid grazing them
PHYTOALEXINS
An antibiotic (in plants) which destroys or inhibits the growth of micro-organism
AUXANOMETER
An instrument used to measure the growth of plant
GROWTH HORMONES
Hormones which stimulate the growth in plants

AUXIN
A growth hormone of plants which stimulates the elongation of stem. These hormones also kill
weeds (unwanted plants. Scientifically this hormone is called Indole Acetic Acid
FRITWENT 1926
Scientist who first used word auxins
WENT 1928
Scientist who performed test to see the effect of auxins hormone on the growth of oat plant
GIBBERELLINS
An other growth hormone which was isolated from a fungus in 1938. This hormone not only
promotes growth but prevents genetic and physiological dwarfism
YABUTA AND HAYASHI

Two Japanese scientists who isolated the gibberellins
hormone from Gibberellins fujikuroi (fungi)
CYTOKININS
Type of growth hormone which helps in cell
Division. It always works together with auxins hormone and delays old age (senescence)
MILLER-1954
Scientist who isolated cytokines from sperm and named it as cytokines
ZEATIN
The cytokines in maize plant is called zeatin
ABSCISSION
Formation of layer of thin walled cells at the base of leaves and fruits. It causes fall of fruits and
leaves with minor jerk
PARTHINOCARPY
A condition in which plants produce seedless fruits. Banana is a parthinocarpic fruit.
BAKANAE
A fungal disease of rice seedlings (foolish seedlings) in which un-necessary elongation of plant
occur without production of grains.
ABISCIS ACID
It is an acid nature hormone, which, in addition to restraining growth, causes the guard cells, of
the stomata to close when the plant is losing too much water.
Ethylene
Ethylene is best known for controlling the ripening of fruits. It also contributes to the senescence
(aging) of plants by promoting leaf loss (termed leaf abscission) and other changes.

Neurons
They are structural and functional cells of nervous system. Neurons, or nerve cells, carry out the
functions of the nervous system by conducting nerve impulses.
NEUROGLIA:
Neuroglia refers to glial cells or glia cells of the nervous system that support the neurons (nerve
cells). They form insulating sheets of tissue around the neurons (called myelin), preventing impulses
from traveling between adjacent neurons. Other functions include providing nutrition and controlling
the fluids surrounding the neurons.
Types of Neuron
(a) Sensory Neuron
It is a kind of neuron which carries messages of body to the neurons which are present in brain.
(b) Motor Neuron
It is a kind of neuron which is responsible to carry the messages of the CNS to the body.
(c) Inter Neuron
It is a type of neuron which receives the messages from sensory neuron and gives the orders to
motor neuron.
Synapses
The synapse is a small gap separating neurons. Information from one neuron flows to another
neuron across a synapse. The synapse consists of:
 a presynaptic ending that contains neurotransmitters, mitochondria and other cell organelles,
 a postsynaptic ending that contains receptor sites for neurotransmitters and,
 a synaptic cleft or space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic endings. It is about 20nm
wide.
COORDINATION
Relationship between nervous system and different body systems
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
A system, which consists of ductless glands. These glands produce hormones, which are
released into blood. There are a great variety of hormones, which control various functions of body,
such as sexual maturation of man and woman
HORMONES
Chemical substances produced by ductless glands. Different hormones perform different
functions
NEURONS
Specialized cells, which make nervous system. These cells transmit messages or stimuli from
one place to another
UNIPOLAR NEURON
A neuron in which the axon and dendrites arise from one pole

BIPOLAR NEURON
A neuron in which axon and dendrites arise from apposite poles
MULTIPOLAR NEURON
A neuron in which the dendrites arise from different sides of cell body
SYNAPSIS
A point where two-neuron cell meet each other.
PRE-SYNAPTIC NEURON
A neuron in front of synapses
POST SYNEPTIC NEURON

A neuron at the back of the synapses
MYELINATED NEURON
A neuron in which the axon is covered with myelin sheath. Myelin sheath increases the speed
of messages that pass through neuron
SENSORAY NEURON
A type of neuron which receive messages from sensitive cell receptors and send it to CNS
CNS
Central nervous system i.e. spinal cord and brain
INTERNEURON
A type of neuron, which makes connection between sensory, and motor neuron. These neuron
cells are found in brain and spinal cord only
MOTOR NEURON
A type of neuron that receives messages from CNS and carry them to the effectors
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
The amount of current (40-90 volts) is called resting membrane potential
REFLEX ACTION
An action of body, which is performed at once without response to stimulus e.g. winking of eyes.
ACITICOLINE
An enzyme, which is called neuro-transmitter. It is responsible to carry the messages of body to
brain and vice versa.
DIFFUSED NERVOUS SYSTEM

A kind of nervous system which consists of nerve net of neurons. E.g. Hydra
CENTRALIZED NERVOUS YSSTEM

A kind of nervous system in bilaterally symmetrical organisms where system has anterior and
posterior ends

The Central Nervous System
The brain and spinal cord are the organs of the central nervous system. Because they are so
vitally important, the brain and spinal cord, located in the dorsal body cavity, are encased in bone for
protection.
The Peripheral Nervous System
The organs of the peripheral nervous system are the nerves and ganglia. Nerves are bundles of
nerve fibers. Ganglia are collections, or small knots, of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS.
HUMAN BRAIN AND ITS FUNCTIONS
TYPE OF BRAIN PART OF BRAIN FUNCTIONS
FORE BRAIN Cerebrum 1. Centre of intelligence, 2.collects memories

Memory, intelligence, consciousness and movement of
Frontal lobe
body
Parietal lobe Temperature, sense of touch
Temporal lobe Speaking, hearing, smell
Occipital lobe Vision
Receive messages from spinal cord and sent to upper
Thalamus
region
Hypothalamus Temperature, amount of water, sleep, and appetite
MID BRAIN Auditory and visual reflexes
HIND BRAIN
Acts as bridge for relying messages between cerebellum,
Pons viroli
medulla and cerebrums
Cerebellum Maintains equilibrium, coordination of muscles

Medulla oblongata Heart beat, respiration, contraction and relaxation of
blood vessels, movement of alimentary canal, secretion
of glands
Reticular formation Advises the bran for reaction or ignorance
Spinal cord
The spinal cord (extension of brain) lies in the vertebral canal and in adults, begins at the top of
the first cervical vertebra and stops at the bottom of the first lumbar vertebra (a distance of between
42 and 45 cm). The spinal cord is divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal regions.
CHEMORECEPTORS
They detect chemicals dissolved in fluid medium surrounding them
THERMORECEPTORS
Kind of receptors which detect change in temperature
MECHANORECEPTORS
Kind of receptors which detect sound, motion, positioning relation to gravity touch and
pressure
PHOTORECEPTORS
Kind of receptor which detect visible and ultra violate light
Nicotine
It is an oily liquid substance found in tobacco leaves that acts as a stimulant and also
contributes to smoking addiction. When extracted from the leaves, nicotine is colorless, but quickly
turns brown when exposed to air. It has an acrid, burning taste. Nicotine is a very powerful poison, and
it forms the base of many insecticides.
Parkinson’s disease
Parkinson Disease, disorder of the nervous system that affects muscle control. Parkinson
disease most notably affects motor control (muscle activity). The disease progresses differently for
each individual—symptom develop swiftly in some people and slowly in others. Some Parkinson
patients may develop problems that affect their intellect or ability to reason, or they may suffer from
depression or anxiety
Alzheimer’s disease
It is a progressive brain disorder that causes a gradual and irreversible decline in memory,
language skills, perception of time and space, and, eventually, the ability to care for oneself. This
disorder was First described by German psychiatrist Alois Alzheimer in 1906,
Epilepsy
It is a chronic brain disorder that briefly interrupts the normal electrical activity of the brain to
cause seizures. It is characterized by a variety of symptoms including uncontrolled movements of the
body, disorientation or confusion, sudden fear, or loss of consciousness.
Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is a small gland about 1 centimeter in diameter or the size of a pea. The
gland is connected to the hypothalamus of the brain by a slender stalk called the infundibulum. There
are two distinct regions in the gland: the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe
(neurohypophysis). The activity of the adenohypophysis is controlled by releasing hormones from the
hypothalamus. The neurohypophysis is controlled by nerve stimulation.
TSH HORMONE
Thyroid-stimulating hormone, or thyrotropin, causes the glandular cells of the thyroid to
secrete thyroid hormone. When there is a hyper-secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone, the thyroid
gland enlarges and secretes too much thyroid hormone.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone reacts with receptor sites in the cortex of the adrenal gland to stimulate
the secretion of cortical hormones, particularly cortisol.
Gonadotropic hormones react with receptor sites in the gonads, or ovaries and testes, to regulate the
development, growth, and function of these organs.
Prolactin hormone
It promotes the development of glandular tissue in the female breast during pregnancy and
stimulates milk production after the birth of the infant.
Antidiuretic hormone
It promotes the reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules, with the result that less water is
lost as urine. This mechanism conserves water for the body. Insufficient amounts of antidiuretic
hormone cause excessive water loss in the urine.
Oxytocin HORMONE
It causes contraction of the smooth muscle in the wall of the uterus. It also stimulates he
ejection of milk from the lactating breast.
Pineal Gland
The pineal gland, also called pineal body is a small cone-shaped structure that extends
posteriorly from the third ventricle of the brain. The gland synthesizes the hormone melatonin
whichaffects reproductive development and daily physiologic cycles.

Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is located in the neck. It consists of two lobes, one on each side of the
trachea. This gland produces thyroxin and triiodothyronine hormones. These hormones contain
iodine.
GOITER
Enlargement of thyroid gland due to deficiency of iodine. If there is an iodine deficiency, the
thyroid cannot make sufficient hormone. This stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete thyroid-
stimulating hormone, which causes the thyroid gland to increase in size.
Calcitonin
A hormone secreted by thyroid gland. This hormone opposes the action of the parathyroid
glands by reducing the calcium level in the blood. If blood calcium becomes too high, calcitonin is
secreted until calcium ion levels decrease to normal.
Parathyroid Gland
It is a gland located on the posterior surface of the thyroid glands. It secretes a hormone called
Parathromone. Parathyroid hormone is the most important regulator of blood calcium levels. The
hormone is secreted in response to low blood calcium levels, and its effect is to increase those levels.
Hypoparathyroidism,
It refers to insufficient secretion of parathyroid hormone, and leads to increased nerve
excitability. The low blood calcium levels trigger spontaneous and continuous nerve impulses, which
then stimulate muscle contraction.
ADRENAL GLANDS
The adrenal gland is paired with one gland located near the upper portion of each kidney. Each
gland is divided into an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
Aldosterone
A hormone of adrenal cortex which acts to conserve sodium ions and water in the body.
CORTISOL
Another hormone of cortical region, which increases blood glucose levels.
ANDROGENS
Group of sex hormones produced by the inner region of male and female adrenal glands. In
males and females, the hormones are responsible for development of secondary sexual characters.
MASCULINATION
A condition in female in which females develop bear on face due to over production of
androgens
ADRENALINE OR EPINEPHARINE
Hormone secreted by adrenal medulla. It helps in fight and flight and is called emergency
hormone. Epinephrine increase heart beat, blood pressure breathing rate etc
NOREPINEPHARINE
A hormone of adrenal medulla which maintains blood pressure
PANCREAS
The pancreas is a long organ that lies posterior to the stomach, and extends from the region of
the duodenum to the spleen. This gland has an exocrine portion that secretes digestive enzymes which
are carried through a duct to the duodenum. The endocrine portion consists of the pancreatic islets,
which secrete glucagons and insulin.
INSULIN
A hormone produced by beta cells of islets of lagerhorn. This hormone converts excessive
amount of glucose into glycogen
GLUCOGON
A hormone produced by alpha cells of islets of lagerhorn. This hormone converts glycogen back to
glucose
GONADS
The gonads, the primary reproductive organs, are the testes in the male and the ovaries in the
female. These organs are responsible for producing the sperm and ova, but they also secrete hormones
and are considered to be endocrine glands.
TESTES
Testes secrete male sex hormones, as a group, are called androgens. The principal androgen is
testosterone, which is secreted by the testes. This steroid hormone is responsible for:
 The growth and development of the male reproductive structures
 Increased skeletal and muscular growth
 Enlargement of the larynx accompanied by voice changes
 Growth and distribution of body hair
 Increased male sexual drive
OVARIES
Female reproductive gonads which produce two groups of female sex hormones the estrogens
and progesterone. These hormones contribute to the development and function of the female
reproductive organs and sex characteristics. At the onset of puberty, an estrogen promotes following:
 The development of the breasts
 Distribution of fat evidenced in the hips, legs, and breast
 Maturation of reproductive organs such as the uterus and vagina
PROGESTERONE
A hormone secreted by ovaries. It makes the wall of uterus thick and prepares the uterus for
pregnancy.
ETHOLOGY
Scientific study of nature of behavior is called Ethology
INNATE BEHAVIOR
A kind of behavior which animals inherit as part of heredity. E.g. Suckling of milk after birth
KINASES
A kind of behavior in which animal moves towards the direction of stimuli. Here intensity of
stimulus is important not the direction
HABITUATION
A kind of learned behavior in which animals ignore to respond to regular stimulus. E.g.
ignorance of traffic by birds
IMPRINTING
A kind of learned behavior in which animals learn an activity in child hood and make it as part of
innate behavior. E.g. Swimming
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
A kind of learned behavior in which animals responds to an irrelevant stimulus for getting
reward or to save himself from punishment
LATENT BEHAVIOR
A kind of behavior in which target is achieved by repeated errors. Finally, animal become expert
INSIGHT BEHAVIOR
It is a kind of learned behavior in which problem is solved without trial and error


COORDINATION & CONTROL
WHAT IS BIOLOGICAL CLOCK? EXPLAIN HOW IT WORKS.
Human beings, plants and animals have a biological clock and it tells each plant, human and
animal when to eat, sleep and when to wake up. In addition to this, we are able to re-set this clock to
fit in more usefully with our everyday life.
Mostly it is observed that people wake up early on weekends even if they don't want to? Have
you ever suffered from jet lag? If so, you are probably feeling the effects of one or more of the so
called biological clocks within your body. The understanding of these clocks can be very helpful to you,
for by doing so you may be able to learn to "set" them to wake up at a prearranged time, remind you
of appointments or even help you to return to your car before the time expires on your parking meter.
WHY DO WE HAVE BIOLOGICAL CLOCKS?

Animals are thought to have developed biological clock because it helps them to survive. The
clocks discourage activity during darkness and encourage activities during day time. Human beings
have retained the daily and monthly for what was probably much the same set of reasons: the clocks
are more useful nowadays to use. For instance, we eat at certain times and the gastric juices flow at
certain times and we digest the food at a certain time. The clock also reduces the amount of urine at
night so that we're not as likely to be going to the bathroom all night.
So, we all have a biological clock. It works the same way in all individuals but it can also be
trained to work the way you want it to.
WHAT IS PHOTOPERIODISM?
Plants have a wide variety of flowering strategies involving what time of year they will flower
and, consequently, reproduce. In many plants, flowering is dependent on the duration of day and
night; this is called photoperiodism.
All flowering plants have been placed in one of three categories with respect to photoperiodism:
short-day plants, long-day plants, and day-neutral plants. Despite their names, however, scientists
have discovered that it is the uninterrupted length of night rather than length of day that is the most
important factor in determining when and whether plants will bloom. Short- day plants, then, begin to
bloom when the hours of darkness in a 24-hour period rise above a critical level, as when days shorten
in the autumn. These plants include poinsettias, chrysanthemums, goldenrod, and asters. Long-day
plants begin to flower when the duration of night sinks below a critical level, as when days lengthen in
the spring and summer. Spinach, lettuce, and most grains are long-day plants. Finally, many plants are
day-neutral, which means that the onset of flowering is not controlled by photoperiod at all. These
plants, which are independent both of night length and day length, include tomatoes, sunflowers,
dandelions, rice, and corn.
It is hypothesized that photoperiodism is controlled by a flowering hormone called florigen,
although such a hormone has never been identified. Scientists do know, however, that photoperiod
(length of night and day) is detected by leaves, which signal buds to open when nighttime hours reach
an appropriate duration. Phytochrome is the pigment in leaves that allows them to determine the
duration of nighttime darkness.
HOW PLANTS RESPOND TO DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES?

Plants carry out a number of processes that are essential to their survival. Internal water and
sugar transport are largely carried out within the vascular system. The upward flow of water through
the xylem is "pulled" by transpiration, while the flow of organic nutrients (sugars) through the phloem
is "pushed" by turgor pressure from sources to sinks. These processes ensure that the entire plant
receives water and food even though these materials are brought in or produced only in certain parts
of the plant-- the roots and leaves, respectively.
Plant hormones determine the timing and occurrence of many of the processes of the plant,
from germination to tissue growth to reproduction. These hormones are divided into five classes, each
with its own function within the plant. The classes are composed of auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins,
inhibitors, and ethylene. Auxins play a role in phototropism, the growth of a plant toward a light
source. This growth, described by the acid growth hypothesis, results from the rapid elongation of cells
on the dark side of the plant.
Plants respond to stimuli in other ways as well. In thigmotropism, parts of a plant respond to
touch by thickening or coiling. In gravitotropism, roots and shoots grow up or down depending on their
orientation with respect to gravity. Turgor movements, accomplished by rapid changes of the turgor
pressure in selected cells, allow the plant to move quickly and reversibly in response to stimuli. And
with photoperiodism, many plants respond to seasonal daylight shifts by timing their flowering
according to the length of nighttime.
Response to Drought Condition
Plants manage drought conditions in following ways
(1). they conserve water, by reducing the rate of transpiration
(2). they close their stomata, so that water may not be transpired
(3). they produce abiscisic acid which helps in closing of stomata
Response to Oxygen Deficiency
Plants growing in water may have problem in reception of oxygen. Such plants have developed aerial
roots and air tubes which absorb oxygen for them.
Response to Salt Stress
Plants growing in saltish areas may have problem of plasmolysis, which may be a serious problem for
them. Such plants have developed salt glands in their leaves. Salt glands are responsible to pump out
the salts from plants into atmosphere.
Response to Heat Stress
Since high temperature is dangerous and may denature the bio-chemicals (particularly enzymes).
Plants handle this problem mainly through transpiration. In certain conditions, when temperature
increases over 40 C, they produce Heat Shock Proteins which will maintain the natural status of plant
proteins.
Response to Cold stress
Plants growing in colder climates always have problem of freezing the cellular fluids. In order to avoid
it, plants produce different polymers of fructose which allow cytosol to only become freeze from
exterior side, while internally the protoplasm remains active
Response to Herbivory
In green pastures, plants are exposed to open grazing. Animals may eat whole plants which may be
terrible situation. In order to avoid herbivory, plants use many strategies, such as they develop thorns,
and make them dis-tasteful so that animals may avoid grazing them
HOW PLANT DEFEND THEM AGAINST PATHOGENS?

Like animals, and humans, plants are likely to become victim of virus, bacteria, fungus and other
pathogens. In order to protect them, plants develop epidermal layer which protect plants against
pathogens. If any pathogens, some how manages to infect plants, it is being chandelled by Phytotoxins.
Phytotoxins are antibiotics which destroy or inhibit the growth of micro-organisms

HOW PLANT HORMONES WORK?
A hormone is a chemical that affects the ways in which an organism functions; it is produced in
one part of the plant (or animal) body but affects many other parts of the body as well. Hormones
work by coming in contact with target cells, causing the organism to respond in various ways to the
chemical signal. In plants, hormones usually work by influencing cell differentiation, elongation, and
division. They also affect the timing of reproduction and germination. These hormones are divided into
five categories: auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, inhibitors (or abscisic acid), and ethylene.
Auxins
The primary function of the auxin hormones is to elongate plant cells in the stem. For instance,
auxins are the hormones responsible for phototropism, the growth of a plant toward the light.
Phototropism results from the rapid elongation of cells on the dark side of the plant, which causes the
plant to bend in the opposite direction. The acid growth hypothesis explains this occurrence by
speculating that auxins trigger proton pumps in cell membranes, lowering the pH in the cell wall to
such an extent that the hydrogen bonds holding its cellulose fibers together break apart. These broken
bonds give the cell wall greater flexibility and expandability, so that more water can enter the cell by
diffusion, causing the cell itself to elongate.
Auxins are also responsible for adventitious root development, secondary growth in the vascular
cambium, inhibition of lateral branching, and fruit development. In fact, seedless fruits can be
artificially created by applying synthetic auxin to plants; this causes fruit to develop even though
fertilization (and thus seed formation) has not occurred.
Cytokinins
The cytokinin hormones promote cell division and tissue growth, and depend upon the presence
of auxins to determine the extent of their activity. When the ratio of cytokinins to auxins is relatively
high, stem and leaf growth is stimulated. When, on the other hand, the ratio of cytokinins to auxins is
relatively low, root growth is stimulated instead. The balance between these hormones ensures that
the plant invests in both root and shoots growth, so that neither becomes too large or small for the
other. Cytokinins are also involved in the development of chloroplasts, fruits, and flowers. In addition,
they have been show n to delay senescence (aging), especially in leaves, which is one reason that
florists use cytokinins on freshly cut flowers.
Gibberellins
Gibberellins stimulate growth, especially elongation of the stem, and can also end the dormancy
period of seeds and buds by encouraging germination. Additionally, gibberellins play a role in root
growth and differentiation, and produce an enzyme that pro motes the conversion of an embryo's
starchy food supply into utilizable sugars. In some plants, these hormones are essential for flowering
and fruit development.
Inhibitors
True to their name, inhibitors restrain growth and maintain the period of dormancy in seeds and
buds. The most important of this type of hormone is abscisic acid, which in addition to restraining
growth, causes the guard cells, of the stomata to close when the plant is losing too much water.
Ethylene
Ethylene is best known for controlling the ripening of fruits. It also contributes to the senescence
(aging) of plants by promoting leaf loss (termed leaf abscission) and other changes. Ethylene can bring
buds and seeds out of dormancy, initiate flower development, and promote radial (horizontal) growth
in roots and stems. Interestingly, in certain circumstances ethylene can also act as a growth inhibitor,
most often in conjunction with auxin.

Absicus Acid
COORDINATION AND CONTROL IN ANIMALS
Weather single cellular or multi-cellular, all organisms need coordination and control within
body. In single cellular organisms, the coordination is made possible by certain chemicals, where as in
multi-cellular organisms; simple of complex nervous system may be present.
Although the nervous system is very complex, there are only two main types of cells in nerve tissue.
The actual nerve cell is the neuron. It is the "conducting" cell that transmits impulses and the structural
unit of the nervous system. The other type of cell is neuroglia, or glial, cell. The word "neuroglia"
means "nerve glue." These cells are nonconductive and provide a support system for the neurons. They
are a special type of "connective tissue" for the nervous system.
Neurons
Neurons, or nerve cells, carry out the functions of the nervous system by conducting nerve
impulses. They are highly specialized and amitotic. This means that if a neuron is destroyed, it cannot
be replaced because neurons do not go through mitosis. The image below illustrates the structure of a
typical neuron.
Each neuron has three basic parts: cell body (soma), one or more dendrites, and a single axon.
Cell Body
In many ways, the cell body is similar to other types of cells. It has a nucleus with at least one
nucleolus and contains many of the typical cytoplasmic organelles. It lacks centrioles, however.
Because centrioles function in cell division, the fact that neurons lack these organelles is consistent
with the amitotic nature of the cell.
Dendrites
Dendrites and axons are cytoplasmic extensions, or processes, that project from the cell body.
They are sometimes referred to as fibers. Dendrites are usually, but not always, short and branching,
which increases their surface area to receive signals from other neurons. The number of dendrites on a
neuron varies. They are called afferent processes because they transmit impulses to the neuron cell
body. There is only one axon that projects from each cell body. It is usually elongated and because it
carries impulses away from the cell body, it is called an efferent process.
Axon
An axon may have infrequent branches called axon collaterals. Axons and axon collaterals
terminate in many short branches or telodendria. The distal ends of the telodendria are slightly
enlarged to form synaptic bulbs. Many axons are surrounded by a segmented, white, fatty substance
called myelin or the myelin sheath. Myelinated fibers make up the white matter in the CNS, while cell
bodies and unmyelinated fibers make the gray matter. The unmyelinated regions between the myelin
segments are called the nodes.

In the peripheral nervous system, the myelin is produced by Schwann cells. The cytoplasm,
nucleus, and outer cell membrane of the Schwann cell form a tight covering around the myelin and
around the axon itself at the nodes of Ranvier. This covering is the neurilemma, which plays an
important role in the regeneration of nerve fibers. In the CNS, oligodendrocytes produce myelin, but
there is no neurilemma, which is why fibers within the CNS do not regenerate.
Functionally, neurons are classified as afferent, efferent, or interneurons (association neurons)
according to the direction in which they transmit impulses relative to the central nervous system.
Afferent, or sensory, neurons carry impulses from peripheral sense receptors to the CNS. They usually
have long dendrites and relatively short axons. Efferent, or motor, neurons transmit impulses from the
CNS to effector organs such as muscles and glands. Efferent neurons usually have short dendrites and
long axons. Interneurons, or association neurons, are located entirely within the CNS in which they
form the connecting link between the afferent and efferent neurons. They have short dendrites and
may have either a short or long axon.
NEUROGLIA:
Neuroglia refers to glial cells or glia cells of the nervous system that support the neurons (nerve
cells). They form insulating sheets of tissue around the neurons (called myelin), preventing impulses
from traveling between adjacent neurons. Other functions include providing nutrition and controlling
the fluids surrounding the neurons.
Types of Neuron
(d) Sensory Neuron
It is a kind of neuron which carries messages of body to the neurons which are present in brain.
(e) Motor Neuron
It is a kind of neuron which is responsible to carry the messages of the CNS to the body.
(f) Inter Neuron
It is a type of neuron which receives the messages from sensory neuron and gives the orders to
motor neuron.
WHAT IS NERVE IMPULSE? DESCRIBE WAYS IN WHICH IT WORKS
The nerve impulse is an electrical occurrence that travels down a neuron . This electrical signal
transmits commands from the brain to the motor nerves, and carries sensory messages from sensory
nerves (skin, ears, nose, eyes, taste buds) to the brain. The transmission of nerve impulses from neuron
to neuron is performed by neurotransmitters .
The Nerve impulse works in following ways.
(1) Resting membrane potential
When a neuron is not sending a signal, it is at ‘rest’. The membrane is
responsible for the different events that occur in a neuron. All animal
cell membranes contain a protein pump called the sodium-potassium
pump (Na+K+ATPase). This uses the energy from ATP splitting to
simultaneously pump 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium
ions in. If the pump was to continue unchecked there would be no
sodium or potassium ions left to pump, but there are also sodium
and potassium ion channels in the membrane. These channels are
normally closed, but even when closed, they “leak”, allowing sodium ions to leak in and potassium ions
to leak out, down their respective concentration gradients.

Action Potential
The resting potential tells about what happens when a neuron is at rest. An action potential
occurs when a neuron sends information down an axon, away from the cell body. Neuroscientists use
other words, such as a "spike" or an "impulse" for the action potential. The action potential is an
explosion of electrical activity that is created by a depolarizing current. This means that some event (a
stimulus) causes the resting potential to move toward 0 mV. When the depolarization reaches about -
55 mV a neuron will fire an action potential. This is the threshold. If the neuron does not reach this
critical threshold level, then no action potential will fire. Also, when the threshold level is reached, an
action potential of a fixed sized will always fire...for any given neuron, the size of the action potential is
always the same. There are no big or small action potentials in one nerve cell - all action potentials are
the same size. Therefore, the neuron either does not reach the threshold or a full action potential is
fired - this is the "ALL OR NONE" principle.
Action potentials are caused by an exchange of ions across the neuron membrane. A stimulus
first causes sodium channels to open. Because there are many more sodium ions on the outside, and
the inside of the neuron is negative relative to the outside, sodium ions rush into the neuron.
Remember, sodium has a positive charge, so the neuron becomes more positive and becomes
depolarized. It takes longer for potassium channels to open. When they do open, potassium rushes out
of the cell, reversing the depolarization. Also at about this time, sodium channels start to close. This
causes the action potential to go back toward -70 mV (a repolarization). The action potential actually
goes past -70 mV (a hyperpolarization) because the potassium channels stay open a bit too long.
Gradually, the ion concentrations go back to resting levels and the cell returns to -70 mV. And there
you have it...the action potential.
Propagation of Action Potential

Once an action potential has started it is moved (propagated) along an axon automatically. The
local reversal of the membrane potential is detected by the surrounding voltage-gated ion channels,
which open when the potential changes enough. The ion channels have two other features that help
the nerve impulse work effectively:
 For an action potential to begin then the depolarization of the neuron must reach the threshold
value, i.e. the all or nothing law.
 After an ion channel has opened, it needs a “rest period” before it can open again. This is called
the refractory period, and lasts about 2 ms. This means that, although the action potential
affects all other ion channels nearby, the upstream ion channels cannot open again since they
are in their refractory period, so only the downstream channels open, causing the action
potential to move one-way along the axon.
The refractory period is necessary as it allows the proteins of voltage sensitive ion channels to restore
to their original polarity.
 The absolute refractory period = during the action potential, a second stimulus will not cause a
new action potential.
 Exception: There is an interval in which a second action potential can be produced but only if
the stimulus is considerably greater than the threshold = relative refractory period
 The refractory period can limit the number o faction potentials in a given time.
 Average = about 100 action potentials per second.

Synapses
The synapse is a small gap separating neurons. Information from one neuron flows to another
neuron across a synapse. The synapse consists of:
 a presynaptic ending that contains neurotransmitters, mitochondria and other cell organelles,
 a postsynaptic ending that contains receptor sites for neurotransmitters and,
 a synaptic cleft or space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic endings. It is about 20nm
wide.
An action potential cannot cross the synaptic cleft between neurons. Instead the nerve impulse
is carried by chemicals called neurotransmitters. These chemicals are made by the cell that is sending
the impulse (the pre-synaptic neuron) and stored in synaptic vesicles at the end of the axon. The cell
that is receiving the nerve impulse (the post-synaptic neuron) has chemical-gated ion channels in its
membrane, called neuro-receptors. These have specific binding sites for the neurotransmitters.
WHAT IS REFLEX ACTION?
A reflex action is the body's rapid, involuntary response to external stimuli, often used in order
to protect it from immediate harm. First, a receptor detects a stimulus, such as a heat source which
could burn the skin. A nerve impulse is then passed along the sensory neuron from the receptor to the
central nervous system (the spinal cord). The impulse is transferred via a synapse (a gap between two
neurons) to a relay neuron within the cord, and then on to a motor neuron via a second synapse. The
impulse travels along the motor neuron to an effector (such as a muscle or gland) which brings about
the desired response i.e. a muscle moving a body part away from the heat source in the burning
example.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Nervous System is the body's information gatherer, storage center and control system. Its overall
function is to collect information about the external conditions in relation to the body's internal state,
to analyze this information, and to initiate appropriate responses to satisfy certain needs (Maintain
Homeostasis). The most powerful of these needs is survival. The nerves do not form one single system,
but several which are interrelated. Some of these are physically separate, others are different in
function only. The brain and spinal cord make up the Central Nervous System (CNS). The Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS) is responsible for the body functions which are not under conscious control - like
the heartbeat or the digestive system. The smooth operation of the Peripheral Nervous System is
achieved by dividing it into Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Systems. These are opposing actions and

check on each other to provide a balance. The nervous system uses electrical impulses, which travel
along the length of the cells (Neurons). The cell processes information from the sensory nerves and
initiates an action within milliseconds. These impulses can travel at up to 250 miles per hour, while
other Systems such as the Endocrine System may take many hours to respond with hormones.
In humans, the cells called neurons make up the nervous system. The nervous system controls and
coordinates all essential functions of the human body.
The nervous system receives and relays information about activities within the body and monitors and
responds to internal and external changes. The nervous system has four functions that enable the body
to respond quickly.

Describe Nervous System:
Although terminology seems to indicate otherwise, there is really only one nervous system in
the body. Although each subdivision of the system is also called a "nervous system," all of these
smaller systems belong to the single, highly integrated nervous system. Each subdivision has structural
and functional characteristics that distinguish it from the others. The nervous system as a whole is
divided into two subdivisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system
(PNS).
The Central Nervous System
The brain and spinal cord are the organs of the central nervous system. Because they are so
vitally important, the brain and spinal cord, located in the dorsal body cavity, are encased in bone for
protection. The brain is in the cranial vault, and the spinal cord is in the vertebral canal of the vertebral
column. Although considered to be two separate organs, the brain and spinal cord are continuous at
the foramen magnum.
The Peripheral Nervous System
The organs of the peripheral nervous system are the nerves and ganglia. Nerves are bundles of nerve
fibers, much like muscles are bundles of muscle fibers. Cranial nerves and spinal nerves extend from
the CNS to peripheral organs such as muscles and glands. Ganglia are collections, or small knots, of
nerve cell bodies outside the CNS.
The peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into an afferent (sensory) division and an efferent
(motor) division. The afferent or sensory division transmits impulses from peripheral organs to the
CNS. The efferent or motor division transmits impulses from the CNS out to the peripheral organs to
cause an effect or action. Finally, the efferent or motor division is again subdivided into the somatic
nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system, also called the
somatomotor or somatic efferent nervous system, supplies motor impulses to the skeletal muscles.
Because these nerves permit conscious control of the skeletal muscles, it is sometimes called the
voluntary nervous system. The autonomic nervous system, also called the visceral efferent nervous
system, supplies motor impulses to cardiac muscle, to smooth muscle, and to glandular epithelium. It is
further subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Because the autonomic nervous
system regulates involuntary or automatic functions, it is called the involuntary nervous system.

DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Brain
Brain, portion of the central nervous system contained within the skull. The brain is the control
center for movement, sleep, hunger, thirst, and virtually every other vital activity necessary to survival.
All human emotions—including love, hate, fear, anger, elation, and sadness—are controlled by the
brain. It also receives and interprets the countless signals that are sent to it from other parts of the
body and from the external environment. The brain makes us conscious, emotional, and intelligent.
The adult human brain is a 1.3-kg (3-lb) mass of pinkish-gray jellylike tissue made up of approximately
100 billion nerve cells, or neurons; neuroglia (supporting-tissue) cells; and vascular (blood-carrying)
and other tissues.
The human brain has three major structural components: the large dome-shaped cerebrum
(top), the smaller somewhat spherical cerebellum (lower right), and the brainstem (center). Prominent
in the brainstem are the medulla oblongata (the egg-shaped enlargement at center) and the thalamus
(between the medulla and the cerebrum). The cerebrum is responsible for intelligence and reasoning.
The cerebellum helps to maintain balance and posture. The medulla is involved in maintaining
involuntary functions such as respiration, and the thalamus acts as a relay center for electrical impulses
traveling to and from the cerebral cortex.
Fore-brain
It is base on 2 parts known as Diencephalons and Telencephelon. The telencephelon is the
largest part and consists of cereberum, gray matter, white matter and cerebral cortex.
The forebrain is the largest part of the brain, most of which is made up of the cerebrum . Other
important structures found in the forebrain include the thalamus , the hypothalamus and the limbic
system.
The cerebrum is divided into two cerebral hemispheres connected by a mass of white
matter known as the corpus callosum . Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes : frontal, parietal ,
occipital and temporal. The surface of each hemisphere is made up of grey matter known as the
cerebral cortex and is highly folded to increase the cortical surface area available within the confines
of the skull. The cortex controls perception, memory, and all higher cognitive functions, including the
ability to concentrate, reason and think in abstract form. Beneath the cortex is white matter, within
which a number of nuclei (grey matter), known as the basal nuclei are found. The basal nuclei receive
information from the cortex to regulate skeletal movement and other higher motor functions.
The thalamus functions to relay sensory information to the cerebral cortex and the hypothalamus
regulates visceral functions, such as temperature, reproductive functions, eating, sleeping and the
display of emotion. The limbic system describes a collection of structures within the forebrain,
including the amygdala hippocampus . Also known as the 'emotional brain', the limbic system is
important in the formation of memories and in controlling emotions, decisions, motivation and
learning.
Mid brain
The midbrain sits between the forebrain and the hindbrain and is approximately 2 cm long. It
forms a major part of the brainstem ; the name given to the part of the brain which connects the spinal
cord and the forebrain. The dorsal surface of the midbrain forms the tectum , meaning 'roof'. The
ventral surface is characterised by two large fibre bundles, the cerebral peduncles, containing
axons that travel between the cerebral cortex , the brainstem and the spinal cord. The cerebral
peduncles divide the brain into two halves. Each half is further divided into an anterior and posterior
part by a band of grey matter , the substantia nigra . These structures form important connections
between the cerebral cortex and the brainstem and spinal cord to control sensory processes such as
vision and movement.
Hind brain
The hindbrain includes the cerebellum , the pons and the medulla oblongata , which function
collectively to support vital bodily processes.
The medulla is joined to the spinal cord and controls unconscious, yet essential, body functions
such as breathing, swallowing, blood circulation and muscle tone. Located above the medulla is the
pons which serves as a bridge to connect the brainstem and the cerebellum. The pons receives
information from visual areas to control eye and body movements and also plays a role in controlling
patterns of sleep and arousal. Information is relayed from the pons to the cerebellum to control the
co-ordination of muscular movements and maintain equilibrium.
The brainstem is made up of the pons, medulla and midbrain . The medulla connects the brain to the
spinal cord and its motor and sensory tracts allow communication between the brain and the rest of
the body.
Spinal cord
The spinal cord lies in the vertebral canal and in adults, begins at
the top of the first cervical vertebra and stops at the bottom of the first
lumbar vertebra (a distance of between 42 and 45 cm). The spinal cord is
divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal regions.The
peripheral nerves that innervate the body arise from the spinal cord as 31
pairs of segmental spinal nerves. Sensory information is carried to the
spinal cord from the peripheral nerves and enters the spinal cord via the
dorsal roots. Motor commands leave the spinal cord via the ventral roots
where they travel along nerve axons to the periphery.
Like the forebrain, the spinal cord is made up of grey matter and
white matter . The interior of the cord contains the grey matter and is
surrounded by a cylindrical mass of white matter, organized into discrete
areas relating to the specific body functions they control.
What is Reflex action?

In general, nerve function is dependent on both sensory and motor fibers, sensory stimulation
evoking motor response. Even the autonomic system is activated by sensory impulses from receptors
in the organ or muscle. Where especially sensitive areas or powerful stimuli are concerned, it is not
always necessary for a sensory impulse to reach the brain in order to trigger motor response. A sensory
neuron may link directly to a motor neuron at a synapse in the spinal cord, forming a reflex arc that
performs automatically. Thus, tapping the tendon below the kneecap causes the leg to jerk
involuntarily because the impulse provoked by the tap, after traveling to the spinal cord, travels
directly back to the leg muscle. Such a response is called an involuntary reflex action.
Commonly, the reflex arc includes one or more connector neurons that exert a modulating
effect, allowing varying degrees of response, e.g., according to whether the stimulation is strong, weak,
or prolonged. Reflex arcs are often linked with other arcs by nerve fibers in the spinal cord.
Consequently, a number of reflex muscle responses may be triggered simultaneously, as when a
person shudders and jerks away from the touch of an insect. Links between the reflex arcs and higher
centers enable the brain to identify a sensory stimulus, such as pain; to note the reflex response, such
as withdrawal; and to inhibit that response, as when the arm is held steady against the prick of a
hypodermic needle.
Reflex patterns are inherited rather than learned, having evolved as involuntary survival
mechanisms. But voluntary actions initiated in the brain may become reflex actions through continued
association of a particular stimulus with a certain result. In such cases, an alteration of impulse routes
occurs that permits responses without mediation by higher nerve centers. Such responses are called
conditioned reflexes, the most famous example being one of the experiments Ivan Pavlov performed
with dogs. After the dogs had learned to associate the provision of food with the sound of a bell, they
salivated at the sound of the bell even when food was not offered. Habit formation and much of
learning are dependent on conditioned reflexes. To illustrate, the brain of a student typist must
coordinate sensory impulses from both the eyes and the muscles in order to direct the fingers to
particular keys. After enough repetition the fingers automatically find and strike the proper keys even
if the eyes are closed. The student has “learned” to type; that is, typing has become a conditioned
reflex.
WHAT ARE RECEPTORS? DESCRIBE THEM IN DETAIL.

Our senses.
As far back as the 1760's, the famous philosopher Immanuel Kant proposed that our knowledge of the
outside world depends on our modes of perception. In order to define what is "extrasensory" we need
to define what is "sensory". Traditionally, there are five senses: sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing.
Each of the senses consists of specialized cells that have receptors for specific stimuli. These cells have
links to the nervous system and thus to the brain. Sensing is done at primitive levels in the cells and
integrated into sensations in the nervous system. Sight is probably the most developed sense in
humans, followed closely by hearing.

Sight.
The eye is the organ of vision. It has a complex structure consisting of a transparent lens that
focuses light on the retina. The retina is covered with two basic types of light-sensitive cells-rods and
cones. The cone cells are sensitive to color and are located in the part of the retina called the fovea,
where the light is focused by the lens. The rod cells are not sensitive to color, but have greater
sensitivity to light than the cone cells. These cells are located around the fovea and are responsible for
peripheral vision and night vision. The eye is connected to the brain through the optic nerve. The point
of this connection is called the "blind spot" because it is insensitive to light. Experiments have shown
that the back of the brain maps the visual input from the eyes.
Hearing.
The ear is the organ of hearing. The outer ear protrudes away from the head and is shaped like
a cup to direct sounds toward the tympanic membrane, which transmits vibrations to the inner ear
through a series of small bones. The inner ear, or cochlea, is a spiral-shaped chamber covered
internally by nerve fibers that react to the vibrations and transmit impulses to the brain via the
auditory nerve. The brain combines the input of our two ears to determine the direction and distance
of sounds.
The human ear can perceive frequencies from 16 cycles per second, which is a very deep bass,
to 28,000 cycles per second, which is a very high pitch. In addition, the human ear can detect pitch
changes as small as 3 hundredths of one percent of the original frequency in some frequency ranges.
Some people have "perfect pitch", which is the ability to map a tone precisely on the musical scale.
Bats and dolphins can detect frequencies higher than 100,000 cycles per second.

Taste.
The receptors for taste, called taste buds, are situated chiefly in the tongue, but they are also
located in the roof of the mouth and near the pharynx. They are able to detect four basic tastes: salty,
sweet, bitter, and sour. The tongue also can detect a sensation called "umami" from taste receptors
sensitive to amino acids. Generally, the taste buds close to the tip of the tongue are sensitive to sweet
tastes, whereas those in the back of the tongue are sensitive to bitter tastes. The taste buds on top and
on the side of the tongue are sensitive to salty and sour tastes. At the base of each taste bud there is a
nerve that sends the sensations to the brain. The sense of taste functions in coordination with the
sense of smell. The number of taste buds varies substantially from individual to individual, but greater
numbers increase sensitivity. Women, in general, have a greater number of taste buds than men. As in
the case of color blindness, some people are insensitive to some tastes.
Smell.
The nose is the organ responsible for the sense of smell. The cavity of the nose is lined with
mucous membranes that have smell receptors connected to the olfactory nerve. The smells
themselves consist of vapors of various substances. The smell receptors interact with the molecules of
these vapors and transmit the sensations to the brain. The nose also has a structure called the
vomeronasal organ whose function has not been determined, but which is suspected of being sensitive
to pheromones that influence the reproductive cycle. The smell receptors are sensitive to seven types
of sensations that can be characterized as camphor, musk, flower, mint, ether, acrid, or putrid. The
sense of smell is sometimes temporarily lost when a person has a cold. Dogs have a sense of smell that
is many times more sensitive than man's.
Touch.
The sense of touch is distributed throughout the body. Nerve endings in the skin and other
parts of the body transmit sensations to the brain. Some parts of the body have a larger number of
nerve endings and, therefore, are more sensitive. Four kinds of touch sensations can be identified:
cold, heat, contact, and pain. Hairs on the skin magnify the sensitivity and act as an early warning
system for the body. The fingertips and the sexual organs have the greatest concentration of nerve
endings. The sexual organs have "erogenous zones" that when stimulated start a series of endocrine
reactions and motor responses resulting in orgasm.

WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF DRUGS ON COORDINATION
Drugs have multi-dimensional effects of coordination. Some drugs have positive effects, while
others have negative. Drugs are known to act as stimulants, depressants, hypnotics, analgesics,
hallucinogens and psychedelics. There are many drugs which may be mentioned, but in following write
up, the effect of nicotine is described.
Nicotine
Nicotine, an oily liquid substance found in tobacco leaves that acts as a stimulant and also
contributes to smoking addiction. When extracted from the leaves, nicotine is colorless, but quickly
turns brown when exposed to air. It has an acrid, burning taste. Nicotine is a very powerful poison, and
it forms the base of many insecticides.
Cigarette tobacco contains only a small amount of nicotine and most of this nicotine is
destroyed by the heat of burning so that the actual concentration of nicotine in smoke is low.
However, even a small amount of nicotine is sufficient to be addictive. The amount of nicotine
absorbed by the body from inhaling smoke depends on many factors including the type of tobacco,
whether the smoke is inhaled, and whether a filter is used.
Tobacco smokers absorb small amounts of nicotine by inhaling smoke from cigars, cigarettes, or
pipes. Nicotine is drawn into the lungs where it enters the bloodstream and is pumped by the heart to
the brain. It takes only seven seconds for nicotine to enter the brain after being inhaled.
Nicotine has various effects on the body. In small doses nicotine serves as a nerve stimulant,
entering the bloodstream and promoting the flow of adrenaline, a stimulating hormone. It speeds up
the heartbeat and may cause it to become irregular. It also raises the blood pressure and reduces the
appetite, and it may cause nausea and vomiting. The known health risks associated with cigarette
smoking, such as damage to the lungs and lung cancer, are thought to be caused by other components
of cigarettes such as tars and other by-products of smoking, and by the irritating effects of smoke on
the lung tissue. Addiction to smoking is caused by nicotine itself. Stopping smoking produces
withdrawal symptoms within 24 to 48 hours, which commonly include irritability, headaches, and
anxiety, in addition to the strong desire to smoke.
WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT NERVOUS DISORDERS?

There is a big list of nervous disorders. Some common disorders are described below
Parkinson’s disease
Parkinson Disease, disorder of the nervous system that affects muscle control. Marked by
trembling of the arms and legs, muscular rigidity, and poor balance, Parkinson disease is slowly
progressive, worsening over time. Eventually symptoms may cause problems with walking or talking
and, in some people, difficulty thinking. The disease is named for British physician James Parkinson,
who first described it in 1817.
Symptoms
Parkinson disease most notably affects motor control (muscle activity). The disease progresses
differently for each individual—symptom develop swiftly in some people and slowly in others. Some
Parkinson patients may develop problems that affect their intellect or ability to reason, or they may
suffer from depression or anxiety.
Treatment
There is no known cure for Parkinson disease—that is, no treatment that prevents the disease
from progressing. But the symptoms of the disease can be controlled by various drugs (such as
Dopamine) and, in some cases, by surgery.

Alzheimer’s disease
Disease, progressive brain disorder that causes a gradual and irreversible decline in memory,
language skills, perception of time and space, and, eventually, the ability to care for oneself. First
described by German psychiatrist Alois Alzheimer in 1906,
Symptoms
Alzheimer’s patients have relatively mild problems learning new information and remembering
where they have left common objects, such as keys or a wallet. In time, they begin to have trouble
recollecting recent events and finding the right words to express themselves. As the disease
progresses, patients may have difficulty remembering what day or month it is, or finding their way
around familiar surroundings. They may develop a tendency to wander off and then be unable to find
their way back. Patients often become irritable or withdrawn as they struggle with fear and frustration
when once commonplace tasks become unfamiliar and intimidating. Behavioral changes may become
more pronounced as patients become paranoid or delusional and unable to engage in normal
conversation. Eventually Alzheimer’s patients become completely incapacitated and unable to take
care of their most basic life functions, such as eating and using the bathroom.
Epilepsy
Epilepsy, also called seizure disorder, is a chronic brain disorder that briefly interrupts the
normal electrical activity of the brain to cause seizures. It is characterized by a variety of symptoms
including uncontrolled movements of the body, disorientation or confusion, sudden fear, or loss of
consciousness. Epilepsy may result from a head injury, stroke, brain tumor, lead poisoning, genetic
conditions, or severe infections like meningitis or encephalitis. In over 70 percent of cases no cause for
epilepsy is identified. Some 40 to 50 million people suffer from epilepsy worldwide and the majority of
cases are in developing countries. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an estimated 2
million new cases are diagnosed each year globally.
Treatment
There is no cure for epilepsy but symptoms of the disorder may be treated with drugs, surgery,
or a special diet. Drug therapy is the most common treatment—seizures can be prevented or their
frequency lessened in 80 to 85 percent of cases by drugs known as anticonvulsants or antiepileptic.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is made up of the endocrine glands
that secrete hormones. Although there are eight major endocrine
glands scattered throughout the body, they are still considered to be
one system because they have similar functions, similar mechanisms
of influence, and many important interrelationships.
Some glands also have non-endocrine regions that have functions
other than hormone secretion. For example, the pancreas has a
major exocrine portion that secretes digestive enzymes and an
endocrine portion that secretes hormones. The ovaries and testes
secrete hormones and also produce the ova and sperm. Some
organs, such as the stomach, intestines, and heart, produce
hormones, but their primary function is not hormone secretion.
Learn more about endocrine glands and their hormones by selecting
one of the following topics.

Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland or hypophysis is a small gland about 1 centimeter in diameter or the size of
a pea. It is nearly surrounded by bone as it rests in the sella turcica, a depression in the sphenoid bone.
The gland is connected to the hypothalamus of the brain by a slender stalk called the infundibulum.
There are two distinct regions in the gland: the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe
(neurohypophysis). The activity of the adenohypophysis is controlled by releasing hormones from the
hypothalamus. The neurohypophysis is controlled by nerve stimulation.
Hormones of the Anterior Lobe (Adenohypophysis)

Growth hormone is a protein that stimulates the growth of bones, muscles, and other organs
by promoting protein synthesis. This hormone drastically affects the appearance of an individual
because it influences height. If there is too little growth hormone in a child, that person may become a
pituitary dwarf of normal proportions but small stature. An excess of the hormone in a child results in
an exaggerated bone growth, and the individual becomes exceptionally tall or a giant.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone, or thyrotropin, causes the glandular cells of the thyroid to secrete
thyroid hormone. When there is a hypersecretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone, the thyroid gland
enlarges and secretes too much thyroid hormone.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone reacts with receptor sites in the cortex of the adrenal gland to stimulate
the secretion of cortical hormones, particularly cortisol.
Gonadotropic hormones react with receptor sites in the gonads, or ovaries and testes, to regulate the
development, growth, and function of these organs.
Prolactin hormone promotes the development of glandular tissue in the female breast during
pregnancy and stimulates milk production after the birth of the infant.
Hormones of the Posterior Lobe (Neurohypophysis)

Antidiuretic hormone promotes the reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules, with the result that
less water is lost as urine. This mechanism conserves water for the body. Insufficient amounts of
antidiuretic hormone cause excessive water loss in the urine.
Oxytocin causes contraction of the smooth muscle in the wall of the uterus. It also stimulates the
ejection of milk from the lactating breast.
Pineal Gland
The pineal gland, also called pineal body or epiphysis cerebri, is a small cone-shaped structure that
extends posteriorly from the third ventricle of the brain. The pineal gland consists of portions of
neurons, neuroglial cells, and specialized secretory cells called pinealocytes. The pinealocytes
synthesize the hormone melatonin and secrete it directly into the cerebrospinal fluid, which takes it
into the blood. Melatonin affects reproductive development and daily physiologic cycles.

Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is a very vascular organ that is located in the neck. It consists of two lobes,
one on each side of the trachea, just below the larynx or voice box. The two lobes are connected by a
narrow band of tissue called the isthmus. Internally, the gland consists of follicles, which produce
thyroxine and triiodothyronine hormones. These hormones contain iodine.
About 95 percent of the active thyroid hormone is thyroxine, and most of the remaining 5
percent is triiodothyronine. Both of these require iodine for their synthesis. Thyroid hormone secretion
is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism that involves the amount of circulating hormone,
hypothalamus, and adenohypophysis.
If there is an iodine deficiency, the thyroid cannot make sufficient hormone. This stimulates the
anterior pituitary to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone, which causes the thyroid gland to increase
in size in a vain attempt to produce more hormones. But it cannot produce more hormones because it
does not have the necessary raw material, iodine. This type of thyroid enlargement is called simple
goiter or iodine deficiency goiter.
Calcitonin is secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland. This hormone opposes the
action of the parathyroid glands by reducing the calcium level in the blood. If blood calcium becomes
too high, calcitonin is secreted until calcium ion levels decrease to normal.
Parathyroid Gland
Four small masses of epithelial tissue are embedded in
the connective tissue capsule on the posterior surface of the
thyroid glands. These are parathyroid glands, and they secrete
parathyroid hormone or parathormone. Parathyroid hormone is
the most important regulator of blood calcium levels. The
hormone is secreted in response to low blood calcium levels,
and its effect is to increase those levels.
Hypoparathyroidism, or insufficient secretion of
parathyroid hormone, leads to increased nerve excitability. The
low blood calcium levels trigger spontaneous and continuous
nerve impulses, which then stimulate muscle contraction.
The adrenal, or suprarenal, gland is paired with one
gland located near the upper portion of each kidney. Each gland
is divided into an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The cortex
and medulla of the adrenal gland, like the anterior and posterior
lobes of the pituitary, develop from different embryonic tissues and secrete different hormones. The
adrenal cortex is essential to life, but the medulla may be removed with no life-threatening effects.
The hypothalamus of the brain influences both portions of the adrenal gland but by different
mechanisms. The adrenal cortex is regulated by negative feedback involving the hypothalamus and
adrenocorticotropic hormone; the medulla is regulated by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus.

Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
The adrenal cortex consists of three different regions, with each region producing a different
group or type of hormones. Chemically, all the cortical hormones are steroid.
Mineralocorticoids are secreted by the outermost region of the adrenal cortex. The principal
mineralocorticoid is aldosterone, which acts to conserve sodium ions and water in the body.
Glucocorticoids are secreted by the middle region of the adrenal cortex. The principal glucocorticoid is
cortisol, which increases blood glucose levels.
The third group of steroids secreted by the adrenal cortex is the gonadocorticoids, or sex
hormones. These are secreted by the innermost region. Male hormones, androgens, and female
hormones, estrogens, are secreted in minimal amounts in both sexes by the adrenal cortex, but their
effect is usually masked by the hormones from the testes and ovaries. In females, the masculinization
effect of androgen secretion may become evident after menopause, when estrogen levels from the
ovaries decrease.
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
The adrenal medulla develops from neural tissue and secretes two hormones, epinephrine and
norepinephrine. These two hormones are secreted in response to stimulation by sympathetic nerve,
particularly during stressful situations. A lack of hormones from the adrenal medulla produces no
significant effects. Hypersecretion, usually from a tumor, causes prolonged or continual sympathetic
responses.
The pancreas is a long, soft organ that lies transversely along
the posterior abdominal wall, posterior to the stomach, and
extends from the region of the duodenum to the spleen. This gland
has an exocrine portion that secretes digestive enzymes that are
carried through a duct to the duodenum. The endocrine portion
consists of the pancreatic islets, which secrete glucagons and
insulin.
Alpha cells in the pancreatic islets secrete the hormone
glucagons in response to a low concentration of glucose in the
blood. Beta cells in the pancreatic islets secrete the hormone insulin
in response to a high concentration of glucose in the blood.
The gonads, the primary reproductive organs, are the testes in the male and the ovaries in the
female. These organs are responsible for producing the sperm and ova, but they also secrete hormones
and are considered to be endocrine glands.
Testes
Male sex hormones, as a group, are called
androgens. The principal androgen is testosterone,
which is secreted by the testes. A small amount is also
produced by the adrenal cortex. Production of
testosterone begins during fetal development,
continues for a short time after birth, nearly ceases
during childhood, and then resumes at puberty. This
steroid hormone is responsible for:
 The growth and development of the male
reproductive structures
 Increased skeletal and muscular growth
 Enlargement of the larynx accompanied by voice changes
 Growth and distribution of body hair
 Increased male sexual drive
Testosterone secretion is regulated by a negative feedback system that involves releasing
hormones from the hypothalamus and gonadotropins from the anterior pituitary.
Ovaries
Two groups of female sex hormones are produced in
the ovaries, the estrogens and progesterone. These steroid
hormones contribute to the development and function of the
female reproductive organs and sex characteristics. At the
onset of puberty, estrogens promotes:
 The development of the breasts

 Distribution of fat evidenced in the hips, legs, and breast
 Maturation of reproductive organs such as the uterus and vagina
Progesterone causes the uterine lining to thicken in preparation for pregnancy. Together, progesterone
and estrogens are responsible for the changes that occur in the uterus during the female menstrual
cycle.
In addition to the major endocrine glands, other organs have some hormonal activity as part of
their function. These include the thymus, stomach, small intestines, heart, and placenta.
Thymosin, produced by the thymus gland, plays an important role in the development of the body's
immune system.
The lining of the stomach, the gastric mucosa, produces a hormone, called gastrin, in response
to the presence of food in the stomach. This hormone stimulates the production of hydrochloric acid
and the enzyme pepsin, which are used in the digestion of food.
The mucosa of the small intestine secretes the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin.
Secreting stimulates the pancreas to produce a bicarbonate-rich fluid that neutralizes the stomach
acid. Cholecystokinin stimulates contraction of the gallbladder, which releases bile. It also stimulates
the pancreas to secrete digestive enzyme.
The heart also acts as an endocrine organ in addition to its major role of pumping blood. Special
cells in the wall of the upper chambers of the heart, called atria, produce a hormone called atrial
natriiuretic hormone, or atriopeptin.
The placenta develops in the pregnant female as a source of nourishment and gas exchange for
the developing fetus. It also serves as a temporary endocrine gland. One of the hormones it secretes is
human chorionic gonadotropin, which signals the mother's ovaries to secrete hormones to maintain
the uterine lining so that it does not degenerate and slough off in menstruation.
Animal Behavior
Animals’ abilities to move create the possibility for copious interactions between organisms,
giving rise to quite complex patterns of behavior. Animal behavior can come in the form of instincts
and learned behavior. Instincts are inheritable, genetically coded behavior patterns that an animal
possesses at birth. Learned behaviors are established and maintained as an animal responds to new
situations. Learned behaviors are not passed down from parent to offspring genetically, but they can
be taught.
Instinctual Behavior
Instinctual behavior can take the form of simple reflexes or fixed-action patterns. Simple
reflexes are automatic responses to specific stimuli. Reflex behaviors do not originate from the brain in
vertebrates. Instead, they are processed in the spinal cord. For example, if you touch a hot iron, the
pain and heat receptors in your fingers send signals down a sensory neuron to your spinal cord, where
a motor neuron is immediately stimulated to cause you to pull back your arm. The signal is actually
sent to the brain after it has been acted upon by the spinal cord—you do not actually perceive pain
until the brain processes the information.
Fixed-action patterns are complex behaviors that, like reflexes, are triggered by a specific stimulus.
The stimuli that cause fixed-action behavior are often more complex than the stimulus behind simple
reflex behavior. Once triggered, fixed-action patterns often proceed to completion, even if the stimulus
is removed. For example, female geese demonstrate a fixed-action pattern called egg rolling. If a

female goose spots an egg outside of her nest, the mother goose will use her beak to roll the egg back
into the nest. If the egg is taken away in the middle of this process, she will continue to move her neck
and beak as if she were rolling an egg, even though the egg is no longer there. Fixed-action patterns do
not need to be learned; they are present in an individual from birth.
Many animals, most notably birds, exhibit a special type of learned behavior called imprinting.
Imprinting occurs when an animal quickly learns, during a short critical period, to recognize an
individual, object, or location. The most common example of imprinting is the case of birds that can
walk soon after hatching. Newly hatched infant birds must follow their mother to survive. Soon after
they hatch, these birds go through a critical period during which they treat the first moving object they
see as their mother. If the first organism a young bird sees is a pig, it will imprint the pig as its mother.
Imprinting is nearly impossible to reverse.
Learned Behavior
Unlike instincts, which are present at birth, an individual organism learns some behavior over the
course of its life. The simplest form of learning is known as habituation. Habituation occurs when a
non-harmful stimulus that would normally cause an animal to respond is repeated over and over again
until the animal learns to ignore it. The classic example of habituation is seen in the common garden
snail. When its body is poked, a snail will withdraw into its shell. However, if it is poked repeatedly
without any real harm done, the snail ignores the stimulus and ceases to retreat into its shell.
Conditioning, or associative learning, occurs when an animal learns to associate a specific stimulus
with a set behavior. There are two types of conditioning: classical conditioning and operant
conditioning. Classical conditioning is merely the association of a new stimulus with a stimulus that is
recognized by instinct. The most famous example of classical conditioning is Pavlov’s dog. In an
experiment, Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov would ring a bell a few moments before feeding a dog. Every
time he fed the dog, he would first ring the bell. The sight and smell of food causes a dog to salivate
instinctually. But after ringing the bell before feeding the dog a number of times, Pavlov discovered
that the dog would salivate whether or not food was present. The dogs associated the sound of the
bell with the stimulus of food.
Operant conditioning is sometimes called trial-and-error learning. It involves the establishment
of a new behavior or the avoidance of an old behavior because of the association of a reward or
punishment. For example, a rat will learn to press a lever in order to release its food. It learns a new
behavior, the pressing of the lever, because it associates this behavior with a reward. Similarly, the rat
can be trained to avoid a certain colored spot in its cage if standing in that spot becomes associated
with a mild electrical shock. Normally the rat would have no reason to avoid such a spot, but because
of the association of a punishment with this behavior, it stays away.
Both classical and operant conditioning can be undone if the association between stimulus and
behavior or behavior and punishment/reward does not last. For example, if the rat presses the lever
and no food comes out for several tries, it will cease to press the lever. This unlearning is called
extinction.
Circadian Rhythms
Many animal behaviors, such as sleep and wakefulness, foraging times, and metabolic rate,
operate according to daily cycles known as circadian rhythms. These rhythms can be traced to the
periods of light and dark in the day, but the rhythms remain even if for a short time an animal cannot
see the changing of the light. In other words, animals have a sort of internal clock that regulates their
behavior.

PRACTICE SHEET 01
1. Most animals have a nervous system to control life activities, but some life functions may be
controlled by hormones also
(a) True (b) False
2. When any plant part turns towards direction of stimuli, it is called
(a) Tropism (b) Thigmotropism (c) Both a&b (d) None
3. Generally leaves of plants open when light is available and close when there is no light, but
plant leaves may open even light is not available. This mechanism is example of
(a) Biological clock (b) Circadian cycle (c) Both a&b (d) None
4. Circadian rhythmic may not take place if an organism is taken away from its environmental
factors
(a) True (b) False
5. Phenomenon in which the influence of day length on plant is studied in
(a) Geotropism (b) Phototropism (c) Thigmotropism (d) Photoperiodism
6. Under drought conditions, xerophytes produce abscicic acid which helps in---
(a) Absorption of water (b) Keeping stomata closed
7. Development of air tubes is plants is mean to provide oxygen to submerged roots
(a) True (b) False
8. One of the following protein saves the plant from heating effect
(a) Shock wave proteins (b) Heat shock proteins
(c) Heat resistant proteins (d) All of above
9. In cool season, plants produce polymers of fructose which allow to super cool ----------
(a) Cytoplasm (b) Cell wall (c) Cell membrane (d) None
10. In order to overcome problem of herbivory, plants adapt following except one
(a) Produce thorns (b) Produce distasteful flavor
(c) Toxic compound (d) All
11. If a plants is attacked by pathogen it produces -----------antibiotic to kill them
(a) Aflatoxin (b) Chemo toxin (c) Phytoalexins (d) None
12. Formation of thin walled cells at the base of petiole and stalk of fruit is called
(a) Abscises acid (b) Abscission (c) Both a&b (d) None
13. Abscission causes fall of leaves and fruits with slight jerk
(a) True (b) False
14. Parthinocarpy refers to seed less fruits. It is induced by ----------hormone
(a) Cytokinins (b) Gibberellins (c) Auxins (d) None
15. Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid is used as ---------
(a) Weedicide (b) Growth hormone (c) Growth inhibitor (d) None
16. Bakanae is a fungal disease of rice seedlings. This disease is caused due to cell elongation
induced due to:
17. One of the following hormone is responsible for delayed senescence
18. Plants generally produce hormones to promote growth, but under certain conditions, ---------
hormone is produced to inhibit the growth
(a) Abscisic acid (b) Auxin (c) Both a&b (d) None

19. Ripening of fruits is triggered by
(a) Cytokinins (b) Ethane (c) Auxins (d) None
20. Association of different neurons in CNS is termed as---------
(a) Soma (b) Nissel substance (c) Synapsis (d) Neuroglia
21. Unestimulated neurolemma in squids maintains a charge of
(a) -40 to -65 mv (b) +40 to +65 mv (c) Both a&b (d) None
22. When neurolemma changes to +65mv and than restores to -65mv again ,it explain
(a) Resting potential (b) Action potential (c) RMP (d) None
23. Spread of action potential along the entire neurolemma is called
(a) Resting potential (b) Action potential (c) None
24. Hydra has ------type of nervous system
(a) Diffused nervous system (b) Centralized Nervous system
(c) It has no nervous system (d) Both a&b
25. Bilaterally symmetrical animals mostly have--------- type of nervous system
(a) Diffused Nervous system (b) Centralized Nervous system
(c) Both a& b (d) None
26. Planaria has-----------------type of Nervous system
(a)Diffused Nervous system (b) Centralized Nervous system
(c) Both a& b (d) None
27. Sound, motion, position in relation to gravity, touch and pressure is detected by
(a) Mechanoreceptors (b) Pain receptors (c) Photoreceptors (d) Chemoreceptor
28. Increase in heart beat, narrowing of blood vessels, and stimulation of nervous system,
reduced fatigue, increasing alertness are caused due to ----------
(a) Nicotine (b) Alzheimer’s disease (c) Both a&b (d) None
29. Damage to nerve tissue within basal ganglion of brain causes
(a) Parkinson’s disease (b) Alzheimer’s disease
(c) Epilepsy (d) None
30. Slow and hesitant speech is symptom of
31. Leopoda is the drug of choice against
32. Progressive degeneration of neurons of cerebral cortex and hippocampus are causes of
33. Forgetfulness, sever loss of recent memory are the symptoms of
34. Hearing voices or seeing faces when no one is there refers to
(a) Epilepsy (b) Hallucinations (c) Both a&b (d) None
35. Complete unconsciousness, stiff body with twitch or jerks is the symptoms of
(a) Epilepsy (b) Hallucinations (c) Both a&b (d) None
36. Estrogen and progesterone are -------------------
(a) Peptide hormones (b) Amino acid hormones
(c) Steroid hormone (d) None
37. One of the following hormone of hypothalamus increases reabsorption of water
(a) FSH (b) LH (c) LTH (d) ADH
38. One of the following hormones stimulates contraction of uterus during labor and release of
milk
(a) FSH (b) Oxytocin (c) LTH (d) None
39. Excessive secretion of STH in childhood or adolescence causes
(a) Acromegaly (b) Microcephaly (c) Gigantism (d) None
40. 39. Abnormal thickness of hands, feet and jaws are causes of over production of STH in adult
hood. This disease is called
(a) Goiter (b) Dwarfism (c) Acromegaly (d) None
41. Pituitary gland is still considered as master gland
(a) True (b) False
42. 41. When height of a person remains very short due to insufficient production of STH during
child hood, it is called
(a) Gigantism (b) Acromegaly (c) Microcephaly (d) Dwarfism
43. T3 and T4 are hormonal secretions of thyroid gland and play major role in
(a) Metabolism (b) Growth (c) Reproduction (d) None
44. Low level of T3 and T4 results in over weight, sluggish ness, dry skin, hair loss, intolerant of
food confusion and depression. There are symptoms of
(a) Goiter (b) Cretinism (c) Myxdema (d) None
45. When thyroid is enlarged due to low intake of iodine in diet, this condition is called
46. 45. If hypothyroidism occurs in early age, it causes ---------which is characterized by stunted
growth, mental retardation and coarse facial features.
47. Raised blood calcium stimulates ------------secretion
(a) Calicitonin (b) Auxins (c) LH (d) LTH
48. Secretion of calcitonin causes excess deposition of calcium to be deposited in
(a) Blood (b) Bones (c) Both a&b (d) None
49. One of the following hormones is responsible for reabsorption of calcium in kidneys
(a) Insulin (b) Parathromone (c) Thyroxin (d) None
50. Islets of langerhorns, which are endocrine glands, are of two types i.e. Alpha cells and beta
cells.
(a) True (b) False
51. Alpha cells produce-----------hormone
(a) Glucagons (b) Insulin (c) Both a&b (d) None
52. Beta cells produce ------hormone
(a) Glucagons (b) Insulin (c) Both a&b (d) None
53. Glucagons hormone -----------sugar level
(a) Decreases (b) Increases (c) Can does both jobs (d) None
54. The set point of glucose level in blood is ---------mg/100ml
(a) 97 (b) 98 (c) 96 (d) 90
55. Insulin hormone is secreted in response to the -----level of glucose
(a) Low (b) High (c) Both a&b (d) None

56. Deficiency of insulin may lead to a fairly common disease called----------
(a) Hyperthyroidism (b) Diabetes mellitus (c) Goiter (d) All
57. Collection of hormones secrete by adrenal glands is called --------
(a) Corticosteroid hormone (b) Cortisone
58. One of the following promotes the hydrolysis of muscle proteins to amino acids which are
ultimately broken down by liver into glucose
(a) Pinal gland (b) Glucagons (c) Cortisol (d) None
59. Cushing’s syndrome is characterized by obesity, muscle wasting, hypertension and diabetes.
All these conditions are due to over production of ------------
(a) Pinal gland (b) Glucagons (c) Cortisol (d) None
60. Weakness, weight loss, low blood sugar and reduced blood pressure are symptoms due to
deficient production of adrenal hormones. These symptoms appear in ---------disease
(a) Cushing’s syndrome (b) Addison’s disease
61. 60. One of the following hormone increases reabsorption of Na and Cl ions by kidney and
maintains the blood volume and blood pressure
(a) Aldosterone (b) Testosterone (c) Both a&b (d) All
62. One of the following hormones cause development of secondary male sexual characters, such
as facial hairs, deep voice and increase in muscle bulk
(a) Androgen (b) Corticosteroid (c) Testosterone (d) None
63. Masculinization is a condition in which bear may appear in ladies. This is mainly due to over
production of
(a) Androgen (b) Corticosteroid (c) Testosterone (d) None
64. ----------hormones are called emergency hormones and they bring about fight and flight
(a) Adrenaline (b) Epinephrine (c) Both a&b (d) None
65. To sustain the blood pressure is the primary function of ----------hormone
(a) Adrenaline (b) Epinephrine (c) Both a&b (d) Nor epinephrine
66. One of the following gland is situated in the upper part of chest, behind the breast-bone and
secretes thymosin hormone
(a) Pinal gland (b) Thymus gland (c) Parathyroid gland (d) None
67. T lymphocytes are responsible to work against virus and bacteria and are production of --------
----gland
(a) Testes (b) Ovaries (c) Pineal gland (d) Thymus gland
68. A tiny cone shaped gland within brain which responses to external conditions of light and
darkness is called
69. The secretion of ---------hormone influence the growth and development of gonads
70. 69. One of the following hormones is responsible for muscle growth and development of
secondary sexual characters such as beard and moustaches
(a) Testes (b) Ovaries (c) Pineal gland (d) Thymus
71. In females, one of the following hormones maintains secondary sexual characters
(a) Estrogen (b) Progesterone (c) Both a&b (d) None

72. One of the following hormones is involved in preparation and maintenance of uterus
(a) Estrogen (b) Progesterone (c) Both a&b (d) None
73. Nature of behavior and its ecological and evolutionary significance in its natural setting is
called--------
(a) Behavior (b) Ethology (c) Gerontology (d) None
74. One of the following scientists found the genetic basis of behavior by feeding snakes
(a) Slitter (b) Hay flick (c) Steven Arnold (d) None
75. A pre-programmed, genetically determined behaviors which does not involve learning is
called
(a) Innate (b) Instinctive (c) Both a&b (d) None
76. Random movement of animals to a particular stimulus in relation to intensity (not direction)
is called
(a) Kinases (b) Innate (c) Both a&b (d) None
77. Movement of body parts, such as knee jerk, blinking of eye or withdrawal of hand from a hot
object are examples of
(a) Kinases (b) Innate (c) Both a&b (d) Reflexes
78. A kind of behavior in which animals stop responding to stimulus is called-----------
(a) Habituation (b) Imprinting (c) Classical conditioning (d) None
79. A kind of leaned behavior which animals learn at early life and incorporate it into innate
behavior is called
80. Behavior of ducklings in which they follow the moving object even it there is no true mother
is there is example of

ANSWER KEY:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A A B B D B A B B D
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
C B A B A B A A B D
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A B C A B B A A A A
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A B B B A C D B A C
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
B D A B A A A B B A
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
A B B D B B C C C B
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
A A A B D B D C C D
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
D B B B C A D A B B

PRACTICE SHEET#02
1. The number of metabolic processes are interwoven by
(a) Incoordination (b) Subordination (c) Coordination (d) All A, B and C
2. A cell or group of cells specialized to detect changes in the environment and trigger impulses
are known as
(a) Effectors (b) Receptors (c) Suppressors (d) B and C
3. The term Auxin was coined by
(a) T-Yabuta 1970 (b) F.W.Went 1926 (c) Walter 1928 (d) Hoshimata 1910
4. You duck your head when a baseball is thrown toward your face. You are responding to
(a) An internal stimulus (b) Pigments (c) Hormones (d) An external stimulus
5. A plant's response to touch is called
(a) Photoperiodism (b) Geotropism (c) Thigmotropism (d) Phototropism
6. The biological clock is an independent, ________________, time measuring system.
(a) Endogenous (b) Exogenous (c) Both A and B (d) None of these
7. If bio-rhythm occurs with a frequency of 24 hours, it is called
(a) Circadian rhythm (b) Circa-annual rhythm
(c) Lunar rhythm (d) All of the choices are correct
8. Photosynthesis and Luminescence in algae and Dinoflagelltes, CO2 metabolism in
Bryophylum are
(a) Dependent on light and Temperature (b) Exogenous in origin
(c) Independent of light and temperature (d) All of the choices are correct
9. The influence of daily cycle of light and darkness on the physiology and behaviour of an
organism is known as
(a) Mechanical rhythm (b) Chemoperiodism
(c) Photoperiodism (d) Thigmotropism
10. The synthesis and release of abscisic acid in a plant is response to
(a) Water deficit (b) Oxygen deprivation (c) Salt stress (d) Herbivory
11. Circadian rhythms are based on approximately a
(a) 2-hour period (b) 7-day period (c) 24-hour period (d) 365-day period
12. The production of fructants by plants is response to
(a) Water deficit (b) Salt stress (c) Cold stress (d) Heat stress
13. The formation of air tubes in submerged roots is an adaptation to
(a) Water stress (b) Oxygen deprivation (c) Salt stress (d) Herbivory
14. Which of the following describes a plant's response to heat stress?
(a) Production of heat shock proteins (b) Closing of stomata
(c) Production of Abscisic acid (d) Production of fructuns
15. The first line of defense against pathogen is
(a) Gene for gene-recognition (b) Production of oligosaccharides
(c) Production of Phytoalexins (d) Physical barrier of epidermis
16. Auxin causes
(a) Promotion of apical dominance (b) Formation of Adventitious roots
(c) Growth of fruit (d) All of the choices are correct
17. _________________ in combination with Auxin stimulates cell division in plants and
determines the course of differentiation.
(a) Ethylene (b) Gibberellins (c) Abscisic acid (d) Cytokinin

18. "Foolish seedling" disease in rice is caused by
(a) Ethylene (b) Gibberellins (c) Abscisic acid (d) Cytokinin
19. One of the most important uses of Auxin is the
(a) Initiation of abscission (b) Stimulation of abscission
(c) Prevention of abscission (d) Acceleration of abscission
20. Abscisic acid
(a) Induces bud dormancy (b) Causes the stomata to close
(c) Promotes senescence (d) All of the choices are correct
21. Which of the following is weedicide hormone?
(a) Auxin (b) Gibberellin (c) Abscisic acid (d) Ethylene
22. Gibberellic acid was discovered by
(a) Hoshimata and Rappaport (b) Donoho and Walker
(c) Yabuta and Hayashi (d) Litrochet and Dolk
23. Plants may be made to grow taller by applying the chemical
(a) Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (b) Trichloropenoxy acetic acid
(c) Gibberellic acid (d) Phosphon
24. IAA, NAA, and GA are
(a) International seed companies (b) Plant Pheromones
(c) spray adjuvants (d) Plant hormones
25. Ethene
(a) Triggers ripening of fruit (b) Promotes leaf abscission
(c) Initiates flowering (d) All of the choices are correct
26. The hormone responsible for delay of senescence is
(a) Ethene (b) Gibberellin (c) Abscisic acid (d) Cytokinin
27. The naturally occurring Cytokinin is
(a) Zeatin (b) Kinetin
(c) Nepthalene acetic acid (d) Indole butyric acid
28. Gibberellin
(a) Stimulate flowering (b) Promote bud sprouting
(c) Stimulate growth of Pollen tube (d) All A, B and C
29. Abscisic acid
(a) Is growth inhibitor (b) Produced during adverse conditions
(c) Induces seed dormancy (d) All of the choices are correct
30. Which of the following is NOT function of Auxin?
(a) Induces Parthenocarpy (b) Promote Apical dominance
(c) Promote Abscission (d) All of the choices are correct
31. Neurons are the cells which make up the nervous system. They consist of
(a) An axon (b) 2 or more dendrites
(c) A cell body containing a nucleus (d) All A, B and C
32. ___________________ send information from the sense organs to the C.N.S.
(a) Sensory neurons (b) Motor neurons (c) Interneurons (d) Neuroglia
33. ____________________ send information from the C.N.S to the Effectors.

34. _____________________ connect different neurons together, send information between
neurons. They have short dendrites and short axons
35. The diagram below represents
(a) Resting Potential (b) Polysynaptic reflex action

(c) Reflex arc (d) Both B and C
36. Select the correct choice for Label X in the diagram below.
(a) Presynaptic membrane (b) Post synaptic membrane

(c) Synaptic cleft with neurotransmitters (d) Motor-end plate
37. The very small gap between an axon sending a message and dendrite receiving the message is
the
(a) Axon terminal (b) Receptor (c) Synapse (d) Effector
38. What is the part of neuron that carries the signals away from the soma
(a) Axon (b) Dendrite (c) Transmitter (d) Synapse
39. The neurons of CNS that form myelin sheath, provide nutrition and are involved in phagocytic
activity are known as
40. It is an automatic neuromuscular action elicited by a defined stimulus.
(a) Voluntary action (b) Reflex action
(c) Motor action (d) All of the choices are correct
41. A reflex action involving one or more Interneurons between sensory and motor neuron is
termed as
(a) Monosynaptic reflex (b) Polysynaptic reflex
(c) Hemi synaptic reflex (d) None of these
42. At resting potential, the ion distribution inside and outside of a neuron is such that
__________ ions are most abundant on the outside of the cell, while __________ ions are
most abundant on the inside of the cell.
(a) Potassium; sodium (b) Sodium; potassium
(c) Calcium; phosphate (d) Sulfate; potassium

43. When a neuron reaches action potential, it depolarizes and repolarizes in an amount of
__________________ time on the order of
(a) Seconds (b) Milliseconds (c) Microseconds (d) Nanoseconds
44. Nerves impulses always travel to the brain through _____ fibers.
(a) Interneuron (b) Dendrite (c) Axon (d) Motor
45. Which of these is true when a neuron is at rest
(a) The outside is positive (b) The outside is negative
(c) There is no voltage (d) The inside is positive
46. The typical neuronal resting membrane potential measures between
(a) – 40 mv to – 80 mv (b) – 30 mv to – 80 mv
(c) – 40 mv to – 90 mv (d) – 40 mv to – 70 mc
47. Influx of ___________ causes depolarization of the membrane, which is the first phase of the
action potential.
(a) K+ (b) Na+ (c) K+ and Na+ (d) Ca+
48. Diffused nervous system is present in _____________ animals.
(a) Asymmetrical (b) Bilaterally symmetrical
(c) Radially symmetrical (d) All A, B and C
49. Central nervous system is present in _____________ animals.
(a) Asymmetrical (b) Bilaterally symmetrical
(c) Radially symmetrical (d) All A, B and C
50. How many interneurons does the CNS contain approximately?
(a) 1 Trillion (b) 100 million (c) 1 million (d) 100 billion
ANSWER KEY:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C B B D C A A C C A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
C C B A D D D B C D
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A C C D D D A D D C
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
D A B C C C C A D B
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
B B B C A C B C B D

CHAPTER # 04
REPRODUCTION
INFLORESCENCE
Arrangement of flowers on main axis is called inflorescence
RACEMOSE
A type of inflorescence in which the main axis has indefinite growth
CYMOSE
A type of inflorescence in which main axis has limited growth
SPIKE
A type of inflorescence in which sessile flowers develop
CRYOMB
When main axis is completely short
UMBELL
When main axis is shortened and a number of flowers grow on its tip
CAPITULUM
When main axis occupies the shape of disc in shape
UNIPARPUS CYME
When one lateral branch develops on main axis
BIPAROUS CYME
When two lateral branches develop on main axis
MULTIPAROUS
When many lateral branches develop on main axis
POLLINATION
Transfer of pollen grain from anther to stigma
AUTOGAMY
A type of pollination, which takes place in one flower
ALLOGAMY
A type of pollination in which male has to leave its flower and go to female located on other
flower
HYDROPHILY
Pollination through water
ENTOMOPHILY
Pollination through insects (80% plants pollinate by this way)
ENEMOPHILY
Pollination through wind
ZOOPHILY
Pollination through animals
FERTILIZATION
Fusion of male and female gametes
POLLIN GRAIN
Male reproductive part in plants
EXINE
The outer coat of pollen grain (It is rough)
ENTINE
Inner coat of pollen grain
POLLEN TUBE
Tube which develop from entine of pollen grain and enlarges to reach ovule for fertilization

OVULE
Female reproductive part of plants
DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
When egg and secondary nucleus both fertilized
GERM PORES
Openings on the pollen grain wall
INTEGUMENT
The coat of pollen grain
SYNERGID CELLS
Two cells present in front of egg cells. They protect egg cells before fertilization
ANTIPODAL CELLS
A set of three cells in ovule. Their function is not defined
SEED
TESTA
Outer coat of seed
TEGUMEN
Inner coat of seed
MICROPYLE
An opening where from water enters into seed
ALBUMINOUS SEED
Seed having endosperm in it
EXALBUMINOUS SEED
It refers to the seed having no endosperm in it.
HILUM
Point of attachment of seed in legume e.g Pea
GERMINATION
A process in which seed grows into a new plant
DORMANT SEED
Seed before germination. This seed is un active
DORMANCY PERIOD
Inactive period of seed
HYPOGEAL GERMINATION
A type of germination, in which the cotyledons remain in soil
EPIGEAL GERMINATION
In this cotyledons come above the soil
EPICOTYL
Portion of axis just above the cotyledons
HYPOCOTYL
Portion of axis just below the cotyledons
VIVIPAROUS GERMINATION
A type of germination in which seed starts germination in fruit when the fruit is still attached
with plant. E.g. coconut plant


REPRODUCTION
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Plants are living organisms and are able to reproduce new generation. There are 2 types of
reproduction in plants i.e. (1) Asexual (2) Sexual
ASEXUAL REPRODUCITON: It is a type of reproduction in which a plant can produce another plant
without involvement of gametes. Asexual reproduction is simple and very common. In asexual
reproduction only one parent is involved, and offspring are identical to the parent.
Types of asexual reproduction: Asexual reproduction in plants is of many types. Each type is
explained below.
Sporulation:
Definition: A process of reproduction, in which an organism can produce another organism by
means of spores, is called Sporulation. Spores are the cells which are produced in large numbers. When
spores become mature, they separate from the plant and fall on ground and begin to germinate into a
new plant. Spores are not only produced by plants, but they are also produced by Bacteria, Protozoan,
Algae, Fungi, Mosses and ferns.
Vegetative propagation:
Definition: It is another process of asexual reproduction in which a plant can use any of its
vegetative parts such as root, stem and leaf to produce another pant.
Types of vegetative propagation:

Cutting:
Definition: It is a simple process of vegetative propagation in which cuttings are made from stems,
leaves, roots, parts of leaves selected plant and are buried into soil. After some days, the cuttings grow
into a new plant. The most common example of cutting is Rose Plant.
Lairing:
Definition: Lairing may be defined as a type of vegetative propagation in which branches of a well
grown plant are buried into soil and water is supplied. After few days, the buried parts grow into new
plants. This technique enables a farmer (grower) to produce many plants from a single parent. Apple
trees, currants, and gooseberries are commonly propagated in this way.
Apomixes:
Definition: Apomixis may be defined as ability of some plant species to reproduce asexually
through seeds. The seeds are normally the product of sexual union between male and female gametes.
In the case of apomixis, embryos develop without the contribution of a male gamete. The result is that
seeds get their genes only from the mother, and so the plants that grow from these seeds are identical
to the mother plant.

Tissue culture:
Definition: Plant tissue culture is a artificial process in which many identical plants may be
produced from plant cell, tissue, or organs. In this process, any cell of plant is placed in Petri dishes
which contain nutritional media essential for plant growth. Because the plant cells are totiopotent,
therefore the cells in media will grow as a new plant.
Procedure
The procedure involves sterilizing the surfaces of the source tissue (root, stem, or leaf) with
bleach. The tissue is rinsed in sterile water, cut into small pieces and placed on culture medium. The
culture medium contains all of the mineral nutrients, hormones, vitamins and sugars needed for the
cells to divide and grow. By changing the amounts and types of hormones in the medium, the cells can
be stimulated to develop into shoots or roots.
The idea of tissue culture was first proposed in 1902. The first successful tissues grown in culture were
in the 1930's. The first whole plants regenerated from culture were carrots in 1958.
ADVANTAGES DIS-ADVANTAGES
(a) It is easy method (a) It results into sterile plants which may not
(b) It is a method by which special traits of plant reproduce their next generation
may be selected and multiplied
© Through this process, genes of choice may be
induced in next generation.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Definition: It is a process of reproduction in which fusion of male and female gametes takes place.
In plants, sexual reproduction is of different types, some of them are descried below
Isogamy or Conjugation:
Definition: Isogamy is a condition in which the sexual cells, or gametes, which are to be fused, are
of the same form and size. Many algae and some fungi have isogamous gametes, therefore they do
Isogamy.
Oogamy:
Definition: It is a kind of sexual reproduction in which plants produce two gametes which are
morphologically and physiologically dis-similar from each other. For example, the sperms produced by
plants are motile and eggs are non-motile. Union of these different gametes is also called heterogamy.
Tracheophyte Generations : Tracheophytes are vascular plants and have xylem and phloem.
Tacheophytes are gymnosperms and angiosperms. Tracheophytes have well developed seeds
protected in their embryos. The dominant phase in the tracheophyte life cycle is the sporophyte stage.
The gametophytes are very small and cannot exist independent of the parent plant. The reproductive
structures of the sporophyte (cones in gymnosperms and flowers in angiosperms), produce two
different kinds of haploid spores: microspores (male) and megaspores (female). This phenomenon of
sexually differentiated spores is called heterospory. These spores give rise to similarly sexually
differentiated gametophytes, which in turn produce gametes. Fertilization occurs when a male and
female gamete join to form a zygote. The resulting embryo, encased in a seed coating, will eventually
become a new sporophyte.

Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Angiosperm plants are generally the flowering plants and have sexual m ode of reproduction.
The sexual reproduction in angiosperms depends up on flowers where production of male and
female gametes takes place.
The Flower
Flowers, the reproductive structures of angiosperms, are designed to attract insects and other animals
so that they may help in pollination. That is why, flowers are mostly colorful and showy.
The flower is composed of four organs:
Sepals: They are green in color and protect the flwer when it is in the form of bud. Sepals also help in
photosynthesis
Petals: They are colorful and contain scent and sweet juices called nector .Their main function is to
attract the insects to hep them in cross pollination.
Stamen: They are the male reproductive parts. Their long stalk is called filament and the broad portion
on top is called anther. Inside anther the pollen grains are made, which are known as male gametes.
Carpel: It is the female reproductive part. It has three regions. The top portion is called stigma, the
neck of carpel is called style and the base is called ovary. The ovary contains ovule where egg (female
gamete) is present.
stame
carpel nn
petals
Sepals

Pollination:
Definition: Pollination may be defined as a process in which transfer of pollen grains from
anther of male to the stigma of female takes place.
Types of Pollination:
There are 2 types of pollination (a) Self pollination (b) Cross pollination
Self Pollination: It is also known as autogamy. In this type of pollination, the transfer of
pollen grains takes place from anther to stigma of same flower.
Fertilization in Angiosperm: The female reproductive organ of angiosperms is the pistil,
located in the middle of the flower. As in gymnosperms, the male gametophyte is the pollen grain. In
order for fertilization to occur in most flowering plants, insects or other animals must transport the
pollen to the pistil. A major distinguishing feature of angiosperms is the process of double fertilization,
in which an angiosperm ovule contains an egg cell and a diploid fusion nucleus, which is created
through the joining of two polar nuclei within the ovule.
When a pollen grain comes into contact with the stigma, or top of the pistil, it sends a pollen
tube down into the ovary at the pistil’s base. As the pollen tube penetrates the ovule, it releases two
sperm cells. One fuses with the egg to create a diploid zygote, while the other joins with the fusion
nucleus to form a triploid nucleus. This triploid nucleus turns into an endosperm, which nourishes the
developing embryo (filling the role of gametophyte tissue in the gymnosperm seed). As in
gymnosperms, the ovule becomes a seed, encasing the embryo and endosperm in a seed coat. But
unlike gymnosperms, in angiosperms, the ovary containing the ovules develops into a fruit after
fertilization. The fruit gives the embryos the double benefit of added protection against desiccation
and increased dispersal, since it is eaten by far-ranging animals that then excrete the seeds.
Angiosperms either self-pollinate, in which a particular plant fertilizes itself, or cross-pollinate,
in which one plant is fertilized by another of the same species. Cross-pollination generally produces far
more vigorous plants, and is encouraged through differential development of the male and female
gametophytes on a flower, or through the positioning of these gametophytes so that self-pollination is
difficult.
POLLINATION
Types of pollination
When pollen is transferred from an
anther to a stigma, it may be
transferred within one flower
(shown in the diagram on the
right) or between two flowers (as
shown in the diagram on the left).
If the flowers are on two different
individual plants, the flower has
been cross pollinated whereas if
the flowers are on the same
individual, or if the anther and
stigma are in the same flower, the
flower has been self pollinated.
Flowers that are self pollinated and
can produce viable seeds are self
compatible. Flowers that are self
Cross pollination pollinated but the pollen does not Self pollination
function properly on the carpels of
the same plant are termed self
incompatible.
Cross pollination is believed to be advantageous for the plant because the seeds produced by the
flower will contain another source of genetic material which may contain genes which are
advantageous to the survival of the seedlings. Plants that self pollinate are said to be inbreeding
whereas plants which only cross pollinate are said to be out crossing. However, most plant species are
not strictly inbreeding or outcrsossing but a combination of the two.
Pollen: Pollen grains (from the greek palynos for dust or pollen) contain the male gametophyte
(microgametophyte) phase of the plant. Pollen grains are produced by meiosis of microspore mother
cells that are located along the inner edge of the anther sacs (microsporangia). The outer part of the
pollen is the exine, which is composed of a complex polysaccharide, sporopollenin. Inside the pollen
are two (or, at most, three) cells that comprise the male gametophyte. The tube cell (also referred to
as the tube nucleus) develops into the pollen tube. The germ cell divides by mitosis to produce two
sperm cells. Division of the germ cell can occur before or after pollination.
TYPES O FPOLLINATION
Wind: Many flowers are wind pollinated. It is not an efficient method of pollination because much
pollen must be produced with the hope that some of it may land on a receptive stigma of the right
species.
Characteristic features of wind pollinated flowering plants include:
They produce huge amounts of non sticky pollen
They often lack a large and showy calyx or corolla
They have many flowers packed into a inflorescence
They have large stigmas
They have large, well exposed anthers
Water: Pollination by water is not common but a few seed grasses and water weeds release their
pollen into the water which is passively carried to other flowers by water currents.
Insects: A great many flowers are pollinated by insects. These flowers do not tend to have any
common characteristics because many different types of insects have very different ways
of pollinating flowers e.g. bees (the most common insect pollinators), butterflies, moths, beetles and
wasps.
Many insect pollinated flowers not only have bright colours, but their petals have nectar guides which
contain UV absorbing pigments. The nectar guides lead the insect towards the nectar - the reward the
insect receives for visiting the flower. Pollen is deposited on the insect from the stamens when it visits
the flower to collect or drink the nectar, and is deposited on the stigma of the next flower it visits.
Flowers which are visited by nocturnal insects have less showy corollas but are often strongly scented.
Other flowers are brown in colour and smell like carrion and attract flies, which pollinate them. Some
flowers may get robbed of their nectar by insects which do not pollinate them. Some plants have
therefore developed complex structures which prevent all but specific insects species from reaching
the nectar and getting pollen deposited on them, which will transferred to the stigma of the next
flower they visit.
Mammals: Some flowers are pollinated by small mammals such as bats and rodents.
Mammal pollinated flowers have the following characteristics:
They often have a strong scent e.g. those which attach mice have a yeasty odour.
They are often brown or white in colour.
They are quite sturdy in structure in order to bear the vigorous activity of the small mammals while
they are feeding on the nectar they provide.
They offer their mammal pollinators a reward of large amounts of nectar

Birds: Bird pollinated flowers are much more common than mammal pollinated flowers. Two large
groups of birds which pollinate flowers are the sunbirds of Africa and Asia and the Hummingbirds of
the Americas. Both groups of birds have long beaks which allow them to reach inside the corolla tubes
of flowers. Hummingbirds are well known for their ability to hover in front of the flowers while drinking
the nectar. Sunbirds however sit on the flower stalk and collect the nectar.
Bird pollinated flowers have the following characteristics:
They often have a red, orange or yellow corolla, calyx, bracts or stamens which are attractive to
birds
The are not usually scented because most birds do not have a well developed sense of smell
They provide a large amount of nectar as a reward for the bird
Pollen
Pollen grains (from the greek palynos for dust or pollen) contain the male gametophyte
(microgametophyte) phase of the plant. Pollen grains are produced by meiosis of microspore mother
cells that are located along the inner edge of the anther sacs (microsporangia). The outer part of the
pollen is the exine, which is composed of a complex polysaccharide, sporopollenin. Inside the pollen
are two (or, at most, three) cells that comprise the male gametophyte. The tube cell (also referred to
as the tube nucleus) develops into the pollen tube. The germ cell divides by mitosis to produce two
sperm cells. Division of the germ cell can occur before or after pollination.
Development of male gametophyte (Pollen)

The Gametophytes
The male gametophyte develops inside the pollen grain. The female gametophyte develops inside the
ovule. In flowering plants, gametophyte phases are reduced to a few cells dependant for their nutrition
on the sporophyte phase. This is the reverse of the pattern seen in the nonvascular plant groups
liverworts, mosses, and hornworts (the Bryophyta).
Angiosperm male gametophytes have two haploid nuclei (the germ nucleus and tube nucleus)
contained within the exine of the pollen grain (or microspore).

Development of female gametophyte (Embryo Sac)
Female gametophytes of flowering plants develop within the ovule (megaspore) contained within an
ovary at the base of the pistil of the flower. There are usually eight (haploid) cells in the female
gametophyte: a) one egg, two synergids flanking the egg (located at the micropyle end of the embryo
sac); b) two polar nuclei in the center of the embryo sac; and three antipodal cells (at the opposite end
of the embryo sac from the egg).
Double fertilization: The process of pollination being accomplished, the pollen tube grows through
the stigma and style toward the ovules in the ovary. The germ cell in the pollen grain divides and
releases two sperm cells which move down the pollen tube. Once the tip of the tube reaches the
micropyle end of the embryo sac, the tube grows through into the embryo sac through one of the
synergids which flank the egg. One sperm cell fuses with the egg, producing the zygote which will later
develope into the next-generation sporophyte. The second sperm fuses with the two polar bodies
located in the center of the sac, producing the nutritive triploid endosperm tissue that will provide
energy for the embryo's growth and development.
HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

The major function of the reproductive system is to ensure survival of the species. Other systems in the
body, such as the endocrine and urinary systems, work continuously to maintain homeostasis for
survival of the individual. An individual may live a long, healthy, and happy life without producing
offspring, but if the species is to continue, at least some individuals must produce offspring.
Within the context of producing offspring, the reproductive system has four functions:
o To produce egg and sperm cells
o To transport and sustain these cells
o To nurture the developing offspring
o To produce hormones
These functions are divided between the primary and secondary, or accessory, reproductive organs.
The primary reproductive organs, or gonads, consist of the ovaries and testes. These organs are
responsible for producing the egg and sperm cells, (gametes), and for producing hormones. These
hormones function in the maturation of the reproductive system, the development of sexual
characteristics, and have important roles in regulating the normal physiology of the reproductive
system. All other organs, ducts, and glands in the reproductive system are considered secondary, or
accessory, reproductive organs. These structures transport and sustain the gametes and nurture the
developing offspring.
Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system, like that of the female, consists of those organs whose function is to
produce a new individual, i.e., to accomplish reproduction. This system consists of a pair of testes and
a network of excretory ducts (epididymis, ductus deferens (vas deferens), and ejaculatory ducts),
seminal vesicles, the prostate, the bulbourethral glands, and the penis.
TESTES: The male gonads, testes, or testicles, begin their development high in the abdominal
cavity, near the kidneys. During the last two months before birth, or shortly after birth, they descend
through the inguinal canal into the scrotum, a pouch that extends below the abdomen, posterior to the
penis. Although this location of the testes, outside the abdominal cavity, may seem to make them
vulnerable to injury, it provides a temperature about 3° C below normal body temperature. This lower
temperature is necessary for the production of viable sperm.The scrotum consists of skin and
subcutaneous tissue. A vertical septum, or partition, of subcutaneous tissue in the center
divides it into two parts, each containing one testis. Smooth muscle fibers, called the dartos muscle, in
the subcutaneous tissue contract to give the scrotum its wrinkled appearance. When these fibers are
relaxed, the scrotum is smooth. Another muscle, the cremaster muscle, consists of skeletal muscle
fibers and controls the position of the scrotum and testes. When it is cold or a man is sexually aroused,
this muscle contracts to pull the testes closer to the body for warmth.
Structure: Each testis is an oval structure about 5 cm long and 3 cm in diameter. A tough, white
fibrous connective tissue capsule, the tunica albuginea, surrounds each testis and extends inward to
form septa that partition the organ into lobules. There are about 250 lobules in each testis. Each lobule
contains 1 to 4 highly coiled seminiferous tubules that converge to form a single straight tubule, which
leads into the rete testis. Short efferent ducts exit the testes. Interstitial cells (cells of Leydig), which
produce male sex hormones, are located between the seminiferous tubules within a lobule.
Spermatogenesis: Sperm are produced by spermatogenesis within the seminiferous tubules. A
transverse section of a seminiferous tubule shows that it is packed with cells in various stages of
development. Interspersed with these cells, there are large cells that extend from the periphery of the
tubule to the lumen. These large cells are the supporting, or sustentacular cells (Sertoli's cells), which
support and nourish the other cells.
Early in embryonic development, primordial germ cells enter the testes and differentiate into
spermatogonia, immature cells that remain dormant until puberty. Spermatogonia are diploid cells,
each with 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) located around the periphery of the seminiferous tubules. At
puberty, hormones stimulate these cells to begin dividing by mitosis. Some of the daughter cells
produced by mitosis remain at the periphery as spermatogonia. Others are pushed toward the lumen,
undergo some changes, and become primary spermatocytes. Because they are produced by mitosis,
primary spermatocytes, like spermatogonia, are diploid and have 46 chromosomes.
Each primary spermatocytes goes through the first meiotic division, meiosis I, to produce two
secondary spermatocytes, each with 23 chromosomes (haploid). Just prior to this division, the genetic
material is replicated so that each chromosome consists of two strands, called chromatids, that are
joined by a centromere. During meiosis I, one chromosome, consisting of two chromatids, goes to each
secondary spermatocyte. In the second meiotic division, meiosis II, each secondary spermatocyte
divides to produce two spermatids. There is no replication of genetic material in this division, but the
centromere divides so that a single-stranded chromatid goes to each cell. As a result of the two meiotic
divisions, each primary spermatocyte produces four spermatids. During spermatogenesis there are two
cellular divisions, but only one replication of DNA so that each spermatid has 23 chromosomes
(haploid), one from each pair in the original primary spermatocyte. Each successive stage in
spermatogenesis is pushed toward the center of the tubule so that the more immature cells are at the
periphery and the more differentiated cells are nearer the center.
Spermatogenesis (and oogenesis in the female) differs from mitosis because the resulting cells have
only half the number of chromosomes as the original cell. When the sperm cell nucleus unites with an
egg cell nucleus, the full number of chromosomes is restored. If sperm and egg cells were produced by
mitosis, then each successive generation would have twice the number of chromosomes as the
preceding one.
The final step in the development of sperm is called spermiogenesis. In this process, the spermatids
formed from spermatogenesis become mature spermatozoa, or sperm. The mature sperm cell has a
head, midpiece, and tail. The head, also called the nuclear region, contains the 23 chromosomes
surrounded by a nuclear membrane. The tip of the head is covered by an acrosome, which contains
enzymes that help the sperm penetrate the female gamete. The midpiece, metabolic region, contains
mitochondria that provide adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The tail, locomotor region, uses a typical
flagellum for locomotion. The sperm are released into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule and leave
the testes. They then enter the epididymis where they undergo their final maturation and become
capable of fertilizing a female gamete.
Sperm production begins at puberty and continues throughout the life of a male. The entire process,
beginning with a primary spermatocyte, takes about 74 days. After ejaculation, the sperm can live for
about 48 hours in the female reproductive tract.
Sperm cells pass through a series of ducts to reach the outside of the body. After they leave the testes,
the sperm passes through the epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra.
Epididymis
Sperm leave the testes through a series of efferent ducts that enter the
epididymis. Each epididymis is a long (about 6 meters) tube that is tightly
coiled to form a comma-shaped organ located along the superior and
posterior margins of the testes. When the sperm leave the testes, they are
immature and incapable of fertilizing ova. They complete their maturation
process and become fertile as they move through the epididymis. Mature
sperm are stored in the lower portion, or tail, of the epididymis.
Ductus Deferens: The ductus deferens, also called vas deferens, is a fibromuscular tube that is
continuous ( or contiguous) with the epididymis. It begins at the bottom (tail) of the epididymis then
turns sharply upward along the posterior margin of the testes. The ductus deferens enters the
abdominopelvic cavity through the inguinal canal and passes along the lateral pelvic wall. It crosses
over the ureter and posterior portion of the urinary bladder, and then descends along the posterior
wall of the bladder toward the prostate gland. Just before it reaches the prostate gland, each ductus
deferens enlarges to form an ampulla. Sperm are stored in the proximal portion of the ductus
deferens, near the epididymis, and peristaltic movements propel the sperm through the tube.
The proximal portion of the ductus deferens is a component of the spermatic cord, which contains
vascular and neural structures that supply the testes. The spermatic cord contains the ductus deferens,
testicular artery and veins, lymph vessels, testicular nerve, cremaster muscle that elevates the testes
for warmth and at times of sexual stimulation, and a connective tissue covering.
Ejaculatory Duct: Each ductus deferens, at the ampulla, joins the duct from the adjacent seminal
vesicle (one of the accessory glands) to form a short ejaculatory duct. Each ejaculatory duct passes
through the prostate gland and empties into the urethra.

Urethra: The urethra extends from the urinary bladder to the external urethral orifice at the tip
of the penis. It is a passageway for sperm and fluids from the reproductive system and urine from the
urinary system. While reproductive fluids are passing through the urethra, sphincters contract tightly
to keep urine from entering the urethra.
The male urethra is divided into three regions. The prostatic urethra is the proximal portion that passes
through the prostate gland. It receives the ejaculatory duct, which contains sperm and secretions from
the seminal vesicles, and numerous ducts from the prostate glands. The next portion, the membranous
urethra, is a short region that passes through the pelvic floor. The longest portion is the penile urethra
(also called spongy urethra or cavernous urethra), which extends the length of the penis and opens to
the outside at the external urethral orifice. The ducts from the bulbourethral glands open into the
penile urethra.
The accessory glands of the male reproductive system are the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and the
bulbourethral glands. These glands secrete fluids that enter the urethra.
Seminal Vesicles: The paired seminal vesicles are saccular glands posterior to the urinary bladder.
Each gland has a short duct that joins with the ductus deferens at the ampulla to form an ejaculatory
duct, which then empties into the urethra. The fluid from the seminal vesicles is viscous and contains
fructose, which provides an energy source for the sperm; prostaglandins, which contribute to the
mobility and viability of the sperm; and proteins that cause slight coagulation reactions in the semen
after ejaculation.
Prostate: The prostate gland is a firm, dense structure that is located just inferior to the urinary
bladder. It is about the size of a walnut and encircles the urethra as it leaves the urinary bladder.
Numerous short ducts from the substance of the prostate gland empty into the prostatic urethra. The
secretions of the prostate are thin, milky colored, and alkaline. They function to enhance the motility
of the sperm.
Bulbourethral Glands: The paired bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands are small, about the size of a
pea, and located near the base of the penis. A short duct from each gland enters the proximal end of
the penile urethra. In response to sexual stimulation, the bulbourethral glands secrete an alkaline
mucus-like fluid. This fluid neutralizes the acidity of the urine residue in the urethra, helps to neutralize
the acidity of the vagina, and provides some lubrication for the tip of the penis during intercourse.
Seminal Fluid: Seminal fluid, or semen, is a slightly alkaline mixture of sperm cells and secretions from
the accessory glands. Secretions from the seminal vesicles make up about 60 percent of the volume of
the semen, with most of the remainder coming from the prostate gland. The sperm and secretions
from the bulbourethral gland contribute only a small volume.
The volume of semen in a single ejaculation may vary from 1.5 to 6.0 ml. There are usually between 50
to 150 million sperm per milliliter of semen. Sperm counts below 10 to 20 million per milliliter usually
present fertility problems. Although only one sperm actually penetrates and fertilizes the ovum, it
takes several million sperm in an ejaculation to ensure that fertilization will take place.
The penis, the male copulatory organ, is a cylindrical pendant organ located anterior to the scrotum
and functions to transfer sperm to the vagina. The penis consists of three columns of erectile tissue
that are wrapped in connective tissue and covered with skin. The two dorsal columns are the corpora
cavernosa. The single, midline ventral column surrounds the urethra and is called the corpus
spongiosum.
The penis has a root, body (shaft), and glans penis. The root of the penis attaches it to the pubic arch
and the body is the visible, pendant portion. The corpus spongiosum expands at the distal end to form
the glans penis. The urethra, which extends throughout the length of the corpus spongiosum, opens

through the external urethral orifice at the tip of the glans penis. A loose fold of skin, called the
prepuce, or foreskin, covers the glans penis.
The male sexual response includes erection and orgasm accompanied by ejaculation of semen. Orgasm
is followed by a variable time period during which it is not possible to achieve another erection.
Three hormones are the principle regulators of the male reproductive system. Follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) stimulates spermatogenesis; luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the production of
testosterone; and testosterone stimulates the development of male secondary sex characteristics and
spermatogenesis.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYETEM
The organs of the female reproductive system produce and sustain the female sex cells (egg cells or
ova), transport these cells to a site where they may be fertilized by sperm, provide a favorable
environment for the developing fetus, move the fetus to the outside at the end of the development
period, and produce the female sex hormones. The female reproductive system includes the ovaries,
Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, accessory glands, and external genital organs. Select a topic below to
learn more about the female reproductive system.
OVARIES: The primary female reproductive organs, or gonads, are the two ovaries. Each ovary is a
solid, ovoid structure about the size and shapes of an almond, about 3.5 cm in length, 2 cm wide, and 1
cm thick. The ovaries are located in shallow depressions, called ovarian fossae, one on each side of the
uterus, in the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity. They are held loosely in place by peritoneal ligaments.
Structure: The ovaries are covered on the outside by a layer of simple cuboidal epithelium called
germinal (ovarian) epithelium. This is actually the visceral peritoneum that envelops the ovaries.
Underneath this layer there is a dense connective tissue capsule, the tunica albuginea. The substance
of the ovaries is distinctly divided into an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The cortex appears more
dense and granular due to the presence of numerous ovarian follicles in various stages of
development. Each of the follicles contains an oocyte, a female germ cell. The medulla is loose
connective tissue with abundant blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers.
Oogenesis: Female sex cells, or gametes, develop in the ovaries by a form of meiosis called
oogenesis. The sequence of events in oogenesis is similar to the sequence in spermatogenesis, but the
timing and final result are different. Early in fetal development, primitive germ cells in the ovaries
differentiate into oogonia. These divide rapidly to form thousands of cells, still called oogonia, which
have a full complement of 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes. Oogonia then enter a growth phase, enlarge,
and become primary oocytes. The diploid (46 chromosomes) primary oocytes replicate their DNA and
begin the first meiotic division, but the process stops in prophase and the cells remain in this
suspended state until puberty. Many of the primary oocytes degenerate before birth, but even with
this decline, the two ovaries together contain approximately 700,000 oocytes at birth. This is the
lifetime supply, and no more will develop. This is quite different than the male in which spermatogonia
and primary spermatocytes continue to be produced throughout the reproductive lifetime. By puberty
the number of primary oocytes has further declined to about 400,000.
Beginning at puberty, under the influence of follicle-stimulating hormone, several primary oocytes
start to grow again each month. One of the primary oocytes seems to outgrow the others and it
resumes meiosis I. The other cells degenerate. The large cell undergoes an unequal division so that
nearly all the cytoplasm, organelles, and half the chromosomes go to one cell, which becomes a
secondary oocyte. The remaining half of the chromosomes go to a smaller cell called the first polar
body. The secondary oocyte begins the second meiotic division, but the process stops in metaphase. At
this point ovulation occurs. If fertilization occurs, meiosis II continues. Again this is an unequal division
with all of the cytoplasm going to the ovum, which has 23 single-stranded chromosome. The smaller
cell from this division is a second polar body. The first polar body also usually divides in meiosis I to
produce two even smaller polar bodies. If fertilization does not occur, the second meiotic division is
never completed and the secondary oocyte degenerates. Here again there are obvious differences
between the male and female. In spermatogenesis, four functional sperm develop from each primary
spermatocyte. In oogenesis, only one functional fertilizable cell develops from a primary oocyte. The
other three cells are polar bodies and they degenerate.
Ovarian Follicle Development: An ovarian follicle consists of a developing oocyte surrounded by
one or more layers of cells called follicular cells. At the same time that the oocyte is progressing
through meiosis, corresponding changes are taking place in the follicular cells. Primordial follicles,
which consist of a primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of flattened cells, develop in the fetus
and are the stage that is present in the ovaries at birth and throughout childhood.
Beginning at puberty follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates changes in the primordial follicles. The
follicular cells become cuboidal, the primary oocyte enlarges, and it is now a primary follicle. The
follicles continue to grow under the influence of follicle-stimulating hormone, and the follicular cells
proliferate to form several layers of granulose cells around the primary oocyte. Most of these primary
follicles degenerate along with the primary oocytes within them, but usually one continues to develop
each month. The granulosa cells start secreting estrogen and a cavity, or antrum, forms within the
follicle. When the antrum starts to develop, the follicle becomes a secondary follicle. The granulose
cells also secrete a glycoprotein substance that forms a clear membrane, the zona pellucida, around
the oocyte. After about 10 days of growth the follicle is a mature vesicular (graafian) follicle, which
forms a "blister" on the surface of the ovary and contains a secondary oocyte ready for ovulation.

Ovulation: Ovulation, prompted by luteinizing hormone from the anterior pituitary, occurs when
the mature follicle at the surface of the ovary ruptures and releases the secondary oocyte into the
peritoneal cavity. The ovulated secondary oocyte, ready for fertilization is still surrounded by the zona
pellucida and a few layers of cells called the corona radiata. If it is not fertilized, the secondary oocyte
degenerates in a couple of days. If a sperm passes through the corona radiata and zona pellucida and
enters the cytoplasm of the secondary oocyte, the second meiotic division resumes to form a polar
body and a mature ovum.
After ovulation and in response to luteinizing hormone, the portion of the follicle that remains in the
ovary enlarges and is transformed into a corpus luteum. The corpus luteum is a glandular structure
that secretes progesterone and some estrogens. Its fate depends on whether fertilization occurs. If
fertilization does not take place, the corpus luteum remains functional for about 10 days then it begins
to degenerate into a corpus albicans, which is primarily scar tissue, and its hormone output ceases. If
fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum persists and continues its hormone functions until the placenta
develops sufficiently to secrete the necessary hormones. Again, the corpus luteum ultimately
degenerates into corpus albicans, but it remains functional for a longer period of time.
Fallopian Tubes: There are two uterine tubes, also called Fallopian tubes or oviducts. There is one
tube associated with each ovary. The end of the tube near the ovary expands to form a funnel-shaped
infundibulum, which is surrounded by fingerlike extensions called fimbriae. Because there is no direct
connection between the infundibulum and the ovary, the oocyte enters the peritoneal cavity before it
enters the Fallopian tube. At the time of ovulation, the fimbriae increase their activity and create
currents in the peritoneal fluid that help propel the oocyte into the Fallopian tube. Once inside the
Fallopian tube, the oocyte is moved along by the rhythmic beating of cilia on the epithelial lining and
by peristaltic action of the smooth muscle in the wall of the tube. The journey through the Fallopian
tube takes about 7 days. Because the oocyte is fertile for only 24 to 48 hours, fertilization usually
occurs in the Fallopian tube.
Uterus: The uterus is a muscular organ that receives the fertilized oocyte and provides an
appropriate environment for the developing fetus. Before the first pregnancy, the uterus is about the
size and shape of a pear, with the narrow portion directed inferiorly. After childbirth, the uterus is
usually larger, then regresses after menopause.
The uterus is lined with the endometrium. The stratum functionale of the endometrium sloughs off
during menstruation. The deeper stratum basale provides the foundation for rebuilding the stratum
functionale.

Vagina: The vagina is a fibromuscular tube, about 10 cm long, that extends from the cervix of
the uterus to the outside. It is located between the rectum and the urinary bladder. Because the vagina
is tilted posteriorly as it ascends and the cervix is tilted anteriorly, the cervix projects into the vagina at
nearly a right angle. The vagina serves as a passageway for menstrual flow, receives the erect penis
during intercourse, and is the birth canal during childbirth.
The external genitalia are the accessory structures of the female reproductive system that are external
to the vagina. They are also referred to as the vulva or pudendum. The external genitalia include the
labia majora, mons pubis, labia minora, clitoris, and glands within the vestibule.
The clitoris is an erectile organ, similar to the male penis, that responds to sexual stimulation. Posterior
to the clitoris, the urethra, vagina, paraurethral glands and greater vestibular glands open into the
vestibule.
The female sexual response includes arousal and orgasm, but there is no ejaculation. A woman may
become pregnant without having an orgasm.
Follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, estrogen, and progesterone have major roles in
regulating the functions of the female reproductive system.
At puberty, when the ovaries and uterus are mature enough to respond to hormonal stimulation,
certain stimuli cause the hypothalamus to start secreting gonadotropin-releasing hormone. This
hormone enters the blood and goes to the anterior pituitary gland where it stimulates the secretion of
follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. These hormones, in turn, affect the ovaries and
uterus and the monthly cycles begin. A woman's reproductive cycles last from menarche to
menopause.
The monthly ovarian cycle begins with the follicle development during the follicular phase, continues
with ovulation during the ovulatory phase, and concludes with the development and regression of the
corpus luteum during the luteal phase.
The uterine cycle takes place simultaneously with the ovarian cycle. The uterine cycle begins with
menstruation during the menstrual phase, continues with repair of the endometrium during the
proliferative phase, and ends with the growth of glands and blood vessels during the secretory phase.
Menopause occurs when a woman's reproductive cycles stop. This period is marked by decreased
levels of ovarian hormones and increased levels of pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone and
luteinizing hormone. The changing hormone levels are responsible for the symptoms associated with
menopause.


PRACTICE SHEET#01
1. Production of twins from one fertilized eggs is called
(a) Monozygotic twin (b) Di-zygotic twin (c) Both a&b (d) None
2. Process by which male gametes are produced is called
(a) Monogenesis (b) Spermatogenesis (c) Gametogenesis (d) All
3. Process by which female gametes are produced is called
(a) Oogenesis (b) Spermatogenesis (c) Gametogenesis (d) All
4. Type of fertilization which can not occur out side water is called
(a) Internal (b) External (c) Both a&b (d) None
5. Animals which lay eggs are called
(a) Oviparous (b) Viviparopus (c) Larviparous (d) None
6. Animals which give birth to young are called
(a) Oviparous (b) Viviparous (c) Larviparous (d) None
7. Human testes are capable to produce about -----million sperms per day
(a) 30 (b) 32 (c) 34 (d) Variable
8. In order to remain baby in uterus----------is must
(a) Cervix (b) Placenta (c) Uterine tube (d) All
9. Reproductive cycle in which animals produces eggs and becomes in heat is called
(a) estrous cycle (b) Menstruation cycle(c) Both a&b (d) None
10. One of the following cycles ensures that mature egg is ready for fertilization
(a) estrous cycle (b) Menstruation cycle(c) Both a&b (d) None
11. When a female starts her first bleeding of life it is called
(a) Monarch (b) Menopause (c) Both a&b (d) None
12. The sexual maturation of male and female is called
(a) Ovulation (b) Puberty (c) Fertility (d) Maturity
13. At the time of 50 years most females stop menstruation cycle. This condition is called
(a) Monarch (b) Menopause (c) Both a&b (d) None
14. -----provide sperms with food and medium to swim
(a) Semen (b) Genitalia (c) Seminal fluid (d) Both a&c
15. One of following is responsible to pass urine as well as sperms
(a) Epidydemous (b) Common collectingduct
(c) Urinogenital duct (d) All
16. Females have --------------oocytes in each ovary
(a) 200,000 (b) 220000 (c) 25000 (d) None
17. The periods starting from conception till the birth of a baby is called
(a) Conception (b) Gestation (c) Implantation (d) N.O.T
18. During birth of a child, ----hormone causes contraction and relaxation of uterus and enables
birth of child
(a) LH (b) FSH (c) Oxytocin (d) None
19. Soon after birth, --------hormone of pituitary gland becomes active and triggers the mammary
glands to start producing milk
(a) Oxytocin (b) FSH (c) Estrogen (d) Prolactin

20. According to world estimates, -----percent of couples are unable to have babies
(a) 10 (b) 15 (c) 20 (d) 25
21. Neisseria gonorrhea is cause -------------disease
(a) Gonorrhea (b) Sphilis (c) Genital herpes (d) Aids
22. In one of the following disease, mother transmits bacteria to her baby which can cause eye
infections
23. Treponema palladium is a bacteria and is cause of -----------disease
24. In one of the following diseases, painful blisters and ulcers appear on and around external
genital organs
25. Ovulation is started by ----hormone
(a) FSH (b) LH (c) LTH (d) None
26. Male and female gametes are always -------in chromosomal numbers
(a) Haploid (b) Diploid (c) Both a&b (d) None
27. One of the following types of reproductions, exact copies of organisms are produced
(a) Sexual reproduction (b) Asexual reproduction
28. A process in which growth of vegetative parts is reduced to bring early flowers is called
(a) Photoperiodism (b) Vernalization (c) Apomixes (d) None
29. Coconut plant shave ------type of germination
(a) Epigeal (b) Viviparous (c) Hypogeal (d) All
30. Plants which produce flowers once after 2 seasons of growth are called
(a) Annual (b) Biennial (c) Perennial (d) None
31. Plants which can produce flowers for whole of their life are called
(a) Annual (b) Biennial (c) Perennial (d) None
32. Production of seed by a plant without fertilization is termed as
(a) Vegetative propagation (b) Apomixes (c) Both a&b (d) None
33. One dis-advantage of tissue culture is that it may produce plants which are
(a) Genetically unstable(b) Infertile (c) Both a&b (d) None
34. Fusion of gametes which are morphologically and physiologically similar is called
(a) Isogamy (b) Anisogamy (c) Oogamy (d) None
35. Fusion of gametes which are morphologically dis-similar and physiologically similar is called
36. Fusion of gametes which are morphologically and physiologically dis-similar is called
37. Plants which produce 2 types of spores are referred as
(a) Isosporous plants (b) Heterosporous plants
(c) Bi-sporous plants (d) None
38. In plants if male and female are located in same flower, the plant is said to be
(a) Monoecious (b) Dioecious (c) Unisexual (d) Bisexual

39. Date palm is a ----plant
(a) Monoecious (b) Dioecious (c) Unisexual (d) Bisexual
40. Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma is called
(a) Fertilization (b) Apomixis (c) Pollination (d) None
41. Angiosperms mostly have
(a) Double fertilization (b) Single fertilization (c) Both are possible (d) None
42. In plants, root arises from
(a) Radicle (b) Plumule (c) Micropyle (d) None
43. In some plants, fruit formation takes place without the process of pollination and
fertilization. Such fruits are
(a) Simple (b) Aggregate (c) Parthinocarpic (d) None
44. Development of a new plant from dormant seed is called
(a) Pollination (b) Growth (c) Germination (d) None
45. If cotyledons of seed come above the soil, such germination is called
(a) Epigeal (b) Hypogeal (c) Viviparous (d) None
46. If cotyledons of seed remain in the soil, germination is called
47. If germination of seed starts, while it is in fruit, such germination is called
48. Effect of light duration on the flowering of plant is called
(a) Photoperiodism (b) Phototropism (c) Photo nastic (d) None
49. One of the following hormones has effect on flowering
(a)Cytokines (b) Florigen (c) Estrogen (d) All
50. The process in which any damaged part is repaired, or the damaged part may produce new
individual is called
(a) Regeneration (b) Parthenogenesis (c) Both a&b (d) None

ANSWER KEY:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A B A B A B D B A A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A B B D C A B C D A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A A A C B A B B B B
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
C B C A B C B A B C
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
A A C C A B C A B A

PRACTICE SHEET#02
1. _____________ is(are) basis for asexual reproduction.
(a) Mitosis (b) Meiosis (c) Sex hormones (d) All A, B and C
2. What is advantage of asexual reproduction?
(a) Organisms increases rapidly (b) Organisms are morphologically alike
(c) Organisms are genetically alike (d) All A, B and C
3. What is advantage of sexual reproduction?
(a) Genetically varied individuals are born (b) Chances of survival increases
(c) Chances of evolution increases (d) All A, B and C
4. Natural method(s) of asexual reproduction in plants is (are)
(a) Spores (b) Vegetative propagation
(c) Apomixis (d) All A, B and C
5. Artificial method(s) of asexual reproduction in plants is (are)
(a) Cuttings (b) Tissue culture (c) Both A and B (d) Alternation of generation
6. A single mushroom may produce _____________ spores a minute at the peak of its
reproduction.
(a) 500,000 (b) 50,000 (c) 80,000 (d) 200,000
7. Perennating organs are associated with which type of asexual reproduction?
(a) Sporulation (b) Apomixis
(c) Vegetative propagation (d) Cutting
8. In apomixis, an embryo is created from a diploid cell in the
(a) Pollen tube (b) Leaf (c) Ovule (d) All of these
9. Asexual reproduction differs from sexual reproduction in that it does not require
(a) 1 parent (b) 2 parents (c) Spores (d) Vegetative parts
10. Asexual reproduction does not introduce
(a) Variation (b) Similarity between parents &offspring
(c) Same chromosomal number in offspring (d) All of the choices are incorrect
11. Which of the following statements is true of clones?
(a) Clones show variation (b) Clones have DNA identical to parent
(c) Clones are formed by meiotic division (d) All the choices are incorrect
12. Vegetative propagation does not involve
(a) Root parts (b) Stem parts (c) Leaf parts (d) Flower parts
13. At the cut end of shoot a mass of dividing undifferentiated cells is called
(a) Callus (b) Periblem (c) Dermatogen (d) Pericycle
14. One of the following is NOT a method of asexual reproduction.
(a) Sporulation (b) Gametogenesis (c) Apomixis (d) Parthenogenesis
15. Tissue culture is a technique used to produce a large number of _________ plants quickly.
(a) Variable (b) Unicellular (c) Identical (d) All A, B and C
16. Which of the following disadvantages applies to Tissue culture?
(a) Clone may be genetically unstable (b) Clone may be infertile
(c) Clone karyotype may be altered (d) All of the choices are correct
17. A flagellated motile sperm fertilizing a non-motile egg, this syngamy is called
(a) Isogamy (b) Anisogamy (c) Oogamy (d) All of these
18. A type of syngamy in which both fusing gametes are flagellated but different in size are
known as
19. A type of syngamy in which both fusing gametes are flagellated and same in size are known
as

20. In gymnosperms the main plant is diploid and
(a) Hompsporous (b) Heterosporous (c) Microsporous (d) Megasporous
21. In gymnosperms female gametophyte consists of
(a) Pollen tube (b) Microspore (c) 2 to 5 Archegonia (d) Both B and C
22. In gymnosperms male gametophyte develops from
(a) Microspore (b) Megaspore (c) Embryo sac (d) Synergids
23. In gymnosperms male gametophyte consists of
(a) Archegonia (b) Megaspore mother cell (c) Pollen tube (d) Ovule
24. In angiosperms ________________ gives rise seed after fertilization.
(a) Microsporangium (b) Pollen tube (c) Mega sporangium (d) None of these
25. In gymnosperms and angiosperms, the egg is produced in a female structure called
(a) A seed (b) A stamen (c) An ovule (d) A pollen grain
26. If someone gives you a plant and tells you that it is an angiosperm, you know that
during its life cycle it will produce
(a) Swimming sperm (b) A prothallus (c) Flowers (d) Cones
27. The transfer of pollen grains to the female part of the plant is called
(a) Germination (b) Reproduction (c) Pollination (d) Fertilization
28. The production of new plants from underground stems is an example of __________
reproduction
(a) Two parents (b) Asexual (c) Zygote (d) Sexual
29. Which one of the following is the male reproductive part of a flower
(a) Stamen (b) Sepal (c) Petal (d) Pistils
30. In seed plants, sperm travel down a(n) __________ to reach the egg
(a) Stigma tube (b) Ovule tube (c) Pollen tube (d) Stamen tube
31. A carpel is a leaf which has been modified to produce
(a) Microsporania (b) 2 male gametes (c) Pollen grains (d) Ovules
32. The stamens are leaves modified for the production of
(a) Microspores (b) Megaspores (c) Ovules (d) Seed
33. The sepals and petals are
(a) Reproductive parts of flower (b) Non-reproductive parts of flower
(c) Parts of Gametophyte (d) Both A and C
34. The ovule contain
(a) Microsporangium (b) Male gametophyte (c) Embryo sac (d) All A, B and C
35. The unisexual flowers are called
(a) Staminate (b) Carpellate (c) Both A and B (d) Monoecious
36. If staminate and carpellate flowers are present on same plant it is termed as
(a) Monoecious (b) Dioecious (c) Unisexual (d) Neuter
37. Date palms are
(a) Dioecious (b) Monoecious (c) Neuter (d) Bisexual
38. In Angiosperms, double fertilization produces two distinct portions of the seed. The
endosperm portion's role is to
(a) Develop into the embryo (b) Nourish the embryo
(c) Develop into the mature sperm (d) Serve as a reservoir for extra DNA
39. Each of the following is a part of a seed Except the
(a) Embryo (b) Endosperm (c) Seed-coat (d) Gametophyte
40. The mature female gametophyte of an angiosperm is
(a) The archegonium and its egg cell (b) The ovule inside the ovary
(c) The carpel after pollination (d) An embryo sac with 8 nuclei & 7 cells
41. The _______________ ultimately matures into a fruit.
(a) Integument (b) Ovary (c) Archegonium (d) Ovule
42. Which of the following is part of the third whorl?
(a) Calyx (b) Corolla (c) Petal (d) Stamen
43. Which of the following is formed in the double fertilization and becomes an endosperm?
(a) Synergid cells (b) Antipodal cells
(c) Primary endosperm nucleus (d) Triploid (3n) nucleus
44. A pollen grain is a
(a) Immature male gametophyte (b) Spore
(c) Fruiting body (d) Mature male gametophyte
45. In plants, spores are formed by 1 , whereas gametes are formed by 2 .
(a) 1-meiosis, 2-mitosis (b) 1-fission, 2-fusion
(c) 1-meiosis, 2-meiosis (d) 1-mitosis, 2-mitosis
46. From life cycle point of view the most important part of a plant is
(a) Flower (b) Leaf (c) Stem (d) Root
47. The main embryo develops from the structure formed as result of fusion of
(a) 2 polar nuclei of embryo sac (b) Definitive nucleus and male gamete
(c) Egg cell and male gamete (d) Male gamete and synergids
48. The fertilization occurs in
(a) Ovary (b) Ovule (c) Embryo sac (d) Nucellus
49. The part of embryo just below the cotyledons that terminates into radicle is called
(a) Epicotyl (b) Hypocotyl (c) Plumule (d) None of these
50. The part of embryo just above the cotyledons that terminates into plumule is called
(a) Epicotyl (b) Hypocotyl (c) Radicle (d) Coleorhiza
51. A protective sheath surrounding the plumule is
(a) Coleoptile (b) Coleorhiza (c) Cotyledon (d) Scutellum
52. A protective sheath surrounding the radicle is
53. Single large shield shaped cotyledon of monocot seed is called
54. It is defined as a cluster of flowers, arising from the main stem axis or peduncle
(a) Inflorescence (b) Phosphorescence (c) Luminescence (d) Senescence
55. Which type of inflorescence is shown in the following diagram?
(a) Corymb (b) Umbel (c) Raceme (d) Spike

ANSWER KEY:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A D D D C A C C B A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B D A B C D C B A B
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
C A C C C C C B A C
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
D A B C C A A B D D
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
B D D A A A C C B A

CHAPTER # 05
DEVELOPMENT
Embryology
The study of developmental changes is called embryology or developmental biology
Embryo
Developing structure from zygote which undergoes through changes is called embryo
Growth
Permanent increase in size, weight, shape and structure is called growth
Meristem
Growing point in plants such as at top of shoot and tip of root is called meristem
Formation phase
A growth phase in plants in which formation of new cells takes place in epical meristem cells.
Elongation phase
A phase in which newly formed cells increase the previous size.
Maturation phase
A phase in which thickening of cells takes place. The cells become mature and do not divide
further
Discoidal cleavage
A cleavage process (in birds) in which cleavage is restricted towards the animal pole (upper
pole)
Meroblastic cleavage
A type of cleavage (in fishes, reptiles) in which whole eggs is divided
Cell differentiation
A term that defines that all cells have full genes for producing a new organism, but at
gastrulation stage, except for some genes, all other genes are off. Those genes which are on will
produce certain organs of individual.
John Gordon
A scientist, who conducted experiments on cell differentiation.
ISOLACITHAL EGG
Eggs with a very little amount of yolk in them
A-LACITHAL EGG
A type of isolacithal egg with very small or no amount of yolk e.g. Man
MEOLECITHAL
A type of isolacithal egg with little yolk
e.g. Amphioxus
TELOLECITHAL EGG
These eggs contain enough yolk
MESOLACITHAL EGG
A type of telolecithal egg having enough yolk material e.g. Frog
POLYLECITHAL EGG
A type of telolecithal egg having very large amount of yolk
e.g. Fishes, Reptiles and Birds

ANIMALS POLE
The pigmented area of an egg of frog without yolk. This part of egg face the sunlight and takes
lot of heat for developing embryo of frog
VEGETAL POLE
The area of an egg of frog where yolk is present. This side of egg sinks towards water side.
GREY CRESENT
When sperm enters into an egg, it pushes the pigmented are, due to which a depression area
called grey crescent is formed. It is sign of fertilization
CLEAVAGE
The division of a fertilized egg. It first starts in 30 minutes after fertilization and occurs many
times
BLASTOMERE
When the nucleus of the zygote divided into two cells, each is called Blastomere
BLASTULA
An embryonic stage that marks the end of cleavage. In the result of repeated cleavages, the
zygote becomes a hallow ball of cells called Blastula
BLASTOCOEL
A central fluid filled cavity in a blastula
GASTRULA
The embryonic development in which three layers i.e. ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm are
formed
EPIBOLY
A process in which micromere cells divide rapidly than macromere cells
INVAGINATION
During formation of Blastomere a small notch is formed which turns down to from dorsal lip.
This is called invagination
INVOLUTION
A process in which the cells turn inward and arrange along the ceiling and sides of archenteron
ECTODERM
In developing embryo, it forms skin, nervous system, eyes, nose, teeth, buccal cavity and anus
MESODERM
In developing embryo, it forms muscles connective tissue, heart, blood vessels, kidneys,
reproductive organs and skeleton.
ENDODERM
It makes alimentary canal (except buccul cavity and anus ) , liver, pancreas, lungs, urinary
bladder and thyroid gland.
TADPOLE
The larva of frog is called tadpole. It has tail and is herbivorous in feeding
EXTERNAL GILLS
Generally gills are inside the body. If they appear externally, they are called external gills as in
tadpole larva
CAUDAL FIN
A fin around tail of tadpole. It helps in swimming

METAMORPHOSIS
Transformation of a larva into adult in result of series of morphological changes
REGRESSIVE
METAMORPHOSIS
A type of metamorphosis in which the larva sheds some of the un-necessary body parts. For
example, as a tadpole larva develops, it sheds external gills and tail
PROREGRESSIVE
METAMORPHOSIS
A type of metamorphosis in which new body parts are developed. For example tadpole larva
develops internal gills limbs, eyes, external nostrils etc.
GERENTOLOGY
The study of aging is called gerontology
HAY FLICK
A scientist who told the reasons of aging and said that “cells of body can divide only for a
limited period”
AGING GENE
An unidentified gene, which according to a theory, controls the age of a person
AUTOANTIBODIES
According to some biologists, a human body produces autoantibodies which destroy the body
itself and this is the cause of death
REGENERATION
Quality of living organism to replace or repair some of the body parts is called regeneration for
example lizards can repair their damaged tail
AUTOPHAGY
Some animals eat up their body parts, this is called autophagy
AUTOTOMY
Cutting own body parts.
CALLUS
When a part of plant is damaged, it may repair it again this process is called callus.
Regeneration in plants is called callus
Microcephaly
Abnormal development in which child is born with small skull
Cleft lip and palate
Abnormal development in which child is born cut in upper jaw and upper lip
Dextrocardia
A condition in which heart is present on right side instead of left.
Hemophilia
A condition in which there is complete absence or acute shortage of blood platelets. In this
condition, blood does not clot after injury
Turners syndrome
A genetic disorder, in which female child is born with one sex (X) chromosome less.

Klinefelter’s syndrome
A genetic disorder in which male child is born with one extra sex (X) chromosome.
Down’s syndrome
A genetic disorder in which child is born with one extra autosome chromosomes
Sickle cell anemia
A genetic disorder, in which hemoglobin becomes abnormal and RBC shape is changed. Person
suffering with this syndrome have short life.
Thalassemia
A genetic disease in which child can produce RBCs without hemoglobin

PRACTICE SHEET#01
1. The Study of development of an organism from egg to adult is termed as
(a) Embryology (b) Development biology
2. Structure that develops from a fertilized zygote is called
(a) Baby (b) Embryo (c) Pupa (d) None
3. Development of a dormant seed into new plant is termed as
(a) Germination (b) Pollination (c) Fertilization (d) All
4. In plants, growth if confined to certain points which are called
(a) Lateral meristem (b) Meristems (c) Both a&b (d) None
5. Increase in the thickness due to activity of lateral meristem is referred as
(a) Primary growth (b) Secondary growth (c) Tertiary growth (d) Development
6. In plants, new cells are mostly formed during formative phase. This phase mostly occur in
(a) tip of roots (b) top of shoot (c) Both a&b (d) None
7. Increase in the diameter of stem and root due to activity of secondary meristem results into
formation of
(a) Cambium (b) Bark (c) Cork (d) Pith
8. The rate of growth ---------at high temperature
(a) Increase (b) Decrease (c) Stunted (d) All
9. Very high temperature
(a) enhances the growth (b) Stops the growth
(c) Destroys proteins (d) both a&c
10. High intensity of light
(a) Destroys the chlorophyll (b) Supports chlorophyll
11. The destruction of protoplasm occur due to ultraviolet light
(a) True (b) False
12. Oxygen does not affect the aerial parts but can affect growth of roots
(a) True (b) False
13. The egg of frog is –cm in diameter
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 6
14. Female frog lay fertilized egg after -------hours of fertilization
(a) 20 (b) 21 (c) 24 (d) 23
15. Series of repeated cell divisions which take place in fertilized egg is called
(a) Morula (b) Blastula (c) Gastrula (d) Cleavage
16. Step after cleavage is
(a) Morula (b) Blastula (c) Gastrula (d) None
17. John Gurdon in his experiments proved that even after being differentiated, do not lose any
genetic information
(a) True (b) False
18. Science which deals with the study of aging is called
(a) Gerontology (b) Gynecology (c) Aging (d) All
19. Despite lot of advancement in science, the exact cause of aging is
(a) Known (b) Not known (c) Both a&b (d) None

20. Leonard Hay flick and Paul Moor Head found
(a) Environmental origin of age (b) Genetic origin of age
(c) Evolutionary origin of age (d) All of above
21. When normal embryonic human eggs was cultured by Hay flick, he found that all cells lines
produced to divide
(a) 10 times (b) 20 times (c) 40 times (d) 50 times
22. Ability of a damaged part of an organism to develop into a new organism is called
(a) Growth (b) Development (c) Regeneration (d) All of above
23. Higher animals demonstrate more regeneration
(a) True (b) False
24. One of the following is not a genetic disorder
(a) Microcephaly (b) Polydactyly (c) Tetanus (d) Cleft palate
25. The placenta produces
(a) progesterone (b) estrogen (c) both a and b
26. Fertilization occurs in the
(a) oviduct (b) uterus (c) vagina
27. Development requires growth, differentiation, and morphogenesis.
(a) true (b) false
28. The presence of yolk does not affect development.
(a) true (b) false
29. The blastocoel is a cavity in the blastula.
(a) true (b) false
30. The morula contains the archenteron.
(a) True (b) false
31. A large amount of yolk is more common in land animals than in aquatic animals
(a) trun (b) false
32. The notochord develops from mesoderm.
(a) true (b) false
33. The nervous system develops from the mesoderm.
(a) true (b) false
34. Which does an egg have?
(a) plasma membrane (b) vitelline membrane
(c) jelly coat (d) all of the above
35. Which is an extra embryonic membrane found in a chick egg?
(a) the amnion (b) the chorion (c) the allantois (d) all
36. While animals can change their location as a response to a stimulus, plants change their
growth pattern.
(a) True (b) false
37. If the root cap is removed roots still respond to gravity.
(a) true (b) false
38. Auxin stimulates the growth of root cells.
(a)true (b) false
39. Auxin stimulates the growth of stem cells only.
(a) true (b) false

40. A sleep movement is a nastic response that occurs daily in response to light and dark change.
(a) true (b) false
41. Apically-produced auxin stimulates the growth of axial buds.
(a) true (b) false
42. High light results in stomatal opening and low light cause stomata to close.
(a) true (b) false
43. When a plant organ loses its natural color it is undergoing senescence.
(a) true (b) false
44. Senescence always affects the entire plant at once.
(a) true (b) false
45. Auxin is involved in
(a) phototropism (b) gravitropism.
(c) root development (d) all of the above
46. Auxin brings about the
(a) positive gravitropism of roots (b) negative gravitropism of stems
(c) both a and b
47. Nastic movements
(a) depend on the direction of the stimulus
(b) are independent of the direction of the stimulus
(c) either a or b
48. Seismonastic movements mostly result from
(a) touch (b) shaking
(c) thermal stimulation (d) all of the above
49. IAA is mostly produced in
(a) shoot apical meristem (b) young leaves
(c) flowers (d) all of the above
50. Gibberellins
(a) are growth promoters (b) bring about elongation of cells
(c) both a and b

ANSWER KEY:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C B A B B C A C C A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A A A D B A A B B
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D C B C A A A B A A
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A A A D D A B A B A
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
A A A B D C A A A C

PRACTICE SHEET#02
1. Gradual growth through a series of progressive changes is called
(a) Growth (b) Development (c) Cleavage (d) Transduction
2. The study of developmental changes is known as
(a) Embryology (b) Developmental biology
(c) Both A and B (d) Chrono-biology
3. As a fertilized egg develops into an embryo, it undergoes
(a) One meiotic cell division, only (b) Many meiotic cell divisions
(c) One mitotic cell division, only (d) Many mitotic cell divisions
4. Undifferentiated tissue from which new cells are formed, as at the tip of a stem or root.
(a) Meristele (b) Merithallus (c) Meristem (d) All a, b and c
5. Primary growth depends upon activity of
(a) Apical meristem (b) Secondary meristem
(c) Lateral meristem (d) Vascular cambium
6. Secondary growth is made possible by the _____________ which increases the girth of plant.
(a) Primary meristem (b) Apical meristem
(c) Lateral meristem (d) None of the above
7. In ________ plants whole body is capable of growth.
(a) Angiosperms (b) Gymnosperms (c) Bryophyta (d) All of these.
8. The correct sequence of growth phases in plants is
(a) Elongation-Formative-Maturation (b) Maturation-Elongation-Formative
(c) Formative-Maturation-Elongation (d) Formative-Elongation-Maturation
9. During elongation phase the cells become enlarged due to
(a) Transpiration pressure (b) Plasmolytic pressure
(c) Turgor pressure (d) Both B and C
10. During which phase the elongated cells are modified into permanent cells.
(a) Formative phase (b) Elongation phase
(c) Both A and B (d) Maturation phase
11. The growth in diameter is called
(a) Primary growth (b) Secondary growth
(c) Apical growth (d) Intercalary growth
12. During secondary growth xylem rings are produced on the __________ side of dividing
cambium.
(a) Inner side (b) Outer side
(c) Both inner and outer sides (d) None of these
13. During secondary growth phloem rings are produced on the __________ side of dividing
cambium.
(a) Inner side (b) Outer side
(c) Both inner and outer sides (d) None of these
14. In a cross section of a tree or log, one of the ribbons of tissue extending radially from the pith
form
(a) Cortical rays (b) Necrotic rays (c) Medullary rays (d) All A, B and C
15. Most of the enzymes work optimally in between
(a) 25° C to 37° C (b) 35° C to 45° C (c) 5° C to 20° C (d) 10° C to 25° C

16. At high temperature the rate of growth stops due to
(a) Excessive transpiration (b) Enzyme loss
(c) Both A and B (d) All of the choices are incorrect
17. In plants red light favours
(a) Elongation of cells (b) Maturation of cells
(c) Formation of cells (d) Division of cells
18. Generally, light influences growth by
(a) Intensity (b) Quality (c) Duration (d) All A, B and C
19. A metabolic pathway that consumes O2, releases co2, generates no ATP and decreases
photosynthetic output is
(a) Photoperiodism (b) Photorespiration
(c) Photophosphorylation (d) Photoreactivation
20. The internal factors that influence the growth of plants are
(a) Hormones (b) Genes (c) Both A and B (d) None of these
21. _________are parts of apical meristem which have become separated from the apex by
permanent tissues.
(a) Primary meristem (b) Intercalary meristem
(c) Lateral meristem (d) None of the above
22. One of the most important correlative effects in plants is
(a) Morphogenesis (b) Apical dominance
(c) De-differentiation (d) Re-differentiation
23. The removal of apex releases the lateral buds from apical dominance, it is known as
(a) Inhibitory effect (b) Reciprocal effect
(c) Compensatory effect (d) Apical effect
24. During the process of ________ the miniature seedling comes and enter the second phase
___________.
(a) Fertilization, Development (b) Fertilization, Cleavage
(c) Germination, Growth (d) Cleavage, Differentiation
25. The correct sequence of process of development after fertilization and cleavage is
(a) Gastrulation-Organogenesis-Growth (b) Organogenesis-Gastrulation-Growth
(c) Gastrulation-Blastulation-Growth (d) Organogenesis-Morulation-Blastulation
26. It is series of mitotic cell division that changes zygote into multicellular embryo
(a) Gastrulation (b) Gametogenesis (c) Blastulation (d) Cleavage
27. Cell divisions, migrations, and rearrangements produce three germ layers in
(a) Morulation (b) Blastulation (c) Gastrulation (d) All, A, B and C
28. The egg of Hen is
(a) Alecithal (b) Meolecithal (c) Mesolecithal (d) Polylecithal
29. In Hen the egg is released from the ovary as
(a) Primary oocyte (b) Secondary oocyte (c) Ootid (d) None of these
30. In Hen the egg is fertilized at the stage of
(a) Primary oocyte (b) Secondary oocyte (c) Ootid (d) Both A and B
31. During development of chick the fertilized egg is laid __________ hours after the fertilization.
(a) 24 (b) 36 (c) 40 (d) 45
32. After ________days of incubation, the chick finally begins its escape from the shell.
(a) 16 (b) 19 (c) 20 (d) 21

33. The pattern of cleavage in which only part of the ovum is divided into cells. It is also called
incomplete cleavage and is usually observed in embryos with large amounts of yolk.
(a) Meroblastic cleavage (b) Discoidal cleavage
(c) Holoblastic cleavage (d) Both A and B
34. The divided germinal disc of a megalecithal egg forms a layer of cells termed as
(a) Blastoderm (b) Blastocoel (c) Blastocyst (d) Both A and C
35. The peripheral region of the chick blastodisc surrounding the area pellucida and in direct
contact with the yolk is
(a) Area ascarosida (b) Area vitellina (c) Area opaca (d) Area vasculosa
36. One of a pair of twisted, cords of albumen found at each of an egg, joining the shell
membrane to the yolk and supporting the yolk centrally within the shell is
(a) Nucellus (b) Chalaza (c) Choenoderm (d) Latebra
37. The central region of blastodisc is known as
(a) Area pellucida (b) Area vitellina (c) Area opaca (d) Area vasculosa
38. Animals begin their lives as a single, diploid cell called
(a) Zygote (b) Embryo (c) Gastrula (d) All A, B and C
39. Increase in size of organs to attain maturity is called
(a) Differentiation (b) Localization (c) Growth (d) Both B and C
40. Cells of the blastoderm surface migrate posteriorly and medially and involute (turn in) along a
line called the
(a) Hypoblast (b) Germinal disc (c) Primitive streak (d) Latebra
41. Due to the migration of mesodermal cells from the epiblast, a groove is
formed known as
(a) Neural groove (b) Primitive groove
(c) Somatopleure (d) Splanchnopleure
42. The hypoblast is mainly presumptive
(a) Ectoderm (b) Endoderm (c) Mesoderm (d) Blastoderm
43. The membrane composed of ectoderm and somatic mesoderm is known as
(a) Somatopleure (b) Splanchnopleure (c) Visceralopleure (d) All of these
44. The cellular layer consisting of splanchnic mesoderm and endoderm is known as
(a) Somatopleure (b) Splanchnopleure
(c) Visceralopleure (d) Parietopleure
45. The lateral plate mesoderm is differentiated into 2 sheet like layers i.e. somatic mesoderm
and
(a) Chorda mesoderm (b) Proper mesoderm
(c) Splanchnic mesoderm (d) Dermatogenic mesoderm
46. In chick gastrula ____________ and ____________ formation do not occur.
(a) Somatopleure, Splanchnopleure (b) Primitive streak, Dorsal lip
(c) Invagination, Archentron (d) Primitive streak, Ventral lip
47. Mesomere somite gives rise
(a) Digestive system (b) Muscles (c) Skeleton (d) Excretory system
48. Muscles, axial skeleton and connective tissues are differentiated from
(a) Epimeres (b) Mesomere (c) Hypomere (d) Endoderm
49. Coelom is formed from
(a) Epimere (b) Hypomere (c) Mesomere (d) None of these

50. In 24 hours chick embryo the foldings of neural plate are clearly visible. At this stage embryo
is called
(a) Morula (b) Blastula (c) Neurula (d) Blastocyst
51. A tube of tissue formed by a thickening and rolling up of the neural plate during embryonic
neurulation. It will later form the brain and spinal cord of the animal. This is called
(a) Neurocoel (b) Neural groove (c) Neurospore (d) Neural tube
52. _______is the process of selection of activation of some genes by a cell, which are not
activated by other cells of the embryo.
(a) Cell induction (b) Cell transformation
(c) Cell differentiation (d) Cell mediation
53. When the primitive streak reaches its maximum length, the cells of the most anterior region
of the streak appear morphologically distinct. This region is known as
(a) Node of Raniver (b) Schwan's node (c) Henson's node (d) None of these
54. Mechanism of differentiation depends up on ____________ organization of unfertilized egg.
(a) Homogenous (b) Heterogeneous (c) Exogenous (d) All A, B and C
55. The situation where one embryonic tissue influences an other so that the responding tissue
differentiates is known as
(a) Instruction (b) Evocation (c) Induction (d) None of these
56. The control development of cap in Acetabularia is through production of developmentally
active substance in
(a) Nucleus (b) Cytoplasm (c) Gray crescent (d) Both A and B
57. The technique of producing a genetically identical copy of an organism by replacing the
nucleus of an unfertilized ovum with the nucleus of a body cell from the organism is
(a) Test tube baby (b) Cloning (c) In vitro fertilization (d) All A, B and C
58. The study of degenerative changes in aging is called
(a) Developmental biology (b) Paedology
(c) Gerontology (d) Choronology
59. The science of studying and treating malformations and monstrosities of organisms is called
(a) Gerontology (b) Teratology (c) Dermatology (d) Etiology
60. The normal process of development is disturbed by abnormalities. These abnormalities are
due to
(a) Abnormal functioning of glands (b) Abnormal Chromosomal number
(c) UV radiations (d) All of these
61. In birds and mammals regeneration is mostly limited to the small wounds by the formation of
a new tissue
(a) Callus (b) Scar (c) Serous (d) None of these
62. Notochord is formed from
(a) Epimeres (b) Mesomeres (c) Hypomeres (d) Henson’s node
63. A condition in which heart is present towards right side of the chest is called
(a) Sinistrocardia (b) Dextrocardia (c) Laterocardia (d) Both A and B
64. Decreased ability or inability of blood to clot is
(a) Thalassemia (b) Sickle cell anemia (c) Haemophilia (d) Haemolysis
65. Turner’s syndrome is
(a) Female sexual defect (b) Male sexual defect
(c) Autosomal recessive trait (d) Infectious disorder

66. A condition characterized by split in the upper lip and gap in the roof of mouth is
(a) Microcephaly (b) Polydactyly
(c) Klinefelter’s syndrome (d) Cleft palate
67. Which one of the following is correct about Thalassemia
(a) Decreased clotting ability (b) Increased clotting ability
(c) Abnormal sickle shaped RBC (d) Fragile RBC cause hemolytic anemia
68. Which one of the following is correct about Microcephaly
(a) Small skull (b) Five fingers
(c) Gap in the roof of the mouth (d) Upper lip folded
69. Gray crescent is present in
(a) Eye of frog (b) Retina of cockroach
(c) Brain of frog (d) Zygote of frog
70. The flowering process is a _____________ response.
(a) Phototropic (b) Photoperiodic (c) Gravitropic (d) Thigmotropic

ANSWER KEY:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B C D C A C C D C D
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B A B C A C A D B C
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
B B C C A D C D A B
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A D D A C B A A C C
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
B B A B C C D A B C
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
D C C B C A B C B D
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
B D B C A D D A D B

CHAPTER # 06
CHROMOSOMES AND DNA
Walter Fleming
Scientists who first named chromosomes as colorful bodies. Later on it was found that
chromosomes are color less.
CHROMOSOMES
Thread like structures in nucleus. They are of four types
HOMOLOGOUS CHSROMOSOMES
Sets of two chromosomes that make up a matched pair in a diploid cell are called homologous
chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes are of same length, Centro mere position and posses genes
for same characters.
HETEROLOHOUS CHROMOSOMES
A pair of chromosomes that are dissimilar
HOMOGAMOUS
Because a human female has XX shape of chromosomes, therefore all the gametes produced by
her will have X shape of chromosomes, as she produces similar type of gametes, so the condition is
homogamous. A human mother is homogamous
HETEROGAMOUS
Because a human male has XY shape of chromosomes, therefore he will produce two types of
gametes (sperms). In one gamete he will send X chromosome and in other gamete he will send Y
chromosome. Because two different types of gametes are formed, therefore this condition is called
heterogamous.
A human father is heterogamous
HOMOZYGOUS
A zygote in which both chromosomes sent by mother and father are identical e.g. XX
chromosomes of a female child
HETEROZYGOUS
A zygote in which both chromosomessent by mother and father are dis-similar e.g. XY
chromosomes in male child
Metacentric Chromosomes: When centromere is found exactly in the middle of the chromatids, the
chromosome is said to be metacentric
Su-metacentric Chromosomes: When centromere is found slightly above the middle point of the
chromatids, the chromosome is said to be sub-metacentric
Telocentric Chromosomes: When the position of centromere leaves three quarters of the chromatid,
the chromosome is said to be Telocentric.
Acrocentric Chromosomes: When the centromere is exactly at the end point of chromatid, the
chromosomes is said to be Acrocentric.
HAPLOID NUMBER
Half number of chromosomes. This number is found in the gametes. e.g 23 chromosomes in
egg and same number in sperm
DIPLOID NUMBER
The double number of chromosomes.
e.g. 46 chromosomes of a human

CHROMATIN NETWORK
The un-arranged chromosomes in nucleus is called chromatin network. It breaks up during cell
division
CENTROMERE
A point where the arms of a chromosome meet
KINETOCHORE
Same as above
CHROMATIDS
The two arms of chromosomes
Chromonema
The chromosomes which is seen as extremely thin thread is called chromonema
Chromomeres
When a chromosomes appears in beaded form, it is called chromomere
CHROMOSOMES
Thread like structures in nucleus. They are of four types
HOMOLOGOUS CHSROMOSOMES
Sets of two chromosomes that make up a matched pair in a diploid cell are called homologous
chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes are of same length, Centro mere position and posses genes
for same characters.
HETEROLOHOUS CHROMOSOMES
A pair of chromosomes that is dissimilar
HOMOGAMOUS
Because a human female has XX shape of chromosomes, therefore all the gametes produced by
her will have X shape of chromosomes, as she produces similar type of gametes, so the condition is
homogamous. A human mother is homogamous
HETEROGAMOUS
Because a human male has XY shape of chromosomes, therefore he will produce two types of
gametes (sperms). In one gamete he will send X chromosome and in other gamete he will send Y
chromosome. Because two different types of gametes are formed, therefore this condition is called
heterogamous.
A human father is heterogamous
HOMOZYGOUS
A zygote in which both chromosomes sent by mother and father are identical e.g. XX
chromosomes of a female child
HETEROZYGOUS
A zygote in which both chromosomessent by mother and father are dis-similar e.g. XY
chromosomes in male child
WALDYER
Scientist who discovered chromosomes
HAPLOID NUMBER
Half number of chromosomes. This number is found in the gametes. e.g 23 chromosomes in
egg and same number in sperm
DIPLOID NUMBER
The double number of chromosomes.
e.g. 46 chromosomes of a human

CHROMATIN NETWORK
The un-arranged chromosomes in nucleus is called chromatin network. It breaks up during cell
Karyotyping
Study of chromosomes is called karyotyping
Nucleosome
In long molecule of DNA, when eight Histone(s) make a junk, it is called Nucleosome
Heterochromatin
Highly condensed portions of the chromatin is called heterochromatin
Euchromatin
Part of chromosome which remain permanently condensed and its DNA is never expressed is
called Euchromatin
Chemical composition of Chromosomes:
Chromosomes are made from three different chemicals
1. DNA (30-40%)
2. RNA (1-10%)
3. Histone protein (50-65%)
Walter Sutton
Scientist who proposed “Chromosome Theory”
F. Griffith
Scientist who conducted experiments on Streptococcus pneumonia bacteria to prove that DNA
is heredity material
S type bacteria
Strain of bacteria which cause Pneumonia
R type bacteria
Strain which do not cause Pneumonia
Avery, Macleod and McCarty
Scientists who discovered re-conducted F. Griffith’s experiment and proved that he was correct
Hershey & chase
Scientists who labeled the head and DNA of virus and found that DNA has property to transfer
heredity characters to next generation
Mathew Meselsn& Frank Stahl
Scientists who in 1958 tested the DNA model described by Watson & Crick in
Archibald Garrod
Scientist who found that Alkaptonuria is a heredity disease
Alkaptonuria
A genetic disease in which homogenetisic acid (amino acid) is not broken and is excreted in
urine. When this amino acid is excreted with urine, its color turns black
Genome
Sum total of genes present in 23 pairs of chromosomes is called genome
What is Mutation?
Mutation may be defined as alteration in the form and function of gene. Some times mistakes
occur during DNA replication and protein synthesis. These mistakes become responsible for alteration
in the structure of a gene which result into mutation.
(1) Point mutation:
It is a kind of mutation in which a particular base sequence of nitrogen bases in a gene is
altered. This kind of mutation is responsible to bring abnormalities e.g. Sickle cell anemia
Total mutation
It is a type of protein in which entire sequence of nitrogen bases in a gene are altered,
therefore the effect of gene is completely disturbed. The total mutation is more dangerous than point
mutation
Spontaneous mutation
It is a natural type of mutation, which takes place all of sudden.
Induced Mutation
It is artificial type of mutation which any genetic scientist can bring through artificial methods.
Transcription
Transcription may be defined as a step in which DNA produce a molecule of mRNA when RNA
polymerase binds with DNA. The synthesis of mRNA is purposeful. It carries the coded messages of
DNA to ribosomes where proteins are synthesized.
Sickle cell anemia
Sickle Cell Anemia is a genetic disorder of the blood. Sickle-cell anemia is caused by a defective
gene that produces an abnormal form of hemoglobin.
The main symptom of this disease is
(1) Frequent and severe infections
(2) Damage to major organs
(3) Pain in the back, chest, abdomen, and extremities.
(4) Pain and swelling in the hands and feet, and enlargement of the abdomen and heart.
Phenylketonuria
Phenylketonuria is a rare hereditary disease in newborns in which the enzyme that processes
the amino acid phenylalanine is defective or missing. In case of missing of this enzyme, accumulation of
phenylalanine takes place in an affected child’s blood shortly after birth. If not treated within the first
few weeks of life, PKU can cause mental retardation and other serious neurological problems. When a
strict diet that limits phenylalanine is begun early and is carefully maintained, affected children can
develop normally.


CHROMOSOMES AND DNA
Encircle the most correct choice
1. Cells use to make protein
(a) DNA (b) Nucleus (c) RNA (d) Chromosomes
2. Best present in RNA but not in DNA
(a) Adenine (b) Guanine (c) Cytosine (d) Uracil
3. The chromosome number in man is
(a) 3 pairs (b) 13 pairs (c) 23 pairs (d) 33 pairs
4. One complement turn of DNA contains
(a) 2 nucleotides (b) 5 nucleotides (c) 10 nucleotides (d) 20 nucleotides
5. To specify amino acid genetic code uses
(a) One base (b) two bases (c) three basis (d) four basis
Fill in the blanks with appropriate words

i) Chromosomes are so called because they stain (colorful) than the rest of the cell organelles.
ii) A pair of morphologically similar chromosomes are called (Homologous)
iii) DNA is made of billion of units called (Polynucleotide)
iv) Adenine always pairs with thymine and cytosine with (Guanine)
v) The total genomic constitution of an individual is known as (Genome)
Write whether the following statements are true of false

i) Chromosomes can only be seen when cells are dividing (True)
ii) The first stage of gene expression is the production of RNA called transcription (True)
iii) The second stage of gene expression is the synthesis of polypeptide by ribosomes (True)
iv) Any change in the amount, organization or content of genetic material is called mutation (True)
v) Phenylketonuria is a genetic disorder in which affected individuals genes responsible for
breakdown of phenylalanine is defective (True)
Write detailed answers of the following questions

Q.1 What are chromosomes? Give their chemical composition and ultra structure.
Answer
Chromosomes are tread like structures found in the nucleus of all eukaryotic cells. In
prokaryotic cells (such as bacteria) where nucleus is not found, chromosomes are scattered into
cytoplasm as chromatin bodies. Chromosomes are actually colorless bodies, but they catch color when
they are stained.
Chromosomes have different look at different stages of cell division. For example they look as a
network, while cell is in early prophase, and they become straight and individual when cell is in
metaphase stage. Scientific research has shown that chromosomes are the platform where unit if
heredity material called genes are present. Genes are further made up poly nucleotide chain of nucleic
acids called DNA and RNA.

Structure of Chromosome
Each chromosome has two arms called chromatids. The chromatids are separated from each other by a
rounded structure called centromere, which contains a special kind of protein called Kinetochore. The
kinetochore protein helps the chromosomes to attach with centrioles during cell division. The detailed
internal structure of chromosomes indicate that each arm of chromosome is made of 2 chromatids
which are called sister chromatids.
Types of Chromosomes
On the basis of structure, chromosomes are of four types. These four types have been made on the
position of centromere.
Metacentric Chromosomes: When centromere is found exactly in the middle of the chromatids, the
chromosome is said to be metacentric
Su-metacentric Chromosomes: When centromere is found slightly above the middle point of the
chromatids, the chromosome is said to be sub-metacentric
Telocentric Chromosomes: When the position of centromere leaves three quarters of the chromatid,
the chromosome is said to be Telocentric.
Acrocentric Chromosomes: When the centromere is exactly at the end point of chromatid, the
chromosomes is said to be Acrocentric.
Autosomes and Sex Chromosomes

Autosomes chromosomes are those which contain genes for body characters, and sex chromosomes
are those which contain genes for body characters as well as sex characters. Human beings have 22
pairs of autosomes chromosomes which bear genes for body characters; where as a human female has
1 pair of XX sex chromosomes where genes for body and gender (female) characters are located. In
males there are 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of XY sex chromosomes. The X chromosomes of male
bear genes for body characters and gender characters (particularly female), where the Y chromosomes
does not bear any genes for body characters but bear genes for male gender. This is due to short size
of human Y chromosome.
Homologous and Heterologous Chromosomes
Chromosoems which are morphologically similar and perform same functions are called homologous
and chromosomes which are morphologically dis-similar and perform different functions are called
heterologous chromosomes. For example in human female the shape of sex chromosomes is XX which
are structurally similar and perform same function, so they are called homologous, whereas in human
male, the chromosomes are XY which are structurally different and are responsible for different jobs.

Chemical composition of Chromosomes:
Chromosomes are made from three different chemicals
1. DNA (30-40%)
2. RNA (1-10%)
3. Histone protein (50-65%)
The scientific research has shown that chromosomes are made up of genes, which are made up
of nucleic acids and Histone protein. In chromosomes the highest amount of chemical is Histone,
followed by DNA and RNA. In most of the eukaryotic organisms, the amount of Histone protein is 60%
where as DNA is 40%. The DNA of the chromosome is a ladder type double helix molecule which is
made up of four types of nitrogen bases called Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine. The adenine
nitrogen base is bonded with thymine and guanine is bonded with cytosine. The nitrogen bases are
further linked with ribose sugar and phosphate which are available as backbone of the molecule.
The ultra structure of chromosomal DNA shows that the poly nucleotide chain of nucleic acid is coiled
around the Histone protein. The electron microscope studies have shown that after every 200
nucleotide of DNA ther is a coil around Histone protein.
Histone is a very small poly peptide which has amino acids, arginine and lysine. Because the histones
are negatively charged and DNA is positively charged, therefore the DNA makes coil around Histone
protein.
Q.2 Prove with help of experiments that DNA is the heredity material?
Answer
In previous days, it was believed that the heredity characters of one generation to next
generation are transferred through chromosomes. Later on this credit was given to genes, but the
recent research has show that nothing other than DNA has ability to transfer the genetic characters
from parents to offspring. Many scientist shave carried out number of experiments to prove that idea.
Some of the experiments are described below.
F. Griffith Experiment:
Geriffith performed experiment on mouse in which he used Streptococcus pneumonia
bacterium. This bacterium is naturally found in two form i.e. S type and R type. The S type bacterium
has smooth cell wall and R type bacterium has rough shape cell wall. Through experiments, Geriffith
concluded that S type bacterium is virulent and causes pneumonia where as R type bacterium is non
virulent and does not cause any disease.

Geriffith than killed virulent S type bacteria and injected into mice. In same mice he also
injected R type bacteria in living condition. Since S type bacteria were heat killed so no disease should
have been produced in mice but he found that the mouse suffered from disease. Geriffith concluded
that when any organism is killed, its DNA is denatured for a while, but after some time it re-gains its
natural status. That is whey, when DNA of S type bacteria retained its natural status; it combined with
R type bacteria. Since S type DNA is dominant, so it transformed the recessive R type DNA, which
indicated that DNA is genetic material.
The work of Geriffith was largely criticized by may scientists, but in 1944 his work was
supported by three scientists
Avery Macleod McCarty Experiment:

These scientists carried out research to prove the work of Geriffith. They tested reactions of
heat killed bacteria to find out that they transform the genetic properties. As a result of experiments,
they found that nothing other than DNA can transform the genetic information from one organism to
new organism. Their conclusion was based on one enzyme known as Deoxyribo nuclease. This enzyme
destroys the DNA. When this enzyme was added, it destroyed DNA and no genetic characters were
transferred into next generation.
Hershey & Chase Experiment:

In their experiment they labeled protein coat of virus with S35 and and DNA was labeled with
P32. They injected whole bacteriophage into bacterium and allowed both the protein coat and DNA to
show their work. At the end of experiment, it was found that all new virus formed had labeled DNA,
whereas, the protein coat appeared colorless. This indicated that DNA is genetic material and has
ability to transmit the heredity characters from generation to generation.
Q.3 Discuss Watson and Crick Model of DNA and its replication?
Answer
Watson and Crick are the scientists of modern times. They spend decades on DNA and finally
proposed a molecular model of DNA. The work was so extra-ordinary that they were awarded Nobel
Prize.

The details of molecular model of DNA as described by Watson and Crick are as under
1. DNA is a very complicated molecule, which is made up of nucleotides.
2. Each nucleotide is made up of four types of nitrogen basis, ribose sugar and phosphate
group
3. The four nitrogen bases are Adenine, Guanine, Thymine and Cytosine.
4. In DNA molecule, Adenine and guanine are the purine bases and Guanine and cytosine are
pyrimidine bases.
5. The Adenine base is bonded with Thymine and Guanine is bonded with Cytosine.
6. Between nitrogen bases, there is double and triple bond of hydrogen.
7. There is triple hydrogen bond between Guanine and Cytosine and double hydrogen bond
between Adenine and Thymine
8. Each nitrogen base in linked with ribose sugar, which is further attached with phosphate.
9. The DNA molecule is double strand and the strands are arrange din helix manner.
10. The nitrogen bases are locate din middle of the ladder and ribose sugar and phosphate are
present outside to provide backbone to the DNA molecule
11. The distance between two strands is 20A0 and the length of one complete turn of DNA is
34A0
12. There are 10 mononucleotides of DNA in one complete turn
13. The amount of Adenine is equal to the amount of Thymine
14. The amount of Guanine is equal to the amount of Cytosine
15. In DNA molecule, the sequence of nitrogen bases changes quite often so that every new
arrangement can carry new information.
Replication of DNA:
In most cellular organisms, replication of a DNA molecule takes place in the cell nucleus and occurs just
before the cell divides. Replication begins with the separation of the two polynucleotide chains, each
of which then acts as a template for the assembly of a new complementary chain. As the old chains
separate, each nucleotide in the two chains attracts a complementary nucleotide that has been formed
earlier by the cell. The nucleotides are joined to one another by hydrogen bonds to form the rungs of a
new DNA molecule. As the complementary nucleotides are fitted into place, an enzyme called DNA
polymerase links them together by bonding the phosphate group of one nucleotide to the sugar
molecule of the adjacent nucleotide, forming the side rail of the new DNA molecule. This process
continues until a new polynucleotide chain has been formed alongside the old one, forming a new
double-helix molecule.

Write short answer of the following questions?
What do you mean by Karyotype
A karyotype is a photographic image that depicts all of the chromosomes in an individual cell.
Laboratory workers use computers to rearrange the images so that the chromosomes are lined up in
pairs, typically beginning with the autosomes—chromosomes 1 through 22—and ending with the sex
chromosomes—normally XX or XY. A complete karyotype helps doctors to determine if a person has
extra chromosomes, missing chromosomes, or chromosomes that have attached to one another in
unusual ways.
What are autosomes and sex chromosomes?

Human cells contain 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. One of these chromosome pairs is called
the sex chromosomes because they determine a person’s gender. Among females, the sex
chromosomes consists of two chromosomes, both called X. The sex chromosomes in males are made
up of one X chromosome and a smaller Y chromosome. The remaining 22 pairs of human
chromosomes are called autosomes. These chromosomes are numbered 1 through 22, with 1
corresponding to the largest chromosome pair and 22 corresponding to the smallest. The autosomes
chromosomes bear genes for body characters.
Define Chromosome and its types?

Chromosomes are thread like structures found in the nucleus of cell. They are platform where genes
are located which are considered as units of heredity material. For every body character, there is a set
of separate genes. The size and shape of chromosomes vary at different stages of cell division. The
chromosomes are visible during cell division. On the basis of shape, chromosomes may be Homologous
or heterologous. Homologous chromosomes are those which are similar in shape and function,
whereas heterologous chromosomes are those which are dis similar in structure and function.
The chromosomes are divided into four types on the basis of centromere position. These four types are
(1) Metacentric (2) sub-metacentric (3) Telocentric and (4) Acrocentric.
What is chromosomal theory of heredity?

The chromosomal theory of heredity was proposed in 1900 by Karl Correns and later on modified by
Walter Sutton in 1902. The theory has following points
1. The Nucleus of the sex cells is responsible for the transfer of heredity characters. The cytoplasm
of sex cell may not be responsible for transfer of heredity characters, because it is very small in
sperm as compared to ovum.
2. Chromosomes are basically in pairs but they separate during cell division to go into different
gametes.
3. Male and female gametes have one copy of each pair of chromosomes. These chromosomes
are combined in child who will have complete set of chromosomes.
4. During metaphase, chromosomes arrange themselves to cross exchange the genes which bring
variations in new born
Name the chemical substance which is heredity material?

The substance which has been proved to be responsible for the transfer of heredity information
is Deoxy Ribo nucleic acid. It is a ladder type complicated molecule which is made up of four
types of nitrogen bases (Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine) , ribose sugar and phosphate.

What is Mutation?
Mutation may be defined as alteration in the form and function of gene. Some times mistakes occur
during DNA replication and protein synthesis. These mistakes become responsible for alteration in the
structure of a gene which result into mutation. Mutations occur during DNA replication when the
chemical structure of genes undergoes random modifications. Once a change has occurred, the altered
genes continue to replicate in their changed form unless another mutation occurs. Sometimes
mutations occur during transcription or translation, causing protein synthesis to go awry. Although
mutations may occur in any living cell, they are most important when they occur in gametes because
then the change affects the traits of following generations.
Most mutations harm an organism. If a mutation occurs in a gene sequence that codes for a particular
protein, the mutation may result in a change in the amino acid sequence directed by the gene. This
change, in turn, may affect the function of the protein.
Some mutations may be neutral or silent and do not affect the function of a protein. Occasionally a
mutation benefits an organism. However, mutations serve the crucial role of providing organisms with
previously nonexistent proteins. In this way, mutations are a driving force behind genetic diversity and
the rise of new or more competitive species better able to adapt to changes, such as climate variations,
depletion of food sources, or the emergence of new types of disease
The scientists have classified mutations into f type which are as under
(1) Point mutation:
It is a kind of mutation in which a particular base sequence of nitrogen bases in a gene is
altered. This kind of mutation is responsible to bring abnormalities e.g. Sickle cell anemia
(2) Total mutation
It is a type of protein in which entire sequence of nitrogen bases in a gene are altered,
therefore the effect of gene is completely disturbed. The total mutation is more dangerous
than point mutation
(3) Spontaneous mutation
It is a natural type of mutation, which takes place all of sudden.
(4) Induced Mutation
It is artificial type of mutation which any genetic scientist can bring through artificial methods.
There are always reasons behind mutation. The factors responsible for mutation are called
Mutagen. Some very popular mutagens are Ultra violate rays, High potency medicines, X-rays and
Nuclear rays.
Al there factors change the natural shape of DNA which shows mutations in genes.
What is transcription?
Transcription may be defined as a step in which DNA produce a molecule of mRNA when RNA
polymerase binds with DNA. The synthesis of mRNA is purposeful. It carries the coded messages of
DNA to ribosomes where proteins are synthesized.
Transcription involves the production of a special kind of RNA known as messenger RNA (mRNA). The
process begins when the two strands of a DNA molecule separate, a task directed by the enzyme RNA
polymerase. After the double helix splits apart, one of the strands serves as a template, or pattern, for
the formation of a complementary mRNA molecule. Free-floating individual bases within the cell bind
to the bases on the DNA template using complementary base pairing. The individual bases then link
together to form a strand of mRNA.

What do you mean by sickle cell anemia?
Sickle Cell Anemia is a genetic disorder of the blood. The main symptom of this disease are
(1) Frequent and severe infections
(2) Damage to major organs
(3) Pain in the back, chest, abdomen, and extremities.
(4) Pain and swelling in the hands and feet, and enlargement of the abdomen and heart.
Sickle-cell anemia is caused by a defective gene that produces an abnormal form of
hemoglobin. The abnormal hemoglobin, called hemoglobin S, distorts red blood cells after they release
oxygen in the tissues. These distorted cells are called sickled cells because of their resemblance to the
sickle, a type of crescent-shaped cutting blade used in agriculture. The sickled shape makes it difficult
for these cells to pass through tiny blood vessels, resulting in intensely painful blockages that prevent
vital oxygen and nutrients in the blood from reaching organs and tissues, impairing their function. As a
result, sickle-cell patients are also vulnerable to a number of infections. When the blood flow to the
brain is affected, sickle-cell patients may experience brain damage, such as stroke. Sickle cells also
break apart more readily than healthy red blood cells, leading to a deficiency of red blood cells, known
as anemia.
Sickle-cell anemia is a genetic disease caused by a defective gene found in autosome
chromosome. Many people carry one hemoglobin S gene with no significant health problems as a
result. But these carriers of the sickle-cell gene can pass the gene to their children. When both parents
are carriers, they have a one in four chance with every pregnancy of having a child with sickle-cell
anemia.
A simple blood test can determine if an individual carries hemoglobin S gene. High-risk
individuals should be tested for presence of the gene before pregnancy and marriage. If both partners
are carriers, couples may seek genetic counseling to help them better understand sickle-cell anemia
and how it will affect children they may have.
Sickle-cell anemia is diagnosed by a procedure called electrophoresis, in which hemoglobin
samples are identified by the way they behave in an electric charge. In many countries newborn infants
are tested for sickle-cell anemia before they leave the hospital. If it is diagnosed early, some of the
complications, particularly severe infections, can be prevented with antibiotics and vaccinations.
Treatment of sickle-cell anemia is not available. However, the intensity of disease may be reduced by
(1) Reducing organ damage, and minimizing pain and discomfort.
(2) High fluid intake to prevent dehydration
(3) Prompt treatment of infection, and pain medications.
(4) Regular blood transfusions
(5) Bone marrow transplantation.
What is Phenylketonuria?
Phenylketonuria is a rare hereditary disease in newborns in which the enzyme that processes
the amino acid phenylalanine is defective or missing. In case of missing of this enzyme, accumulation of
phenylalanine takes place in an affected child’s blood shortly after birth. If not treated within the first
few weeks of life, PKU can cause mental retardation and other serious neurological problems. When a
strict diet that limits phenylalanine is begun early and is carefully maintained, affected children can
develop normally.

During this disease, the Phenylalanine is produced in excess. As a result it damages an infant's
developing central nervous system. This can eventually cause mental retardation, seizures, tremors,
behavioral disorders, and some forms of mental illness.
Newborn babies with PKU typically do not show signs of the disease until weeks or months after birth.
In many countries of the world, it is essential to have proper check of new born baby so that if PKU is
diagnosed, it may be treated in early stage. It is believed that children with PKU may easily be treated
with special diets.
The terrible birth of PKU babies may be stopped at very early stage. For example, pregnant
women with PKU have an especially important need to keep their blood phenylalanine levels low. In
maternal PKU syndrome, high phenylalanine levels in the mother can cause serious problems for the
baby, including low birth weight, small head size, heart defects, and mental retardation, even if the
baby does not have PKU. This disorder can be prevented if the woman is on the special diet before
conception and maintains low blood phenylalanine levels throughout pregnancy.

PRACTICE SHEET#01
1. The chromosomes were first named by --------
(a) Mendel (b) Welder (c) Walther Fleming (d) None
2. The Diploid number of chromosomes in Ferns is
(a) 500 (b) 400 (c) 300 (d) 200
3. Chromosomes which are structurally and functionally similar are said
(a) Homologues (b) Heterologous (c) Nullisomic (d) None
4. The study of chromosomes is called
(a) Karyograph (b) Karyotyping (c) Both (d) None
5. The protein in the centromere is called
(a) Kinetochore (b) Khromonemat (c) Both a&b (d) None
6. Chromosomes have 30-40 %DNA, 50-65 % Proteins and ----------RNA
(a) 1-10 (b) 10-11 (c) 1-12 (d) 1-13
7. If a strand of DNA from single chromosomes is made straight, it will be -------meter long
(a) 7 (b) 8 (c) 9 (d) 10
8. The DNA duplex is coild after every -----nucleotides
(a) 200 (b) 230 (c) 240 (d) 250
9. The un-condensed part of chromosome is called
(a) Super coil (b) Nucleosome (c) Euchromatin (d) None
10. The chromosomal theory was postulated by
(a) Walter Sutton (b) Sir Walter (c) Baldier (d) None
11. The genetic experiment on transformation was performed by
(a) F. Griffith (b) Hershey & Chase (c) Both (d) None
12. The ladder type organization of DNA molecule was suggested by
(a) Watson (b) Crick (c) Watson & Crick (d) None
13. In DNA both poly nucleotide strands have -----distance
(a) 20A (b) 22A (c) 23A (d) None
14. In one of the following genetic disorder, the urine turns black due to lack of enzymes which
break the Homogentistic acid
(a) Alkaptonuria (b) Hemophilia (c) Both a&b (d) None
15. Sum of the total genes in any organisms are termed as
(a) Gene pool (b) Gene drift (c) Genome (d) All
16. One gene one enzyme hypothesis was suggested by Beadle & Tatum
(a) True (b) False
17. Human cell contain more than 40 different type soft RNA molecules
(a) True (b) False
18. During protein synthesis, the production of mRNA is termed as
(a) Transcription (b) Translation (c) Transformation (d) All
19. Synthesis of polypeptide protein is expression of gene, and it is termed as
(a) Transcription (b) Transformation (c) Translation (d) All
20. Each reaction is controlled by a single gene explains hypothesis given by Beadle &Tatum. The
hypothesis is named as
(a) Gene Expression (b) One gene one enzyme hypothesis
(c) Translation (d) Transcription

21. Visible change in the structure of chromosomes is known as
(a) Gene mutation (b) Chromosomal Aberrations
(c) Deletion (d) Duplication
22. Missing of a small segment of chromosomes along with genes is called
(a) Deletion (b) Duplication (c) Both a&b (d) None
23. If a chromosomes receives extra piece of chromosome, the condition will be called
(a) Deletion (b) Duplication (c) Chromosome mutation(d) All of above
24. Some times, a block of genes that went to other chromosomes, can come back to its original
chromosomes. This condition is termed as
(a) Deletion (b) Duplication (c) Inversion (d) All
25. Transfer of segment of chromosomes to a non-homologous chromosome is called
(a) Deletion (b) Duplication (c) Inversion (d) Translocation
26. A kind of gene mutation in which only limited number of its nucleotide is mutated, that is
called
(a) Point mutation (b) Specific mutation (c) Total mutation (d) All
27. Any physical or chemical agents that brings about mutations in genes are called
(a) Mutation (b) Mutagen (c) Mutate (d) All
28. Ionizing radiation (X-rays etc) affect the DNA
(a) Directly (b) Indirectly
(c) If first affect water molecules than DNA (d) Both a&c
29. The chemical mutagens are mostly responsible for mis-pairing of nitrogen bases of DNA
(a) True (b) False
30. Nearly 300 amino acids are required to make normal hemoglobin
(a) True (b) False
31. Hemoglobin in Sickle Cell Anemia is different only in ----amino acids
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
32. In sickle cell anemia, -----------replaces glutamic acid
(a) Valine (b) Serine (c) Both a&b (d) None
33. Phnylketonuria is a genetic disorder which may interfere with the brain cells of infant (child)
(a) True (b) False
34. Sickle cell anemia is more common in
(a) Americans (b) Africans (c) Asians (d) None
35. The haploid number of Mosquito is
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 1 (e) None
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C A C B A A A C A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
C C A A C A A A C B
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
B A B C D A B A A A
31 32 33 34 35
A A A B B

PRACTICE SHEET#02
1. The term chromosome was coined by German embryologist
(a) Ernest Hackle (b) Walter Fleming (c) Schwann (d) Schleiden
2. ___________ are DNA threads which appear inside the nucleus at the time of cell division.
(a) Spindle fibers (b) Centrioles (c) Asters (d) Chromosomes
3. The chromosomes are composed of
(a) DNA (b) Histone proteins (c) RNA (d) All A, B and C
4. Walter Fleming, stained some cells with ______________, to see how chromosomes would
look underthe microscope.
(a) Perkin's dye (b) Iodine Dye (c) Methyl blue Dye (d) All A, B and C
5. What is diploid number of chromosomes in Mosquito.
(a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 8 (d) 12
6. What is diploid number of chromosomes in Sugar cane.
(a) 20 (b) 40 (c) 80 (d) 60
7. What is diploid number of chromosomes in Frog.
(a) 26 (b) 28 (c) 24 (d) 20
8. What is diploid number of chromosomes in Fern.
(a) 1000 (b) 500 (c) 400 (d) 200
9. Which of the following human cells contains 23 chromosomes
(a) Zygote (b) Normal liver cell (c) Skin cell of female (d) An ovum
10. Sister chromatids are attached at an area called the
(a) Centrosome (b) Centriole (c) Centromere (d) All of these
11. The chromatids of two different chromosomes are called
(a) Sister chromatids (b) Non-sister chromatids
(c) Chromonemata (d) Kinetochore
12. Whose karyotype is shown in following diagram
(a) Human Male (b) Human female

(c) Person with Down syndrome (d) Female with Turners syndrome
13. DNA threads of chromosomes are termed as
(a) Chromonema (b) Plasmodesmata (c) Chiasmata (d) Kinetochore
14. Centromere contain a disc shaped protein _______________ to which the spindle fibers are
attached.
(a) Chiasmata (b) Pellicle (c) Kinetochore (d) Perkin's Aniline
15. A pair of morphologically similar chromosomes is known as
(a) Homologous chromosomes (b) Heterologous chromosomes
(c) X and Y male chromosomes (d) Both A, and C
16. _________________________ is a non-sex chromosome.
(a) An autosome (b) Desmosome (c) Y chromosome (d) Both A and B

17. A _________________ is the characteristic chromosome complement of a eukaryote species.
(a) Biotype (b) Cytotype (c) Karyotype (d) All of these
18. ___________ chromosomes have arms of equal length with the centromere in the middle.
(a) Submetacentric (b) Acrocentric (c) Telocentric (d) Metacentric
19. ____________ chromosomes have short and long arms of unequal length with the
centromeremore towards one end.
(a) Submetacentric (b) Telocentric (c) Metacentric (d) All of these
20. ________________ chromosomes have a centromere very near to one end and have very
smallshort arms.
(a) Acrocentric (b) Telocentric (c) Metacentric (d) Submetacentric
21. The most abundant chromosomal proteins are called
(a) Scaffold (b) Polymerases (c) Histones (d) None of these
22. Highly condensed and transcriptionally inactive DNA form
(a) Heterochromatin (b) Euchromatin (c) Autochromatin (d) Isochromatin
23. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of DNA?
(a) Composed of nucleotides (b) Complementary
(c) Contains ribose (d) Double-stranded
24. If the strand of DNA from a single chromosome were laid out in a straight line, it would be
more than
(a) 4 feet (b) 5feet (c) 5 meters (d) 7 feet
25. The DNA duplex in a chromosome is coiled around a core of 8 histone proteins every 200
nucleotides ,forming a complex called
(a) Nucleosome (b) Supercoil (c) Spireme (d) Kinetochore
26. “Chromosomes play central role in heredity”, it was first suggested in 1900 by
(a) Karl Correns (b) McCarthy (c) Messelson (d) Joshua Ryan
27. The chromosomal theory of heredity was first formulated by
(a) Karl Correns (b) McCarthy (c) Messelson (d) Walter Sutton
28. Which chromosome pair below best illustrates the gene-chromosome theory?
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4

29. The result of Hershey and Chase's T2 experiments showed that the _____ of the virus enters
the hostwhere viral replication takes place.
(a) Protein (b) DNA (c) RNA (d) Both Protein and DNA
30. Hershey and Chase used radioactive _____ to label the DNA core of the bacteriophage.
(a) Phosphorous (b) Nitrogen (c) Carbon (d) Sulfur
31. In Griffith's experiment
(a) Heat-killed S strain bacteria killed the mice
(b) R strain bacteria killed the mice
(c) A mixture of heat-killed S strain bacteria and R strain bacteria failed to kill the mice
(d) Live S strain bacteria killed the mice

32. What are base-pairing rules for DNA?
(a) A=G, T≡C (b) A=C, T≡G (c) A=U, C≡G (d) A=T, G≡C
33. A DNA strand having the sequence C-G-A-T-T-G would be complementary to the sequence
(a) C-G-A-T-T-G (b) T-A-G-C-C-T (c) G-G-T-A-A-G (d) G-C-T-A-A-C
34. In the DNA Double Helix, complementary base pairs are held together by
(a) Peptide bonds (b) Ionic bonds (c) Hydrogen bonds (d) N-glycosidic bonds
35. The three pyrimidine bases in Nucleic acids are
(a) Thymine, Guanine and Cytosine (b) Adenine, Thymine and Guanine
(c) Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil (d) Adenine, Uracil and Guanine
36. Each unit of a nucleic acid consisting of a sugar, attached phosphate group, and base is a
(a) Nucleolus (b) Nucleotide (c) Nucleosome (d) Histone
37. In a nucleic acid, the bases are always attached to the _______________ carbon of the sugar.
(a) 5' (b) 4' (c) 3' (d) 1'
38. The structure of DNA was described __________________.
(a) In the 1850's (b) In 1900 (c) In the 1950's (d) In 1990
39. Thymine (T) and cytosine (c) have pyridimine bases which have a ________ ring.
(a) Single (b) Double (c) Triple (d) Both A and B
40. Willikin’s X-ray diffraction of DNA showed that
(a) Purines have base with a double ring (b) A equals T
(c) DNA not proteins is the genetic material (d) DNA is a helix
41. The rungs of ladder (DNA) are the ___________________.
(a) Deoxyribose sugars (b) Phosphate groups
(c) Hydrogen-bonded bases (d) Ribose sugars
42. The fact that DNA was responsible for the production of bacterial capsules in Griffith's
experimentswas discovered by
(a) Avery, MacLeod, and McCarthy (b) Noah Alan and Joshua Ryan
(c) Watson and Crick (d) Messelson and Stahl
43. The diameter of DNA molecule is
(a) 20 A° (b) 50 A° (c) 100 A° (d) 200 A°
44. Sugar-phosphate backbones make up the _______________ of the ladder (DNA).
(a) Anterior rungs (b) Posterior rungs (c) Uprights (d) Both uprights and rungs
45. DNA replication is best described as ___________________ .
(a) Completely conservative (b) Semiconservative
(c) A very slow process (d) Error free
46. Replication of DNA requires ____________________.
(a) Unwinding (b) Complementary base pairing
(c) Joining (d) All of the above
47. DNA replication is called Semiconservative because _______________ of the original duplex
appearsin the duplex formed in replication.
(a) None (b) Most (c) Half (d) Hardly any
48. DNA replication occurs in the
(a) Nucleus (b) Cytoplasm (c) Extracellular fluid (d) On the ribosome surface
49. ____________ is an inherited condition that causes urine to turn black when exposed to air.
(a) Alkaptonuria (b) Phenylketonuria (c) Diabetes insipidus (d) Diuresis

50. In Human beings the ____________ is whole hereditary information that is encoded in the
DNA of 22 pairs of autosome and one pair of sex chromosomes.
(a) Muton (b) Intron (c) Exon (d) Genome
51. A photographic representation of the chromosomes of a single cell including the number, size
andstructure of the chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell is termed as
(a) Biotype (b) Karyotype (c) Cytotype (d) All a, b and c
52. Which two scientists proposed the “one gene-one enzyme” hypothesis?
(a) Watson and Crick (b) Beadle and Tatum (c) Wilkins and Franklin (d) Hershey and Chase
53. Single large shield shaped cotyledon of monocot seed is called
54. Since the X-ray treated mold was able to grow on media enriched with metabolites B, C and D
of thismetabolic pathway: A ---1---->B ---2----> C ---3----> D
Where the numbers are enzymes and the letters are metabolites, Beadle and Tatum
concluded that themold lacked enzyme _____________.
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) None of these
55. Fill in the missing portion of this flow diagram:
DNA's nucleotide sequence --> amino acid sequence --> proteins' polypeptides --> _____ -->
anorganism's structures.
(a) Steroids (b) Enzymes (c) Polysaccharides (d) RNA
56. There are about ______________ different types of tRNA.
(a) 20 (b) 40 (c) 60 (d) 64
57. The process of gene expression occurs in
(a) Transcription (b) Translation (c) Both A and B (d) Transduction
58. What name is given to the process in which the information encoded in a strand of mRNA is
used toconstruct a protein?
(a) RNA processing (b) Gene expression (c) Transcription (d) Translation
59. What name is given to the process in which a strand of DNA is used as a template for the
manufactureof a strand of mRNA?
(a) Polypeptide formation (b) Gene expression
(c) Transcription (d) Translation
60. RNA polymerase uses --------- as a template to synthesize ---------
(a) RNA, protein (b) RNA, DNA (c) DNA, RNA (d) DNA, protein
61. The tRNA anticodon, GAC, is complementary to the mRNA codon with the sequence
____________ .
(a) CAG (b) CTG (c) GAC (d) CUG
62. For 20 different kinds of amino acids there should be
(a) 20 codons (b) 44 codons (c) 64 codons (d) 40 codons
63. The initiation codon for every gene is
(a) AUG (b) UUU (c) GCT (d) CGC
64. There are 20 amino acids normally used in protein synthesis. Based on your knowledge of the
geneticcode, if there were 80 amino acids used in protein synthesis, what would be the
minimum size of asingle codon?
(a) 3 nucleotides (b) 4 nucleotides (c) 5 nucleotides (d) 8 nucleotides
65. The genetic code uses sequence of ____________ nitrogenous bases to encode an amino acid.
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) All A. B and C

66. Codon is present in
(a) mRNA (b) tRNA (c) rRNA (d) All A. B and C
67. The binding of codon and anticodon is known as
(a) Codation (b) Decodation (c) Transcription (d) All choices are correct
68. Which of the following is stop codon
(a) UAG (b) UAA (c) UGA (d) All A. B and C
69. A permanent alteration in the DNA of an organism is called a(n)
(a) Mutation (b) Hereditary marker (c) Replicon (d) Allele
70. What genetic term describes the situation when a part of chromosome is broken off and lost?
(a) Duplication (b) Inversion (c) Deletion (d) Nondisjunction
71. An exchange of segments between non-homologous chromosomes is called
(a) Inversion (b) Polyploidy (c) Translocation (d) Transduction
72. What genetic term describes the situation when a part of chromosome may be present in
excess tothe normal chromosome?
(a) Duplication (b) Inversion (c) Deletion (d) Nondisjunction
73. Transcription is initiated by an enzyme
(a) DNA-polymerase (b) RNA-polymerase (c) Endonuclease (d) Exonuclease
74. X-rays and gamma rays are
(a) Non-ionizing radiations (b) Chemical mutagens
(c) High energy mutagens (d) Both B and C
75. Point mutation involves
(a) Deletion of single nitrogenous base (b) Duplication of single nitrogenous base
(c) Both A and B (d) None of these
76. If the sequence of two nucleotides is used, then it will only code for ____________ amino
acids.
(a) 8 (b) 16 (c) 44 (d) 64
77. Sickle cell anemia is caused by a change in the amino acid sequence of the two beta chains in
thehemoglobin molecule. How many amino acids have been changed in each beta chain,
compared tonormal hemoglobin?
(a) 1 (b) 5 (c) 10 (d) Hundreds
78. Phenylketonuria is
(a) An eating disorder (b) A inherited disease that is treated by diet
(c) A neurotransmitter deficiency disease (d) Caused by an accident after birth
79. __________________ is a chromosome rearrangement in which a segment of a chromosome
isreversed end to end.
(a) Duplication (b) Inversion (c) Deletion (d) Translocation
80. A scientist puts nucleotide chains of UUUUUU in a test tube under conditions allowing
proteinsynthesis. Soon the test tube is full of polypeptide chains composed of only the amino
acidphenylalanine. What does this experiment indicate?
(a) The amino acid phenylalanine is composed of uracil.
(b) UUU codes for the amino acid phenylalanine.
(c) Protein synthesis malfunctions in test tubes.
(d) Most proteins contain only one type of amino acid.

ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B D D A B C A A D C
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B B A C A A C D A A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
C A C D A A D D B A
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
D D D C C B D C A D
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
C A A C B D C A A D
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
B B D A D B C D C C
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
D C A B B A B D A A
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
C C A B C C B A B B

CHAPTER # 07
CELL CYCLE
INTERPHASE
This is the hidden phase of cell division and it has three stages, which are called G1, S and G2.
G1 STAGE
In this stage, cell makes enzymes and RNA
S STAGE
In this stage, DNA is made
G2 STAGE
In this stage, DNA is duplicated
AMITOSIS
Amitosis is a kind of cell division in which the divides directly without formation of spindle
fibers. Amitosis is also called uncontrolled cell division. There are three types of amitosis,
NORMAL AMITOSIS
During this kind of division, following events occur
 First the nuclear membrane shrinks towards inside. This gradual shrinkage of nuclear
membrane is called Nuclear Constriction.
 As the nuclear membrane shrinks, the cell membrane also starts shrinkage. The shrinkage of
cell membrane is called Cytoplasmic Constriction.
 Finally one nucleus is divided to make two nuclei
 Around each newly formed nucleus, the cell membrane will divide to form two cells.
This kind of cell division is simple and rapid and is very common in prokaryotes such as bacteria
and single cellular eukaryotic organisms such as amoeba, paramecium and euglena.
NUCLEAR BUDDING
Nuclear budding is a kind of amitosis, in which the cell divides in same manner. The only
difference is that the nucleus is divided not from the middle, therefore the newly formed cells will
have nucleus of un-equal size.
NUCLEAR FRAGMENTATION
In this kind of amitosis, the speed of nuclear division is extra fast, so the nucleus divided
repeatedly, but the cytoplasm cannot follow the speed of nuclear division. As result, the cell contains a
cluster of nuclei.
This kind of cell division is generally found in the old body tissues, and in the tissues where
disease present. Nuclear fragmentation is generally considered as a root cause of cancer and tumor.
APOPTOSIS
Apoptosis may be defined as programmed death of cells. In human beings, many cells die every
day and new cells are formed also. The cells of body which die in natural way are programmed like
that.
MEIOTIC ERROR
The meiotic error may be defined as a genetic problem, in which the chromosomes do not
separate properly during anaphase stage of meiosis cell division.
EXPLANATION:
During anaphase of meiosis, the chromosomes are separated in normal way. Therefore each
gamete will receive equal number of chromosomes. But in certain conditions, the chromosomes do not
separate properly, with the result gametes may get one extra chromosomes or one less chromosomes
than required number.
Trisomic condition: It is a condition, in which the child will get on extra chromosomes (2n+1=47)
Monosomic condition: It is a condition, in which child will have one less chromosomes (2n-1=45)
Nullisomic condition: It is a condition in which 2 chromosomes are missing (2n-2=44)
Generally this is called Non-disjunction.
NON-DISJUNCTION:
Abnormal separation of chromosomes is called non-disjunction. Non-disjunction is relatively
common. It is estimated that 1 in 5 normal human pregnancies spontaneously aborts in the first two
months due to a fertilized egg having too many or too few chromosomes.
DOWNS SYNDROME (Trisomic condition)
It is a kind of genetic dis-order in which child is born with one extra chromosome. The name
Down comes from Dr John Langdon Down, who first described the condition in 1866. In 1959 Professor
Lejeune proved that Down's syndrome is a genetic condition caused by the presence of an extra
chromosome.
The person with Down's syndrome has an extra chromosome 21 – making 47 in all. This results
in a disruption to the growth of the developing baby. This extra chromosome can come from either the
mother or the father.
Symptoms:
Child suffering from this syndrome will have following symptoms
1. Long tongue
2. Short mouth
3. Low IQ
4. Mental disorder
5. Flat face
6. folded eyes
7. short body stature
8. Female can fertilize
9. Male are unable to reproduce
10. Life expectancy is maximum 40 years
KLINEFELTORS SYNDROME (TRISOMIC CONDITION)
It may be defined as a genetic dis-order found in males. In this dis-order, a child gets one extra
X chromosome. It means that he will have 44 autosomes XY as sex chromosomes and on extra X
chromosome. This means that the child will have XXY as sex chromosomes. Klinefelter’s syndrome is a
tiresome condition. Klinefelter’s syndrome is found in approximately 1 of 700 men.
SYMPTOMS:
Person suffering from this syndrome will have following symptoms
1. At birth the testicles of boys are of normal size.
2. At the age of 11-12 years, the testicles stay very small (only 2 cms).
3. Usually only few sperms developed in the testicles
4. Men with Klinefelter's syndrome are infertile.
5. They have delayed, speech, and maturation
TURNERS SYNDROME: (Monosomic condition)
It may be defined as a female genetic disorder in which the female child is born with total 45
chromosomes. Out of 45 chromosomes, 44 are autosomes and instead of 2 sex chromosomes, there is
only one X chromosomes. This means there is one sex chromosome missing.

SYMPTOMS:
Women suffering from this disorder will show following symptoms.
1. Short neck,
2. Facial hairs
3. Deep voice
4. Raised chest
5. unable to reproduce
MITOSIS
Mitosis occurs in four steps.
Prophase:
During prophase, chromosomes slowly condense within the nucleus. Centrosomes move to
opposite poles and form aster.
 The net work of chromosomes appear
 Two structures called centrioles, both located on one side of the nucleus, separate and
move toward opposite poles of the cell.
 Centrioles begin to form three types of fibers called spindle fibers. These fibers are
Continuous, Discontinuous and Asters
 The chromosomes break the newt work and line up.
 The chromosomes now change their size. From long, they become short and from thin they
become thick
 The nuclear membrane begins to disappear in prophase but will completely disappear in the
beginning of metaphase.
 The chromosomes move upward, therefore more spindles are formed.
METAPHASE
During metaphase, the chromosomes become attached to opposite poles and aligned to across
the spindle
 In metaphase, the spindle fibers attach to the chromatids near the centromeres.
 Two individual chromosomes stand in back to back manner at the equator. One chromatid
faces one pole of the cell, and its linked partner faces the opposite pole.
 Due to shrinkage of spindle fibers, the chromatids will split.
ANAPHASE
During anaphase, the chromosomes split and chromatids move rapidly to apposite poles
 The discontinuous spindle fibers will shrink towards the poles
 The identical chromatids are separated into single chromosomes, which are taken to
opposite poles of the cell.
TELOPHASE
During telophase, new nuclei are formed from the separated groups of chromosomes
 As these two identical groups of single chromosomes gather at opposite poles of the cell,
telophase begins.
 A new nuclear membrane is formed around each new group of chromosomes.
 The spindle fibers break down and the newly formed chromosomes begin to unwind.

KARYOKINESIS
 The constriction of nuclear membrane will occur, and two nucleus are formed within on
cell.
CYTOKINESIS
 The final phase of the cell cycle is known as cytokinesis.
 In cytokinesis, the cell’s cytoplasm separates in half, with each half containing one nucleus.
 Animals and plants do cytokinesis in slightly different ways.
 In animals, the cell membrane pinches in, creating a cleavage furrow, until the mother cell is
pinched in half.
 In plants, cellulose and other materials that make up the cell wall are transported to the
midline of the cell and a new cell wall is constructed.
 The new cells enter interphase, and the cell cycle begins again.
MEIOSIS
Meiosis is a kind of cell division, which results into formation of male and female gametes. This
division helps the sexually reproducing organisms to reduce their diploid chromosomes to the
level of haploid. In meiosis, there is one round of DNA replication in a diploid cell (2n to 4n)
followed by two separate divisions resulting in four haploid cells (n)
There are many organisms, which reproduce through sexual reproduction. During sexual
reproduction, a male makes sperms, which are called male gametes, and a female makes ova, which
are called female gametes. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of these two male and female
gametes. Both gametes must bring haploid number of chromosomes, so that when a zygote is
formed, it has diploid number of chromosomes as the parents have. Meiosis is a process of cell
division in which male and female reduce their diploid number of chromosomes to haploid level.
Meiosis differs from normal cell division, or mitosis, because in meiosis two consecutive cell
divisions take places instead of one.
The process of meiosis is completed in following stages
INTER PHASE
Prior to meiosis, the corn cell undergoes interphase, in which it synthesizes materials needed
for cell growth and prepares for cell division. During this stage the cell’s genetic information, in the
form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), is replicated. Each of the two consecutive cell divisions consists of
four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
PROPHASE-I
During prophase-I crossing over between chromatids of homologous chromosomes may occur,
allowing the formation of new combinations of genetic information
The prophase of Meiosis –I is prolong. This is further divided into following stages
LEPTOTENE
This stage starts the prophase process. Following events occur
 The chromosomes which are thin long thread like structures appear as individual and are
called Monads

ZYGOTENE
 In this stage, two homologous chromosomes are attracted towards each other and form
pairs which are called Bivalents
 These bivalents join each other at the location of centromeres. Their attachment is called
synapsis
 The chromosomes now become short and thick and begin to coil around each other
PATCHYTENE
 During this stage, when the chromosomes are coiled around each other they are broken
longitudinally into sister chromatids and are called tetrads.
 After breaking up, the chromosomes begin to uncoil, but can not do that due to presence of
synapsis between them
DIPLOTENE
 During this stage, the synaptic force looses therefore homologous chromosomes uncoil and
begin to separate
 The formation of chiasmata takes place which is a point where homologous chromosomes
are still attached with each other
 At this stage, crossing over takes place during which a block of genes may cross from one to
another chromosomes.
DIAKINESIS
 In this stage, Nuclear membrane disappears
 Nucleolus also disappears
 Spindle fiber formation takes place
 The chromosomes finally separate from each other. This process is called Terminalization
 Bivalents become thick and are quite visible.
METAPHASE-I
At the end of metaphase-! Homologous chromosomes are aligned on the central plane of
the spindle.
 During metaphase I, the spindle fibers attach to the chromatids near the centrioles.
 The spindle fibers move the tetrads so that they line up in a plane halfway between two
centrioles.
ANAPHASE-I
During Anaphase-I homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles
 Anaphase I begin when the spindle fibers pull the tetrads apart, pulling the maternal and
paternal chromosomes toward opposite sides of the cell.
TELOPHASE-I
 The first meiotic division concludes with telophase I, when the two new groups of
chromosomes reach opposite sides of the cell.
 A nuclear membrane may form around the two new groups of chromosomes and a division
of cell cytoplasm forms two new daughter cells.
MEIOSIS-II
Meiosis II is similar to mitosis except that there is no S phase of DNA synthesis.

PROPHASE-II
 In this division, the interphase does not occur
 In the second meiotic division the cell moves directly into prophase II.
 The nuclear membrane disappears
 And diads move to equator
METAPHASE-II
 During metaphase II, the chromosomes line up along the plane in the center of the cell.
 The half spindle fibers attach with the centromeres of diads
 Chromatids are finally separated from each other
ANAPHASE-II
 In this stage, the pairs of chromatids are pulled away from each other to wards the opposite
ends of the cell poles
TELOPHASE II
 It is end of the meiosis.
 In this phase the spindle fibers disappear
 New nuclear membrane is formed around each new group of chromosomes to form four
haploid cells.

CELL DIVISION
Cell division is a process by which pre-existing cells form new cells. All cells are derived from
other cells by cell division. Single celled organisms such as bacteria, protozoa and many algae, simple
divide into two similar
Individuals but grow and divide again. The cells of multicellular organisms arise from a single cell as a
result of cell division.
AMITOSIS
Amitosis is a kind of cell division in which the divides directly without formation of spindle fibers.
Amitosis is also called uncontrolled cell division. There are three types of amitosis, which are explained
below
Normal Amitosis
During this kind of division, following events occur
 First the nuclear membrane shrinks towards inside. This gradual shrinkage of nuclear
membrane is called Nuclear Constriction.
 As the nuclear membrane shrinks, the cell membrane also starts shrinkage. The shrinkage of
cell membrane is called Cytoplasmic Constriction.
 Finally one nucleus is divided to make two nuclei
 Around each newly formed nucleus, the cell membrane will divide to form two cells.
This kind of cell division is simple and rapid and is very common in prokaryotes such as bacteria and
single cellular eukaryotic organisms such as amoeba, paramecium and euglena.
Nuclear Budding: Nuclear budding is a kind of amitosis, in which the cell divides in same manner.
The only difference is that the nucleus is divided not from the middle, therefore the newly formed cells
will have nucleus of un-equal size.
Nuclear Fragmentation: In this kind of amitosis, the speed of nuclear division is extra fast, so the
nucleus divided repeatedly, but the cytoplasm cannot follow the speed of nuclear division. As result,
the cell contains a cluster of nuclei.
This kind of cell division is generally found in the old body tissues, and in the tissues where some
kind of disease present. Nuclear fragmentation is generally considered as a root cause of cancer and
tumor.
MITOSIS
Mitosis is a kind of cell division, in which the body cells divide to increase their number. This division is
highly important in the growth and development of any organism.
Mitosis is a process in which a mother cell divides along with its nucleus to form two daughter cells.
The newly formed daughter cells are genetically similar as mother cell. Mitosis cell division is highly
important for growth; for repair and replacement of damaged cells; and for asexual reproduction.
All multicellular animals, plants, fungi, and protists, which begin life as single cells, carry out mitosis to
develop into complex organisms containing billions of cells. Mitosis continues in full-grown organisms
as a means of maintaining the organism, replacing dying skin cells, for example, or repairing damaged
muscle cells. In the cells of the adult human body, mitosis occurs about 25 million times per second.
Multicellular organisms such as sea stars, sea anemones, fungi, and certain plants depend upon mitosis
for asexual reproduction.
The process of mitosis is lengthy and is completed in following stages
The life cycle of eukaryotic cells, or cells containing a nucleus, is a continuous process typically divided
into three phases for ease of understanding, which are
1. Interphase
2. Mitosis
3. Cytokinesis.
INTERPHASE
Interphase includes three stages, which are called G1, S and G2.
G1 Stage
In this stage, a newly formed cell makes materials, which is needed for cell growth.
S Stage
In this stage, DNA is replicated.
MITOSIS
Mitosis occurs in four steps.
Prophase: During prophase, chromosomes slowly condense within the nucleus. Centrosomes move
to opposite poles and form aster.
 The net work of chromosomes appear
 Two structures called centrioles, both located on one side of the nucleus, separate and
move toward opposite poles of the cell.
 Centrioles begin to form three types of fibers called spindle fibers. These fibers are
Continuous, Discontinuous and Asters
 The chromosomes break the newt work and line up.
 The chromosomes now change their size. From long, they become short and from thin they
become thick
 The nuclear membrane begins to disappear in prophase but will completely disappear in the
beginning of metaphase.
 The chromosomes move upward, therefore more spindles are formed.
Metaphase
During metaphase, the chromosomes become attached to opposite poles and aligned to across the
spindle
 In metaphase, the spindle fibers attach to the chromatids near the centromeres.
 Two individual chromosomes stand in back to back manner at the equator. One chromatid
faces one pole of the cell, and its linked partner faces the opposite pole.
 Due to shrinkage of spindle fibers, the chromatids will split.
Anaphase
During anaphase, the chromosomes split and chromatids move rapidly to apposite poles
 The discontinuous spindle fibers will shrink towards the poles
 The identical chromatids are separated into single chromosomes, which are taken to
opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase
During telophase, new nuclei are formed from the separated groups of chromosomes
 As these two identical groups of single chromosomes gather at opposite poles of the cell,
telophase begins.
 A new nuclear membrane is formed around each new group of chromosomes.
 The spindle fibers break down and the newly formed chromosomes begin to unwind.
Karyokinesis
 The constriction of nuclear membrane will occur, and two nucleus are formed within on
cell.
Cytokinesis
 The final phase of the cell cycle is known as cytokinesis.
 In cytokinesis, the cell’s cytoplasm separates in half, with each half containing one nucleus.
 Animals and plants do cytokinesis in slightly different ways.

 In animals, the cell membrane pinches in, creating a cleavage furrow, until the mother cell is
pinched in half.
 In plants, cellulose and other materials that make up the cell wall are transported to the
midline of the cell and a new cell wall is constructed.
 The new cells enter interphase, and the cell cycle begins again.

MEIOSIS
Meiosis is a kind of cell division, which results into formation of male and female gametes. This
division helps the sexually reproducing organisms to reduce their diploid chromosomes to the level of
haploid. In meiosis, there is one round of DNA replication in a diploid cell (2n to 4n) followed by two
separate divisions resulting in four haploid cells (n)
There are many organisms, which reproduce through sexual reproduction. During sexual
reproduction, a male makes sperms, which are called male gametes, and a female makes ova, which
are called female gametes. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of these two male and female
gametes. Both gametes must bring haploid number of chromosomes, so that when a zygote is
formed, it has diploid number of chromosomes as the parents have. Meiosis is a process of cell
division in which male and female reduce their diploid number of chromosomes to haploid level.
Meiosis differs from normal cell division, or mitosis, because in meiosis two consecutive cell
divisions take places instead of one.
The process of meiosis is completed in following stages
Inter phase
Prior to meiosis, the corn cell undergoes interphase, in which it synthesizes materials needed
for cell growth and prepares for cell division. During this stage the cell’s genetic information, in the
form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), is replicated. Each of the two consecutive cell divisions consists of
four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Prophase-I
During prophase-I crossing over between chromatids of homologous chromosomes may occur,
allowing the formation of new combinations of genetic information
The prophase of Meiosis –I is prolong. This is further divided into following stages
Leptotene
This stage starts the prophase process. Following events occur
 The chromosomes which are thin long thread like structures appear as individual and are
called Monads
Zygotene
 In this stage, two homologous chromosomes are attracted towards each other and form
pairs which are called Bivalents
 These bivalents join each other at the location of centromeres. Their attachment is called
synapsis
 The chromosomes now become short and thick and begin to coil around each other
Patchytene
 During this stage, when the chromosomes are coiled around each other they are broken
longitudinally into sister chromatids and are called tetrads.
 After breaking up, the chromosomes begin to uncoil, but can not do that due to presence of
synapsis between them
Diplotene
 During this stage, the synaptic force looses therefore homologous chromosomes uncoil and
begin to separate
 The formation of chiasmata takes place which is a point where homologous chromosomes
are still attached with each other
 At this stage, crossing over takes place during which a block of genes may cross from one to
another chromosomes.

Diakinesis
 In this stage, Nuclear membrane disappears
 Nucleolus also disappears
 Spindle fiber formation takes place
 The chromosomes finally separate from each other. This process is called Terminalization
 Bivalents become thick and are quite visible.
Metaphase-I
At the end of metaphase-! Homologous chromosomes are aligned on the central plane of
the spindle.
 During metaphase I, the spindle fibers attach to the chromatids near the centrioles.
 The spindle fibers move the tetrads so that they line up in a plane halfway between two
centrioles.
Anaphase-I
During Anaphase-I homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles
 Anaphase I begin when the spindle fibers pull the tetrads apart, pulling the maternal and
paternal chromosomes toward opposite sides of the cell.
Telophase-I
 The first meiotic division concludes with telophase I, when the two new groups of
chromosomes reach opposite sides of the cell.
 A nuclear membrane may form around the two new groups of chromosomes and a division
of cell cytoplasm forms two new daughter cells.
Meiosis-II
Meiosis II is similar to mitosis except that there is no S phase of DNA synthesis.
Prophase-II
 In this division, the interphase does not occur
 In the second meiotic division the cell moves directly into prophase II.
 The nuclear membrane disappears
 And diads move to equator
Metaphase-II
 During metaphase II, the chromosomes line up along the plane in the center of the cell.
 The half spindle fibers attach with the centromeres of diads
 Chromatids are finally separated from each other
Anaphase-II
 In this stage, the pairs of chromatids are pulled away from each other to wards the opposite
ends of the cell poles
Telophase II
 It is end of the meiosis.
 In this phase the spindle fibers disappear
 New nuclear membrane is formed around each new group of chromosomes to form four
haploid cells.

HOW DIPLOID BECOME HAPLOID HOW CROSSING OVE ROCCURS
EVENTS IN MEIOSI-I
EVENTS IN MEIOSIS-I EVENTS IN MEIOSIS-II

COMPARISION BETWEEN MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Amitosis Cell division:

Definition: Amitosis may be defined as a type of cell division, in which cell divides without
formation of spindle fiber. This cell division is also called direct or un-controlled cell division.
Procedure: During amitosis, the cell divides in following ways
1. The nuclear membrane shrinks from middle. This is called nuclear constriction
2. Than the cell membrane also shrinks from middle which is called cytoplasmic constriction.
3. Ultimately nucleus divides into two nuclei and cytoplasm also divided into two types
4. Two new daughter cells are formed from one mother cell
Examples of Amitosis:
Amitosis cell division takes place generally in single cellular organisms such as Amoeba, Paramecium
etc. This kind of cell division also occurs in human RBCs.
Nuclear Budding:
Definition: It may be defined as a type of amitosis, in which the cell divided in such a way that in
daughter cells, the nucleus are of un-equal size. One cell has small and other has large nucleus.
Explanation: It is generally believed that when body becomes old, its tissues gradually loose the
property of cell division. The cells of such tissues will not divide in normal way. In nuclear budding the
nucleus of the cell does not divide properly, but it divides in un-equal size.
Examples: This type of amitosis cell division occurs in the old tissues of body.
Nuclear Fragmentation:
Definition: Nuclear fragmentation may be defined as abnormal type of amitosis in which the
nucleus of cell divides repeatedly, but the cytoplasm remains same and does not divide.
Explanation: Some times, the speed of nuclear division is so fast, that cytoplasm can not follow that
speed. In such condition, the nucleus divided again and again but the cytoplasm does not divide. With
the result, there is cluster of nuclei in old cytoplasm.
Example: Such kinds of cell division takes placed in diseased tissues of body and generally cause
cancer and tumor.
Describe Apoptosis
Definition: Apoptosis may be defined as programmed death of cells.
Explanation: In human beings, many cells die every day and new cells are formed also. The cells of
body which die in natural way are actually programmed like that.
Example: There are many examples but more interesting in the example of RBCs and WBCs. We
know that, the age of RBCs is 90 days and WBCs is 20 to 30 hours. When RBCs will complete their life,
they will die because their death is already programmed, likewise, when WBCs will complete their egg
limit, they will also die, because their death is also programmed already.
The programmed death of cells is performed in such a way that the dead cell does not affect on
its neighboring cells. For this purpose, special genes are present which are activated by Ca and protein-
kinesis. These genes will be responsible of the death of particular cells only; therefore all other cells
will remain normal.
Importance of Apoptosis: It is very important process. Through it the cells which are no longer
required by body are killed and fresh cells are made available which will carry out the biological
activities in body.
Cell division and Cancer: Cell division is essential for growth, repair and reproduction. It is tightly
controlled by genes inside the cell. Special genes, called oncogenes, stimulate the production of
growth-stimulating chemicals that trigger cell division. If an oncogene is irreversibly switched on, it can
cause uncontrolled cell division and lead to the formation of a cancer.
The mechanism of cell division and growth is controlled by certain genes. Some times,
mutations occur in the genes, therefore the gene will not support the cell in mitosis division and
growth. Such cell, in which division and growth are affected, is called cancer cell.
Once cancers appear in a cell it may spread into other cells and the entire tissue or organ may be
affected.
The uncontrolled growth of cells forms a lump called a tumor. Some tumors are benign and may not
cause any problems. Others however are malignant. They can invade into other body tissues and cause
severe damage. It is these malignant tumors that we call cancer.
Causes of Mutation: There may be many causes of mutation, which are not experimentally proved.
Some of the causes which are experimentally proved to cause mutation are as under
1. Ionizing Radiation
2. X-Rays
3. Gamma Rays
4. Radioactive substances
5. Ultra-violet light
6. Heredity
7. Certain virus
Effect of cancer cells on other cells: Cancer cells are dangerous for other cells. The cancer cells
multiply rapidly, therefore they need lot of nutrients, which the get from healthy cells. When healthy
cells will not get nutrients they die.
What is meiotic error?

Definition: The meiotic error may be defined as a genetic problem, in which the chromosomes do
not separate properly during anaphase stage of meiosis cell division.
Explanation: During anaphase of meiosis, the chromosomes are separated in normal way. Therefore
each gamete will receive equal number of chromosomes. But in certain conditions, the chromosomes
do not separate properly, with the result gametes may get one extra chromosomes or one less
chromosomes than required number.
Example: A normal human has 46 chromosomes. During meiosis cell division, the 46
chromosomes are made haploid into 23 and 23. Each of this number (23 chromosomes) will go in
gametes. But if meiotic error occurs, than abnormal chromosomes number will go into gametes. If such
gametes take part in fertilization, the result is genetic abnormalities. These abnormalities are termed
as under
Trisomic condition: It is a condition, in which the child will get on extra chromosomes (2n+1=47)
Monosomic condition: It is a condition, in which child will have one less chromosomes (2n-1=45)
Nullisomic condition: It is a condition in which 2 chromosomes are missing (2n-2=44)
Generally this is called Non-disjunction.
How common is Non-disjunction?
Nondisjunction is relatively common. It is estimated that 1 in 5 normal human pregnancies
spontaneously aborts in the first two months due to a fertilized egg having too many or too few
chromosomes.
Some common diseases caused By Non-disjunction:
Some of the very common diseases caused by non-disjunction are given below
Downs Syndrome (Trisomic condition)
It is a kind of genetic dis-order in which child is born with one extra chromosome
Explanation: The word syndrome means a collection of signs or characteristics. The name Down
comes from Dr John Langdon Down, who first described the condition in 1866. In 1959 Professor
Lejeune proved that Down's syndrome is a genetic condition caused by the presence of an extra
chromosome.
The person with Down's syndrome has an extra chromosome 21 – making 47 in all. This results in a
disruption to the growth of the developing baby. This extra chromosome can come from either the
mother or the father.
Symptoms:
Child suffering from this syndrome will have following symptoms
11. Long tongue
12. Short mouth
13. Low IQ
14. Mental disorder
15. Flat face
16. folded eyes
17. short body stature
18. Female can fertilize
19. Male are unable to reproduce
20. Life expectancy is maximum 40 years
Klinefeltors Syndrome (Trisomic condition)

Definition:
It may be defined as a genetic dis-order found in males. In this dis-order, a child gets one extra X
chromosome. It means that he will have 44 autosomes XY as sex chromosomes and on extra X
chromosome. This means that the child will have XXY as sex chromosomes. Klinefeltors syndrome is
a tiresome condition.

How this problem is common?
Klinefelter's syndrome is found in approximately 1 of 700 men.
Symptoms: Person suffering from this syndrome will have following symptoms
6. At birth the testicles of boys are of normal size.
7. At the age of 11-12 years, the testicles stay very small (only 2 cms).
8. Usually only few sperms developed in the testicles
9. Men with Klinefelter's syndrome are infertile.
10. They have delayed, speech, and maturation
Turners Syndrome: (Monosomic condition)
Definition: It may be defined as a female genetic disorder in which the female child is born with
total 45 chromosomes. Out of 45 chromosomes, 44 are autosomes and instead of 2 sex chromosomes,
there is only one X chromosomes. This means there is one sex chromosome missing.
Symptoms: Women suffering from this disorder will show following symptoms.
6. Short neck,
7. Facial hairs
8. Deep voice
9. Raised chest
10. unable to reproduce
It is believed that out of every 10,000 females 4 have this disorder

PRACTICE SHEET#01
1. Shortest possible time for cell division may be----minutes
(a) 20 (b) 30 (c) 40 (d) None
2. A kind of amitosis in which nucleus is divided into different sizes are called
(a) Nuclear budding (b) Nuclear fragmentation
(c) Amitosis (d) All
3. In cancer and tumor cells, the cell divided in a way that nucleus divides repeatedly, and cytoplasm
does not divide. That is called
(a) Nuclear budding (b) Nuclear fragmentation
(c) Amitosis (d) All
4. Programmed death of cell is termed as
(a) Epitasis (b) Apoptosis (c) Both a&b (d) None
5. Apoptosis may occur at any stage of life, but it is more common during
(a) Embryonic stage (b) Maturation stage (c) Aging (d) All of above
6. Any change in the normal number of chromosomes is called
(a) Heteroploidy (b) Aneuploidy (c) Polyploidy (d) All
7. If an animal has more than two homologous chromosomes for given trait, the condition is called
(a) Heteroploidy (b) Polyploidy (c) Both a&b
8. Addition or subtraction of chromosomes is termed as
(a) Heteroploidy (b) Poly ploidy (c) Aneuploidy (d) All
9. One in every 900 births show ------syndrome
(a) Down’s Syndrome (b) Turners Syndrome
(c) Klinefelter syndrome (d) All
10. A person with XXY is --------------
(a) Klinefelter’s syndrome (b) Downs Syndrome
11. About 1 in every 5000 babies are X0. This genetic defect is termed as ----
(a) Down’s Syndrome (b) Turners Syndrome
(c) Klinefelter’s syndrome (d) All
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
B B A D B A A A B

PRACTICE SHEET#02
MITOSIS
1. New cells can come only from preexisting cells.
(a) true (b) false
2. Cell division in unicellular organisms produces two new individuals that are like the parents.
(a) true (b) false
3. Binary fission does not utilize a spindle.
(a) true (b) false
4. The nucleoid of a prokaryote is enclosed by a membrane.
(a) true (b) false
5. Simple cell division distributes the chromosomes in such a way that every cell gets a full number.
(a) true (b) false
6. Each species has a characteristic chromosomal number which is called the diploid number.
(a) true (b) false
7. During telophase, new nuclear envelopes form around the daughter chromosomes.
(a) true (b) false
8. The period of DNA synthesis when replication occurs is termed the G1 stage.
(a) true (b) false
9. During mitosis, the spindle forms.
(a) true (b) false
10. Cell division …. minutes in bacteria
(a) 20 minutes (b) 30 minutes (c) 35 minutes (d) None
11. During _______, the chromosomes attach to the spindle and align at the metaphase plate of the
spindle.
(a) prophase (b) prometaphase (c) metaphase (d) Anaphase
12. During __________, the chromosomes attached to kinetochore fibers are aligned at the metaphase
plate.
(a) anaphase (b) metaphase (c) prophase (d) prometaphase
13. Mitosis only occurs is somatic cells
(a) True (b) False
14. ………is the longest phase of mitosis
(a) Prophase (b) Metaphase (c) Anaphase (d) Telophase
15. Meristem tissue is found in the __________ of a plant.
(a) roots middle (b) shoot tips (c) stems middle (d) all the above
16. Cell division in multicellular organisms
(a) is part of the growth process that produces the multicellular organism.
(b) is important for renewal
(c) is important for repair
(d) all of the above.
17. It is apparent during prophase that nuclear division is about to occur because
(a) the chromatin has condensed (b) the chromosomes are visible structures.
(c) both a and b (d) none of these
18. The spindle of animal cells consists of __________.
(a) poles (b) asters (c) fibers (d) all of the above
19. During anaphase
(a) the spindle lengthens (b) the poles become more distant from one another.
20. Microtubules are found in
(a) the cytoplasm (b) flagella (c) centrioles (d) all of the above
21. The mechanics of the cell cycle and the cause of cancer are __________ related
(a) distantly (b) closely (c) not
22. Interphase consists of the __________ stages of cellular growth and division.
(a) G1, M, and G2 (b) G1, S, and G2 (c) M, S, and G2 (d) M, S, and G1
23. During the G1 stage
(a) the cell grows in size (b) the cellular organelles increase in number
24. Mitosis is the type of nuclear division involved in
(a) growth of the body (b) repair of the body
25. Cell division in eukaryotes involves
(a) nuclear division (b) division of the cytoplasm (c) both a and b
26. In plants centrioles are
(a) present (b) absent
27. Cell division in multicellular organisms is important for
(a) growth (b) repair (c) both a and b
28. Each cell of an organism
(a) contains only the DNA it needs (b) contains a full complement of DNA
(c) depends on the cell (d) none of these
29. Daughter cells as a result of mitosis have a complete copy of
(a) chromosomes (b) genes (c) both a and b
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A A A B A A A B A AC
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B A A A D D C D B D
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
B B A C C A C A C

PRACTICE SHEET#03
MEIOSIS
1. Meiosis is more common than mitosis.
(a) true (b) false
2. Meiosis always increases the number of chromosomes.
(a) true (b) false
3. Exchange of genetic material is called crossing-over.
(a) true (b) false
4. Replication of DNA is necessary between meiosis I and meiosis II.
(a) true (b) false
5. DNA is never replicated in Bacteria
(a) true (b) false
6. It is apparent during prophase I that nuclear division is about to occur.
(a) true (b) false
7. After crossing-over during prophase I, the sister chromatids of a duplicated chromosome remain
identical.
(a) true (b) false
8. There is no set way for the homologous chromosomes to align themselves at the metaphase plate of
the spindle.
(a) true (b) false
9. A zygote always has the diploid number of chromosomes.
(a) true (b) false
10. Meiosis occurs at the same points during the life cycles of various organisms.
(a) true (b) false
11. In animals, the adult is always haploid.
(a) true (b) false
12. Mammals, including humans, have a life cycle that requires __________.
(a) meiosis (b) mitosis (c) both a and b
13. In human females, meiosis is a part of __________.
(a) ovulation (b) Oogenesis (c) neither a or b
14. Mitosis occurs in humans during
(a) development of the zygote (b) growth of a child
(c) repair of tissue at any time (d) all of the above
15. In humans, meiosis
(a) occurs only in the sex organs (b) produces the gametes
16. During __________, the chromosomes of each homologous pair separate and move to opposite poles.
(a) prophase I (b) metaphase I (c) anaphase I (d) telophase I
17. If telophase I takes place, which of the following always happens?
(a) the nuclear envelope reforms (b) cytokinesis occurs
(c) nucleoli appear (d) both a and c
18. Metaphase I is characterized by
(a) a fully formed spindle (b) alignment of the bivalents at the metaphase plate
(c) both a and b (d) none
19. During __________, the sister chromatids separate and therefore four daughter cells each have
chromosomes with one chromatid
(a) meiosis I (b) meiosis II (c) mitosis (d) both a and b

20. Crossing-over is an exchange of genetic material between __________ chromatids.
(a) sister (b) non-sister (c) neither a or b
21. When a cell is 2n, the chromosomes
(a) occurs singly (b) occurs in pairs (c) either a or b
22. Haploid chromosome number of garden pea is
(a) 5 (b) 6 (c) 9 (d) 10
23. Sexual reproduction includes
(a) gamete formation (b) fusion of gametes to form a zygote (c) both a and b
24. In animals, meiosis
(a) occurs during the production of gametes.
(b) produces spores that divide mitotically to become a haploid generation
(c) both a and b
25. Meiosis maintains s number of chromosomes between parents and offspring
(a) True (b) False
26. Meiosis cell division is life long process
(a) True (b) False
27. At the end of telophase II and cytokinesis, there are __________ haploid cells.
(a) two (b) four (c) six
28. After synopsis during meiosis I, the homologous chromosomes __________.
(a) separate (b) join (c) diffuse (d) Split
29. Meiosis occurs in
(a) animals (b) plants (c) fungi (d) all of the above
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B B A A B A A B A B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B C C B D A A B B B
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
B A C A B B B B D


CHAPTER # 08
HEREDITY & VARIAITON
Factor: A particle or unit in the organism which is responsible for the inheritance and expression of a
particular character.
Gene: A gene is a particular segment of a DNA molecule which determines the inheritance and
expression of a particular character.
Alleles or Allelomorphs: Two or more alternative forms of a gene are called alleles or allelomorphs. For
example in pea, the gene for producing seed shape may occur in two alternative forms: round (R) and
wrinkled (r). Round and wrinkled forms of the gene are alleles of each other. Alleles occupy same locus
on homologous chromosomes.
Dominant: Of the two alternating forms (allomorphs) of a trait, the one which appears in the F1 hybrid
is called the dominant trait (Dominant Allele).
Recessive: Of the two alternating allomorphs of a trait, one which is suppressed (does not appear) in
the F1 hybrid is called the recessive trait (recessive allele).
Genotype: The genetic make-up of an individual (which he/she inherits from the parents) is called the
genotype, e.g., the genotype of pure round seeded parent will be RR.
Phenotype : The external (morphological) appearance of an individual for any trait or traits is called the
phenotype, e.g. for seeds, round shape or wrinkled shape is the phenotype.
Homozygous : An individual possessing (receiving from parents) identical alleles for a trait is said to be
homozygous or pure for that trait, e.g. plant with RR alleles is homozygous for the seed shape. A
homozygous always breeds true for that trait.
Heterozygous : An individual receiving dissimilar alleles for a trait is said to be heterozygous or impure
for that trait, e.g. a plant with Rr alleles is heterozygous for the seed shape. Heterozygous is also called
a hybrid.
Parent generations :The parents used for the first cross represent the parent (or P1) generation.
F1generation :The progeny produced from a cross between two parents (P1) is called First Filial or
F1generation.
Inbreeding : When the individuals of a progeny (e.g. F1generation) are allowed to cross with each
other, it is called inbreeding.
F2generation : The progeny resulting from self hybridization or inbreeding of F 1individuals is called
Second Filial or F2generation.
Monohybrid cross : The cross between two parents differing in a single pair of contrasting characters is
called monohybrid cross and the F1offspring as the hybrid(heterozygous for one trait only).
Monohybrid ratio : The phenotypic ratio of 3 dominants : 1 recessive obtained in the F 2 generation
from the monohybrid cross is called monohybrid ratio.
Dihybrids cross: The cross between two parents in which two pairs of contrasting characters are
studied simultaneously for the inheritance pattern. The F1 offspring is described as dihybrid or double
heterozygous (i.e. with dissimilar alleles for two characters).
Dihybrid ratio: The phenotypic ratio obtained in the F2 generation from a dihybrid cross is called
dihybrid ratio. In Mendelian experiments, this ratio is 9:3:3:1.
Homologues or Homologous chromosomes: The morphologically similar looking chromosomes in a
diploid cell (one chromosome coming from the male parent and the other from the female parent) are
called homologous chromosomes. They have identical gene loci bearing alleles.

Gene
A gene is a particular segment of a DNA molecule which determines the inheritance and
expression of a particular character. Genes are generally found in pairs and work for same character.
Some genes are only capable to control one character, whereas some strong genes may control more
than one character.
Allele
Two or more alternative forms of a gene are called alleles or allelomorphs. For example in pea,
the gene for producing seed shape may occur in two alternative forms: round (R) and wrinkled (r).
Round and wrinkled forms of the gene are alleles of each other. Alleles occupy same locus on
homologous chromosomes.
Gene pool
Gene pool may be defined as sum total of genes in population. Gene pool also consists of alleles
in individuals of the population. Gene pool of various communities is different and specific. It remains
same unless out breeding is not practiced. In case the individuals of population practice out breeding,
than new genes appear in coming generations, therefore there will be genetic drift in gene pool.
Genetics
"Genetics is the study and understanding of the phenomena of heredity and variation."The
term ’genetics’ was first coined by Bateson in 1906. In Latin, it means genesis or origination of
organisms.
Heredity is the transmission of characters from one generation to the next, i.e., from parents to their
offspring. Because of heredity, the offspring resemble their parents. Heredity is the essence of self-
reproduction. It is of self-reproduction. For examplea seed of mango develops into a mango tree, or
the offspring of a dog is a puppy, and that of human beings is a human being only.
Variations:
It may be defined asthe visible differences between the parents and the offspring, or between
two offspring of the same parents.
Law of Dominance
The law of dominance may be defined as a phenotypic appearance of strong gene in F1
generation.
According to Mendel, some genes are strong and others are weak. The body characters
controlled by strong genes are called dominant characters, and body characters controlled by weak
genes are called recessive characters. If strong and weak genes are crossed, the weak genes do not
appear in next generation, but strong genes will appear. It means that the strong gene became
dominant over weak gene.
Incomplete dominance
Incomplete dominance may be defined as a genetic method in which the dominant gene fails to
show its dominancy.
Example:
When a plant with Red color of flowers was crossed with white color flower, the next
generation of plants should have produced red flowers, because red is dominant character, controlled
by dominant genes. But according to result, in next generation, the color of flower was neither red not
while, but it was pink

Co-dominance
It may be defined as equal appearance of dominant and recessive genes in F1 generation.
Explanation:
A dominant genes appears phenotypically in F1 generation, but a recessive genes never appears
in F1 generation. But in case of co-dominance, both dominant and recessive genes may appear in equal
ratio in same individual
Example:
Black is a dominant character and white is a recessive character. When a dog with black color
was crossed with bitch with white color. According to Mendelian genetics, the puppies must appear
black. But it was observed that all puppies had black and white spots on their body in the ration of
50:50.
Law of Segregation
The law states that when a pair of alleles is brought together in hybrid union, the members of
the allelic pair remain together without mixing, diluting or altering each other and separate or
segregate from each other when the hybrid forms gametes.Thus, according to this law, when the
hybrid tall(Tt) forms gametes, the genes T and t shall separate (segregate) and enter in different
gametes. As a result, the hybrid shall form two types of gametes; those with (T) genes and an equal
number with (t) gene. Since each gamete will be pure fortallness or for dwarf ness, therefore the law of
dominance is also known as the law of the purity of gametes.
Monohybrid Ratio
The phenotypic ratio of different types of individuals occurring in the F2generation of the
monohybrid cross is called the monohybrid ratio. In the Mendelian monohybrid experiments, this ratio
was always 3:1(i.e., 75% is dominant and 25% is recessive).
Dihybrid Ratio
A cross between two pure, true breeding parents in which the inheritance pattern of two
allelomorphic pairs is considered (studied) simultaneously is called a dihybrid cross. The phenotypic
ratio obtained in the F2generation of a dihybrid cross is called the dihybrid ratio.
Test Cross
Test cross may be defined as a simple method given by Mendel to verify the genotype of the F1
hybrid. Test cross is a genetic way to test the homozygosis or heterozygosis of organisms involved in
crosses.
Explanation:
When the F1 hybrid is crossed with the homozygous recessive parent, it is called a test cross.
Since, the F1 is crossed back with one of the parents; it is also called a back cross.
Example:
In a cross of Tall x Dwarf, the F1 are all tall (Figure is given below). Let us see what happens
when this F1tall is test crossed with the homozygous recessive parent i.e. Dwarf with (tt) genotype.

Multiple allele
Multiple allele may be defined as a gene for a trait having three or more allele forms.
Explanation:
Generally, genes have single allele, but in case of multiple allele, gene has more than three
alleles which express them in multiple ways. The most popular example of multiple allele is blood
groups. In human beings, there are four types of blood groups. All these groups are because of two
antigens which are protein in nature. The name of antigen is Isohemaglutinogen.
Rh antigen
Rh is a kind of antigen which may or may not be found in human blood.
Explanation:
Before human blood research was carried out on Rhesus monkey in which an antigen was
found. That antigen was named after the Rhesus monkeys. Later on, when same antigen was found in
humans, the name of antigen was continued that is why this antigen is called Rh antigen.
The research on human blood has revealed that this antigen is found in 85 % population, and is
absent in 15% population. A person who has this antigen will have positive blood group and a person
who does not have this antigen will have negative blood group.
Erythroblastosis foetalis.
It is very interesting that the blood type of mother is negative and in her womb, the blood type
of child is positive. These types are opposite to each other. In this case the child will have normal birth,
but his positive Rh will stimulate mother to produce antibodies against positive antigen and these
antibodies will remain in mothers’ blood. When same woman will become pregnant next time, than
the antibodies of mother will interfere with the Red blood cells of baby who will be born very anemic.
This condition is called Erythroblastosis foetalis.
Polygenic inheritance
Polygenic inheritance may be defined as a kind of inheritance which is controlled by more than
two separate pairs of genes.
Explanation:
Some body characters are very simple and may be controlled only by one pair of genes, but
some body characters are complicated in nature, therefore they are controlled by at least 2 separate
pairs of genes.
Pleiotropy
It may be defined as inter-related pathway where one product of necessary for the start of next
reaction.
Explanation:
Pleiotropy simply means that a single gene can have multiple effects,but, each effect has its
respective costs and benefits -- which can vary, even reverse, in different contexts thus, a cost in one
context might be a benefit in a different one. Additionally, the capacity to respond to varying
environments with varying effects is itself an adaptive trait!

Phenylketonuria
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inherited error of metabolism caused by a deficiency in the enzyme
phenylalanine hydroxylase. Loss of this enzyme results in mental retardation, organ damage, unusual
posture and can, in cases of maternal PKU, severely compromise pregnancy.
Linkage:
Tendency of genes in a chromosome to remain together is called linkage
Explanation:
There are thousand of genes which are present in chromosomes. It means that in
chromosomes, many genes are linked with each other, but they may be separated from each other if
and when needed.
Crossing Over:
It is defined as tendency of a block of genes which leave their place in chromosome and go to
another chromosome.
Explanation:
During diplotene stage of meiosis cell division, when two homologous chromosomes link up
with the help of synopsis, the genes of both chromosomes get chance to cross over.
Sex determination and sex linkage

Sex determination may be defined as a genetic phenomenon, in which the sex of off spring is
decided.
Explanation:
As we know that organisms have two type of chromosomes i.e. autosome and sex
chromosomes. The autosomes chromosomes have gene for the control of body characters and they
don’t play any part in determination of sex of off spring. Other chromosomes are called sex
chromosomes which have genes for body characters and genes which also control the sex of off spring.
color-blindness
Definition:
The color blindness is a genetic disorder in which a person either cannot distinguish red from
green, or see red and green differently from most people.
Explanation:
The genes for normal color are located on the XX chromosomes of female and only on the X
chromosomes of male. The Y chromosome is very short, therefore it has no genes for body characters,
but it has genes for sex determination.
If the genes in XX chromosomes of female become mutant, the female will suffer from color
blindness. In male only one gene located on X chromosomes has to become mutant and the male will
become color blind. It means if in female, one gene becomes mutant, the other normal gene will save a
female from becoming color blind, whereas male will become color blind if the one and only gene on X
chromosomes becomes mutant.

Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by high blood sugar (glucose)
levels, which result from defects in insulin secretion. Diabetes mellitus, commonly referred as diabetes,
means "sweet urine." lead to spillage of glucose into the urine, hence the term is called sweet urine.

VARIATION AND GENETICS
Terminology Used
1. Factor: A particle or unit in the organism which is responsible for the inheritance and
2. Gene: A gene is a particular segment of a DNA molecule which determines the inheritance and
3. Alleles or Allelomorphs: Two or more alternative forms of a gene are called alleles or
allelomorphs. For example in pea, the gene for producing seed shape may occur in two
alternative forms: round (R) and wrinkled (r). Round and wrinkled forms of the gene are alleles
of each other. Alleles occupy same locus on homologous chromosomes.
4. Dominant: Of the two alternating forms (allomorphs) of a trait, the one which appears in the F1
hybrid is called the dominant trait (Dominant Allele).
5. Recessive: Of the two alternating allomorphs of a trait, one which is suppressed (does not
appear) in the F1 hybrid is called the recessive trait (recessive allele).
6. Genotype: The genetic make-up of an individual (which he/she inherits from the parents) is
called the genotype, e.g., the genotype of pure round seeded parent will be RR.
7. Phenotype : The external (morphological) appearance of an individual for any trait or traits is
called the phenotype, e.g. for seeds, round shape or wrinkled shape is the phenotype.
8. Homozygous : An individual possessing (receiving from parents) identical alleles for a trait is
said to be homozygous or pure for that trait, e.g. plant with RR alleles is homozygous for the
seed shape. A homozygous always breeds true for that trait.
9. Heterozygous : An individual receiving dissimilar alleles for a trait is said to be heterozygous or
impure for that trait, e.g. a plant with Rr alleles is heterozygous for the seed shape.
Heterozygous is also called a hybrid.
10. Parent generations : The parents used for the first cross represent the parent (or P1)
generation.
11. F1 generation : The progeny produced from a cross between two parents (P1) is called First
Filial or F1 generation.
12. Inbreeding : When the individuals of a progeny (e.g. F1 generation) are allowed to cross with
each other, it is called inbreeding.
13. F2 generation : The progeny resulting from self hybridization or inbreeding of F 1 individuals is
called Second Filial or F2 generation.
14. Monohybrid cross : The cross between two parents differing in a single pair of contrasting
characters is called monohybrid cross and the F1offspring as the hybrid(heterozygous for one
trait only).
15. Monohybrid ratio : The phenotypic ratio of 3 dominants : 1 recessive obtained in the F2
generation from the monohybrid cross is called monohybrid ratio.
16. Dihybrids cross: The cross between two parents in which two pairs of contrasting characters
are studied simultaneously for the inheritance pattern. The F1 offspring is described as dihybrid
or double heterozygous (i.e. with dissimilar alleles for two characters).
17. Dihybrid ratio: The phenotypic ratio obtained in the F2 generation from a dihybrid cross is
called dihybrid ratio. In Mendelian experiments, this ratio is 9:3:3:1.
18. Homologues or Homologous chromosomes: The morphologically similar looking chromosomes
in a diploid cell (one chromosome coming from the male parent and the other from the female
parent) are called homologous chromosomes. They have identical gene loci bearing alleles.

Encircule the Most Correct Choice
1. Mendel performed his famous experiments of heredity on
a) Maize b) Mirabilis c) Garden pea d) Bean plant
2. Mendel in his experiments considered characters
a) Five b) Three c) Six d) Seven
3. In a cross appearance of inheritance character is known as
a) Co-dominance b) Incomplete dominance c) Epistasis d) None
4. If in a cross both characters equally appear then it is called
a) Co-dominance b) Incomplete dominance c) Interaction of gene d) Multiple allele
5. Blood group is also known as universal donor
a) Blood group A b) Blood group B c) Blood group AB d) Blood group O
6. Each human being possesses pairs of chromosomes
a) 21 pairs b) 22 pairs c) 23 pairs d) 24 pairs
7. FILL IN THE BLANKS WITH APPROPRIATE WORD

a) The total aggregate of genes in a population is called GENE POOL
b) The cross between two parents differing only in one trait is called MONO HYBRID CROSS
c) A gene for a trait having three or more forms are called MULTIPLE ALLELE
d) Exchange of segments during meiosis is called CROSSING OVER
d) The diabetes type ii usually occur after age of 45 YEARS
3. WRITE WEATHER THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS ARE TRUE OR FALSE

a) Any of the possible alternative forms of the same gene is called allele (TRUE)
b) Test cross can be performed to check the heterozygosity of parents (TRUE)
c) Rh stands for Rhesus factor (TRUE)
d) The linked genes segregate independently (TRUE)
e) Crossing over may occur only at one point (TRUE)
f) Diabetes Mellitus type I is insulin dependent diabetes (TRUE)
What is Gene?
A gene is a particular segment of a DNA molecule which determines the inheritance and expression of
a particular character. Genes are generally are found in pairs and work for same character. Some genes
are only capable to control one character, whereas some strong genes may control more than one
character.
What is Allele?
Two or more alternative forms of a gene are called alleles or allelomorphs. For example in pea, the
gene for producing seed shape may occur in two alternative forms: round (R) and wrinkled (r). Round
and wrinkled forms of the gene are alleles of each other. Alleles occupy same locus on homologous
chromosomes.
Define Gene pool?
Gene pool may be defined as sum total of genes in population. Gene pool also consists of alleles in
individuals of the population. Gene pool of various communities is different and specific. It remains
same unless out breeding is not practiced. In case the individuals of population practice out breeding,
than new genes appear in coming generations, therefore there will be genetic drift in gene pool.

Define genetics and explain that how it is different from variation?
Definition: "Genetics is the study and understanding of the phenomena of heredity and variation."
The term ’genetics’ was first coined by Bateson in 1906. In Latin, it means genesis or origination of
organisms.
Heredity is the transmission of characters from one generation to the next, i.e., from parents to their
offspring. Because of heredity, the offspring resemble their parents. Heredity is the essence of self-
reproduction. It is of self-reproduction. For example a seed of mango develops into a mango tree, or
the offspring of a dog is a puppy, and that of human beings is a human being only.
Variations:
It may be defined as the visible differences between the parents and the offspring, or between two
offsprings of the same parents.
An offspring receives all the characters from its parents but, an offspring is never an exact copy of its
parents. Similarly, no two offsprings of the same parents are identical (exception: identical twins).
Write a detailed note on Gregor Mendel

Gregor Johann Mendel was born on July 22, 1822 in Moravia, Austria. He had his early education in a
monastery in Brunn, Austria, and later studied science and mathematics at the University of Vienna. He
graduated in 1840. Mendel returned to the monastery in Brno as a monk. He worked as a teacher of
physics and natural science in a Higher Secondary School of Brno during 1854 to 1868. He was
appointed as abbot of the monastery in 1868. He remained on this post until his death.
Mendel carried out experiments on garden pea plants in the monastery garden from 1857 to 1865. He
had a clear perspective and worked on the experiments with precision and thoroughness. He published
his research paper containing his observations and conclusions in 1866 in the annual proceedings of
the Natural History Society of Brunn. These conclusions are now known as Mendel’s Laws.
But unfortunately, this work failed to attract the attention of the biologists of that time. Therefore, it
was ignored for 35 years. Thus, Mendel was left bitterly disappointed, and died an unrecognized death
in 1884.
Sixteen years after Mendel's death, in 1900, Hugo de Vries (Holland), Karl Korrens (Germany) and Von
Tschermark (Austria) concluded from their independent experiments same results as those of Mendel.
De Vries rediscovered the research paper of Mendel and it was published again in 1901. The
experiments on heredity of plants and animals have confirmed that Mendel's laws of heredity are
applicable to other organisms as well. They form the basis of modern genetics. Hence, Mendel is called
The Father of Genetics.
What do you know about Mendel’s Experiments?

Mendel performed his experiments in systematic way. His way of experimentation is described below
Selection of the material: Mendel selected garden sweet pea (Pisum sativum) for his hybridization
experiments for the following reasons: (i) Plants are annual and easy to cultivate. (ii) Peas have many
distinct, well-defined and easily observable morphological characteristics (traits). (iii) Flowers are
bisexual and naturally self-fertilizing, but they can also be easily cross-fertilized. (iv) The offspring of
cross-fertilized plants are fertile. (v) Flowers are sufficiently large for easy emasculation (removal of
stamens) and artificial cross-pollination.
Selection of characters (traits): Mendel selected 14 different varieties of the pea and grouped them
into seven pairs. Each pair was considered for a specific trait (characteristic) such as flower color or
seed shape or stem length, etc. The two members of each pair showed contrasting forms of the chosen
trait, e.g., in a pair selected for stem length, one variety had a tall stem (6-7 feet tall) while the other
had a dwarf stem. These seven pairs of contrasting traits are shown in Table below.

Table: Showing seven pairs of contrasting characters selected by Mendel
Sr. Characters Contrasting pairs (Allelic pairs)
No.
(Dominant) (Recessive)
Form of seed Round (R) Wrinkled(r)

1.
2. Color of cotyledons Yellow(Y) Green(y)
3. Color of seed coat Colored(C) White(c)
4. Form of pod Inflated (I) Constricted(i)
5. Color of pod Green(G) Yellow(g)
6. Position of flower Axial(A) Terminal(a)
7. Height of plant (Length of stem) Tall(T) Dwarf(t)
Procedure of the experiments: Mendel had very clear concepts of what he was doing and what
requirements were necessary if he had to arrive at the conclusions accurately and successfully. He
realized the necessity of: (i) using pure breeding parent plants; (ii) considering only one character at a
time during the breeding experiments; (iii) always keeping the generations separate; (iv) and using
statistical and mathematical principles to compute the obtained results properly.
Mendel conducted his experiments in three stages.
Stage-1: It involved selecting a pair of parents with contrasting characters and obtaining each parent
plant in pure condition, i.e. breeding true for the characters selected.
For example, Mendel ensured that the plant selected for round seeds produced only round
seeds on self-fertilization and the plant selected for wrinkled seeds produced only wrinkled
seeds. Such pure, true-breeding parents were obtained by Mendel through repeated self
fertilizing, generation after generation.
Stage -2: It involved crossing of the selected parents. Of the pair, one plant was used as the male
parent and the other as the female parent. Pollen from the male was dusted on the stigma of the
female parent for cross-pollination. Mendel conducted reciprocal crosses also.
For example : in one cross, the round seeded variety was used as the male parent and
the wrinkled seeded variety as the female parent, while in the reciprocal cross of the
same parents, the wrinkled variety was used as the male parent and the round seeded
variety as the female parent. This may be represented as follows :
Male Parent Female Parent
Cross - I Rounded seeded Wrinkled seeded
Reciprocal Cross Wrinkled seeded Rounded seeded
Such a cross between two parents representing contrasting forms of a single character is called
monohybrid cross and the offspring is called a hybrid. The hybrid represents the first filial generation
or F1 generation.

Stage - 3: In the third stage, Mendel allowed each F1 hybrid to self-pollinate and produce the next, i.e.,
Second Filial generation or F2 generation.
Mendel conducted a similar type of hybridization experiment separately for each of the seven pairs. He
meticulously maintained a complete record of the actual number of each type of offspring in every
generation (i.e., data of qualitative as well as quantitative results).
Mendel observed that in each of these crosses, all the F1 hybrids resembled only one parent, while the
character of the other parent was not seen in the F1 hybrid. For example, in a cross between round X
wrinkled type, the F1 were all round seeds only. The wrinkled character was not seen. The character
which appears in the F1 hybrid was termed dominant and the other as recessive by Mendel. Thus, in
each of the seven pairs, one form is dominant and the other is recessive (See Table 1.1). The F 2
progeny showed presence of both parental forms which always appeared in the ratio of 3 dominants: 1
recessive. This 3:1 F2 ratio was termed as the monohybrid ratio.
Describe Law of Dominance?

Definition:
The law of dominance may be defined as a phenotypic appearance of strong gene in F1 generation.
Explanation:
According to Mendel, some genes are strong and others are weak. The body characters controlled by
strong genes are called dominant characters, and body characters controlled by weak genes are called
recessive characters. If strong and weak genes are crossed, the weak genes do not appear in next
generation, but strong genes will appear. It means that the strong gene became dominant over weak
gene.
Example:
If a tall plant has strong genes TT and it is crossed with dwarf plant which recessive genes tt. The tall
plants will produce two gametes T and T and dwarf plant will also produce two gametes t and t
If these gametes are crossed the following result will appear.
From above chart, it may be found that when Tall plant is crossed with dwarf plant. The F1 generation
plants will be tall, because tall body character is controlled by dominant genes
The law of dominance is often described as Mendel’s first law of inheritance.

Describe incomplete dominance?
Definition:
Incomplete dominance may be defined as a genetic method in which the dominant gene fails to show
its dominancy
Explanation:
Mendel said that whenever dominant and recessive parents are crossed, the next generation will show
dominant characters. But in later on experiments it appeared that it is not always true.
Example:
When a plant with Red color of flowers was crossed with white color flower, the next generation of
plants should have produced red flowers, because red is dominant character, controlled by dominant
genes. But according to result, in next generation, the color of flower was neither red not while, but it
was pink.
Conclusion: It appears that the red and white colors were mixed together two create a pink pigment.
From above explanation it is concluded that dominant genes some times fail to express their
dominancy. This s called incomplete dominance.
Describe Co-dominance in detail?
Definition: It may be defined as equal appearance of dominant and recessive genes in F1
generation.
Explanation: A dominant genes appears phenotypically in F1 generation, but a recessive genes never
appears in F1 generation. But in case of co-dominance, both dominant and recessive genes may appear
in equal ratio in same individual
Example: Black is a dominant character and white is a recessive character. When a dog with black
color was crossed with bitch with white color. According to Mendelian genetics, the puppies must
appear black. But it was observed that all puppies had black and white spots on their body in the ration
of 50:50.
Conclusion: It is concluded that when dominant and recessive genes appear in equal ration, it is
called co-dominance.
Monohybrid Ratio: The phenotypic ratio of different types of individuals occurring in the F2
generation of the monohybrid cross is called the monohybrid ratio. In the Mendelian monohybrid
experiments, this ratio was always 3:1(i.e., 75% is dominant and 25% is recessive).
For example, for one of his monohybrid crosses, Mendel selected true breeding homozygous parents
showing contrasting characters for the height of the plant. He performed the experiment in three
stages as described. The result obtained is shown in Figure below.

Figure: Tall x Dwarf Monohybrid cross showing the result obtained by Mendel
According to Mendel, each sexually reproducing diploid organism possesses two (genes) for each
character; one factor is received (inherited) from male parent and the other factor is inherited from
the female parent. These two factors for a particular character are called alleles or allelomorphs.
When an offspring receives identical alleles from both parents, it is called homozygous, pure or true
breeding for the character. On the other hand, when the offspring receives dissimilar alleles from
two parents, it is called heterozygous, impure or a hybrid for that character.
The pure tall is crossed with the pure dwarf parent. According to Mendel, when the diploid
individual (having both the alleles/factors) produces gametes, each gamete receives only one of the
two factors/alleles of a character. No gamete receives both the alleles of a character. Thus, pure tall
parent produces only one type of gametes, i.e. all the gametes possess only (T) factor for tallness.
Similarly, all gametes produced by pure dwarf are of one type only and possess (t) factor. The fusion of
(T) and (t) gametes (fertilization) results in the F1 offspring with (Tt) genotype. It is heterozygous or a
hybrid. Its phenotype (external appearance) is tall because the factor for tallness (T) is dominant and
expresses itself. The factor for dwarfness (t) is present in F1 hybrid but, being recessive, does not
express itself (remains hidden).
Mendel allowed hybrids to self-fertilize or inbreed to raise F2 generation. The F1 hybrid has
dissimilar alleles (Tt). Therefore, it will produce two types of gametes in equal number i.e. 50%
gametes will have (T) factor and remaining 50% will have (t) factor. Since the pea flower is bisexual, it
produces both male and female gametes. Thus, the F1 hybrid will produce two types of male gametes
(T) and (t) in equal numbers. Similarly, there will be two types of female gametes (T) and (t) in equal
numbers. During self fertilization, the fusion between these male and female gametes occurs at
random. For example, each type of male gamete has an equal chance to fuse with either (T) or (t)
female gametes or vice-versa. This chance fusion, between two types of male and two types of female
gametes will produce a maximum of four combinations (genotypes) in the F2 progeny. This is shown in
the checker board or Punnet’s Square. These four combinations fall into three categories of the
genotypes as follows: 1 (TT), 2 (Tt) and 1 (tt) i.e.
1 Pure tall: 2 Hybrid tall: 1 Pure dwarf
(TT) 2(Tt) (tt)
This is called 1:2:1 genotypic ratio of a monohybrid cross. However, phenotypically, the progeny shows
3 Tall and 1 Dwarf individuals (75% Dominant and 25% recessive characters) or 3:1 ratio. This is called
monohybrid ratio or phenotypic ratio of a monohybrid cross.

Describe Law of Segregation?
Mendel performed monohybrid crosses separately for each of the seven pairs of contrasting
characters. In each such cross, he got similar results as described for the Tall x Dwarf cross. On the
basis of the results obtained for the monohybrid crosses, Mendel formulated the law of segregation,
also called Mendel’s second law of heredity.
The law states that when a pair of alleles is brought together in hybrid union, the members of the
allelic pair remain together without mixing, diluting or altering each other and separate or segregate
from each other when the hybrid forms gametes.
Thus, according to this law, when the hybrid tall (Tt) forms gametes, the genes T and t shall separate
(segregate) and enter in different gametes. As a result, the hybrid shall form two types of gametes;
those with (T) genes and an equal number with (t) gene. Since each gamete will be pure for tallness or
for dwarfness, therefore the law of dominance is also known as the law of the purity of gametes.
Dihibrid Ratio
Mendel established the law of segregation through monohybrid crosses involving only one
pair of alleles at a time. However, in an organism, so many characters are present together
and each character is represented by a pair of alleles. So, Mendel wanted to know, "Whether
one pair of alleles affects or influences the inheritance pattern of other pairs of alleles in the
organism or, each pair is inherited independently as if in a monohybrid cross?" To find the
answers to these questions, Mendel performed dihybrid crosses.
A cross between two pure, true breeding parents in which the inheritance pattern of two allelomorphic
pairs is considered (studied) simultaneously is called a dihybrid cross. The phenotypic ratio obtained in
the F2 generation of a dihybrid cross is called the dihybrid ratio.
A dihybrid is an individual which is double heterozygous (i.e. heterozygous for two pairs of alleles).
Inheritance of two traits:

Mendel considered two characters in the pea plants. e.g. cotyledon color (yellow / green) and seed
shape (round / wrinkled). He selected one variety of peas which was pure (true breeding) for yellow
round seeds and crossed it with another variety pure for green wrinkled seeds.
All the F1 of this cross were yellow round seeds (green and wrinkled characters did not appear in F1
hybrids). Mendel anticipated this because, from the earlier monohybrid experiments he knew that
yellow was dominant over green and round was dominant over wrinkled.
P Yellow Round X Green Wrinkled
F1 Yellow Round
Similarly, a cross between yellow wrinkled and green round also produced only yellow round seeds in
F1
P Yellow Wrinkled X Green Round
F1 Yellow Round
Moreover, the reciprocal crosses (interchanging male and female parents) also gave the same results.
Further, when the F1 dihybrids were self-pollinated or inbred, the F2 generation was always the same,
e.g.

The analysis of F2 progeny showed four different kinds of phenotypes. These were (1) Yellow round (2)
Yellow Wrinkled (3) Green round and (4) Green Wrinkled in the ratio of 9:3:3:1 respectively. It will be
seen that out of these four types, two show the same combinations as the parents whereas the
remaining two are new combinations (recombinants).
The phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 in the F2 progeny of a dihybrid cross is called the dihybrid ratio. Same
results were obtained by Mendel using other pairs of alleles in different combinations.
On the basis of these experiments and their results, Mendel formulated the law of independent
assortment of characters and explained it as follows.
Describe in detail the Law of Independent Assortment?

"When a dihybrid plant forms gametes following things happen
(i) Each gamete receives one allele from each parent
(ii) The assortment of the alleles of different traits during the gamete formation is totally
independent of their original combinations in the parents
This is known as the Law of Independent Assortment of characters. It is also referred to as Mendel’s
third law of heredity.
Explanation of the law of independent assortment: The principle of independent assortment was
explained by Mendel with the help of a dihybrid cross involving characters of cotyledon color (yellow /
round) and seed shape (round / wrinkled).
Mendel crossed a true breeding variety of pea having yellow cotyledons (YY) and round seeds (RR) with
another true breeding variety having green cotyledons (yy) and wrinkled seeds (rr). The complete
result of this cross is shown in the Figure below
Thus, the yellow round parent has the genotype (YYRR) and the green wrinkled parent (yyrr). Since
each parent is homozygous for both characters (color and shape), each will produce only one type of
gametes. The (YYRR) parent will produce all (YR) type gametes and the (yyrr) will produce all (yr) type
gametes. All F1 dihybrids resulting from the fusion of these gametes would be double heterozygous
with (YyRr) genotype and appear yellow round. This indicated that in the dihybrid cross also in each
pair, the alleles behaved exactly in the same way as in the monohybrid cross. Both the dominants (Y
and R) expressed themselves in F1 while both the recessive alleles (y and r ) remained hidden.
Types of gametes formed by F1 dihybrid: According to Mendel, during gamete formation by the F1
dihybrid, the alleles in both pairs Y-y and R-r first segregate from each other (Law of segregation). Each
pair segregates independently of the pair. Then the alleles enter the gametes. A gamete can receive
only one allele from each pair, i.e. Y or y and R or r. Similarly, a gamete that receives a factor (gene) for
color must also receive factor for shape (a factor for every character must be present in each gamete).
Thus, a gamete that receives Y for color may receive R or r for shape. This would result in (YR) and (Yr)
types of gametes. Similarly, a gamete that receives y for color may receive R or r for shape. This would
give (yR) and (yr) types of gametes. In other words, the F1 dihybrid would produce four types of
gametes (YR), (Yr), (yR) and (yr) in equal proportions. This is the principle of independent assortment of
characters. There will be four types of male gametes and four types of female gametes formed by the
F1 dihybrid.

During self-fertilization or inbreeding of the F1 dihybrids to produce an F2 generation, these male and
female gametes can form maximum to dihybrid unions as shown in the Punnet’s Checker-board. These
can be grouped into four kinds on the basis of phenotypic appearance. i.e. yellow round, yellow
wrinkled, green round and green wrinkled in the ratio of 9:3:3:1 respectively. This is called the
phenotypic dihybrid ratio.
In chart above, the 16 squares of the checker board are serially numbered for convenience. The
squares represent the 16 possible combinations of the gametes which might result. The genotypes and
the phenotypes of the F2 offspring are shown in the sixteen squares. A count of these squares shows
the four kinds of phenotypes and their ratio in the F2 generation.
Phenotypes Square numbers Total
Yellow Round 1,2,3,4,5,7,9,10,13 ... 9
Yellow Wrinkled 6,8,14 ... 3
Green Round 11,12,15 ... 3
Green Wrinkled 16 ... 1

Describe Test Cross in detail?
Definition: Test cross may be defined as a simple method given by Mendel to verify the genotype of
the F1 hybrid.
Or
Test cross is a genetic way to test the homozygosis or heterozygosis of organisms involved in
crosses.
Explanation: When the F1 hybrid is crossed with the homozygous recessive parent, it is called a test
cross. Since, the F1 is crossed back with one of the parents; it is also called a back cross.
Example: In a cross of Tall x Dwarf, the F1 are all tall (Figure is given below). Let us see what
happens when this F1 tall is test crossed with the homozygous recessive parent i.e. Dwarf with (tt)
genotype.
We aim to check and verify two things (i) determine the genotype of F 1 Tall and (ii) check the
correctness of the law of segregation.
Thus, F1 tall is back crossed with the homozygous recessive dwarf parent and the progeny of the cross
examined. We know that the recessive dwarf with (tt) genotype will produce only one type of gametes
(i.e., all with (t) only). However, as regards the F1 tall, there can be two possibilities:
a. If the F1 tall is homozygous with (TT) genotype, it shall produce only one type of gametes (i.e. all
with (T) only). As a result, the progeny of the cross should be all tall. (T) x (t) = (Tt) Tall.
b. If, on the other hand, the F1 tall is heterozygous with (Tt) genotype and, if Mendel's law of
segregation of characters is correct, then the F1 should produce two types of gametes, (T) and
(t) in equal proportion. The recessive dwarf parent produces only (T) type of gametes. The
resulting test cross progeny should be 50% Tall and 50% Dwarf or in 1:1 ratio as follows:
Thus it is proved that F1 Tall is a heterozygous dominant with (Tt) genotype.

SUMMARY : MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE
(1) Genetics is the study of the principles of heredity and variations. (2) Hybridization experiments
using garden pea plants by Mendel, and his conclusions and explanations regarding the nature of
inheritance of each character are commonly known as Mendelism. (3) Mendel established the
phenomena of dominance and recessiveness through monohybrid experiments. (4) Mendel
formulated the law of segregation of characters on the basis of the results of monohybrid crosses. (5)
The law of independent assortment of characters was formulated by Mendel on the basis of the
results of dihybrid crosses. (6) The monohybrid cross in Mendelian experiments gives a phenotypic
ratio of 3 : 1 and genotypic ratio of 1:2:1 in the F2 generation. (7) The dihybrid cross gives the
phenotypic ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 :1 and genotypic and genotypic dihybrid ratios are the products of their
respective monohybrid ratios. (9) Mendel devised the test cross (back cross) method to verify the
genotype of F1 hybrid as well as for testing correctness of his laws of heredity. (10) Mendel
established the concept of ’factor’ which is now known as gene.

Explain multiple allele with examples
Definition: Multiple allele may be defined as a gene for a trait having three or more allele forms.
Explanation: Generally genes have single allele, but in case of multiple allele, gene has more than
three alleles which express them in multiple ways.
Example: The most popular example of multiple allele is blood groups. In human beings, there are
four types of blood groups. All these groups are because of two antigens which are protein in nature.
The name of antigen is Isohemaglutinogen, which is written with capital letter I. This antigen has two
forms, i.e. A and B. In some people, any one of these A and B antigen is present and in others both
antigens are present. Still in others, these antigens are absent.
A person who has A antigen with have blood group A and a person who has antigen B, he will have
blood group B and if a person has both antigens A and B than the blood group will be AB, but if these
antigens are absent, the blood group will be O. Behind these blood groups, three alleles are involved
which are IA IB and i.
The ABO system is called a multiple allele system for there are more than two possible allele pairs. The
individual's blood type is determined by which combination of alleles he/she has. There are four
possible blood types in order from most common to most rare: O, A, B and AB. The O blood type
represents an individual who is homozygous recessive (ii) and does not have an allele for A or B. Blood
types A and B are codominant alleles. Codominant alleles are expressed even if only one is present.
The recessive allele i for blood type O is only expressed when two recessive alleles are present. Blood
type O is not apparent if the individual has an allele for A or B. Individuals who have blood type A have
a genotype of IAIA or IAi and those with blood type B, IBIB or IBi, but an individual who is IAIB has
blood type AB.
Blood Type Chart
Parent 1 Parent 2 Child
Type O (i i) Type O Type O (i i)
Type A (IA) Type A (IA) Type A (IAIA)
Type B (IB) Type B (IB) Type B (IBIB)
Type A (IA) Type O (i i) Type A (IAi)
Type B (IB) Type O (i i) Type B (IBi)
Type A (IA) Type B (IB) Type AB (IAIB)
What is Rh antigen?
Definition: Rh is a kind of antigen which may or may not be found in human blood.
Explanation:
Before human blood research was carried out on Rhesus monkey in which an antigen was found. That
antigen was named after the Rhesus monkeys. Later on, when same antigen was found in humans, the
name of antigen was continued that is why this antigen is called Rh antigen.
The research on human blood has revealed that this antigen is found in 85 % population, and is absent
in 15% population. A person who has this antigen will have positive blood group and a person who
does not have this antigen will have negative blood group.
Importance of Rh Knowledge:
It is very important to know weather the blood type is positive or negative. It is understood from
research that Rh positive is dominant and Rh negative is recessive.
If a female has Rh negative blood type and she marries with a male who has positive blood type, than
the child will have positive blood type because positive is a dominant type.
It is very interesting that the blood type of mother is negative and in her womb, the blood type of child
is positive. These types are opposite to each other. In this case the child will have normal birth, but his
positive Rh will stimulate mother to produce antibodies against positive antigen and these antibodies
will remain in mothers’ blood. When same woman will become pregnant next time, than the
antibodies of mother will interfere with the Red blood cells of baby who will be born very anemic. This
condition is called Erythroblastosis foetalis. This is now a days a treatable disease. The treatment is
possible by injection in pregnant mother. If injection is applied, than mother will not produce
antibodies.
Describe polygenic inheritance

Definition: Polygenic inheritance may be defined as a kind of inheritance which is controlled by
more than two separate pairs of genes.
Explanation: Some body characters are very simple and may be controlled only by one pair of genes,
but some body characters are complicated in nature, therefore they are controlled by at least 2
separate pairs of genes.
Examples: The color of kernel of wheat is controlled by 2 separate pairs of genes which are written
as A1 A2 (as one pair) and a1 a2 (as second pair). When all four genes will combine to work, the color
of kernel will be deep dark. If all recessive alleles, work, than the color will be white. In some cases,
when dominant allele will interfere with recessive allele, than intermediate color will appear which will
neither resemble with red nor with white.
Some other examples of polygenic inheritance in different organisms is given in table below.
ORGANISM EXAMPLE
HUMAN BEINGS Color of skin, Height of body, Intelligence
ANIMALS Milk, meat and egg production
PLANTS Number of flowers, Fruits and Seeds
Describe Pleiotropy
Definition:
It may be defined as inter-related pathway where one product of necessary for the start of next
reaction.
Explanation:
Pleiotropy simply means that a single gene can have multiple effects, but, each effect has its respective
costs and benefits -- which can vary, even reverse, in different contexts thus, a cost in one context
might be a benefit in a different one. Additionally, the capacity to respond to varying environments
with varying effects is itself an adaptive trait!
Accounting for the occurrence of pleiotropy, mutation of any one of enzymes E 2, E3, E4 would
affect both fluxes Ja and Jb to separate trait components. Mutation of any one of enzymes E 5a, E6a, etc
would decrease flux Ja to a trait component but increase Jb to another trait component; the
concentrations of trait components in pathway Ja would decrease, those in pathway Jb would increase.
Epistasis would occur if a subsequent mutation occurred in any one of enzymes E 5b, E6b etc. A branched
metabolic pathway is thus a potential source of pleiotropy and epistasis; see the text for further
discussion. This diagram, like that in Figure 4, emphasizes the importance of adopting a systemic
approach in understanding the potential effect, on a trait or traits, of a mutation in any one enzyme in
enzyme-catalysed systems.
Example: There are many examples of pleiotropy, but the most popular example inhuman beings
is Phenylketonuria: Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inherited error of metabolism caused by a deficiency
in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. Loss of this enzyme results in mental retardation, organ
damage, unusual posture and can, in cases of maternal PKU, severely compromise pregnancy.
Describe Linkage and crossing over
Definition of Linkage: Tendency of genes in a chromosome to remain together is called linkage
Explanation: There are thousand of genes which are present in chromosomes. It means that in
chromosomes, many genes are linked with each other, but they may be separated from each other if
and when needed.
Definition of Crossing Over: It is defined as tendency of a block of genes which leave their place in
chromosome and go to another chromosome.
Explanation: During diplotene stage of meiosis cell division, when two homologous chromosomes link
up with the help of synopsis, the genes of both chromosomes get chance to cross over.
Benefits of linkage and crossing Over: The most important benefit of crossing over is that it bring
variation in the offspring. In case crossing over does not occur, the offspring would be exactly same as
parents. Crossing over helps in introduction of new characters in off sprigs.
What is sex determination and sex linkage?

Definition: Sex determination may be defined as a genetic phenomenon, in which the sex of off
spring is decided.
Explanation: As we know that organisms have two type of chromosomes i.e. autosome and sex
chromosomes. The autosomes chromosomes have gene for the control of body characters and they
don’t play any part in determination of sex of off spring. Other chromosomes are called sex
chromosomes which have genes for body characters and genes which also control the sex of off spring.
Sex Determination in Human
Human male has 46 chromosomes out of which 44 are autosomes and 2 chromosomes are sex
chromosomes. Same is true for a female. She also has 46 chromosomes out of which 44 are autosomes
and 2 are sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes in male are heterologous therefore they are
written as XY and sex chromosomes in female are homologous so they are written as XX. Out of these
four chromosomes i.e. XY of male and XX of female, all XXX have genes for female child and in Y
chromosome, there are genes for male child. At the time of reproduction, the male will produce two
sperms. One sperm will have X chromosome in it and the other sperm will have Y chromosome in it. In
case of female, two ova will be produced and in both the ova, the chromosome will be X and X.
The above picture shows that If male gamete carrying X chromosome will fertilize the ovum, the
female child will get birth and if the sperm having Y chromosome will fertilize, than male child will get
birth.
Conclusion:
From above explanation, it may be concluded that in human beings, male is responsible to determine
the sex of child.

More points:
The sex determination is done in different ways in different animals. For example in grasshopper, the
sex is determined not due to different shape of chromosomes, but due to difference in the number of
chromosomes. In some animals, sex is determined by male and in other by female. For example in
some fishes and some insects, the sex is determined by females.
Describe Sex Determination in Drosophila
The common name of drosophila is fruit fly. It is the first animal ever used in genetic experiments. The
genetic research on Drosophila has revealed that in male and female, there are in total f pairs of
chromosomes (8 in total). In male 6 chromosomes are autosomes and 2 are sex chromosomes and in
female also 6 are autosomes and 2 are sex chromosomes. Out of 2 sex chromosomes in male and 2 sex
chromosomes in female, only one chromosome in male has genes for maleness, where as in all three
sex chromosomes, there are genes for body characters.
Conclusion: From above explanation, it may be concluded that in fruit fly, male is responsible to
determine the sex of next generation.
Describe color-blindness
Definition: The color blindness is a genetic disorder in which a person either cannot distinguish red
from green, or see red and green differently from most people.
Explanation: The genes for normal color are located on the XX chromosomes of female and only on
the X chromosomes of male. The Y chromosome is very short, therefore it has no genes for body
characters, but it has genes for sex determination.
If the genes in XX chromosomes of female become mutant, the female will suffer from color
blindness. In male only one gene located on X chromosomes has to become mutant and the male will
become color blind. It means if in female, one gene becomes mutant, the other normal gene will save a
female from becoming color blind, whereas male will become color blind if the one and only gene on X
chromosomes becomes mutant.
Conclusion: From above explanation, it is concluded that male are more likely to have color
blindness
Describe Hemophilia
Definition: Hemophilia is defined as bleeding disorder in which the blood fails to clot
Explanation: Hemophilia is a bleeding disorder that slows the clotting process. People with the
condition often experience prolonged bleeding following injury or surgery and, in severe cases,
spontaneous bleeding into joints and muscles. Hemophilia occurs more commonly in males than in
females.
Types of this condition include hemophilia A (also known as classic hemophilia) and hemophilia
B (also known as Christmas disease). The two types are caused by mutations in different genes.
How do people inherit hemophilia?
This condition is inherited in an X-linked recessive pattern. A condition is considered X-linked if the
gene that causes the disorder is located on the X chromosome, one of the two sex chromosomes. In
males (who have only one X chromosome) one altered copy of the gene in each cell is sufficient to
cause the condition. In females (who have two X chromosomes) a mutation must be present in both
copies of the gene to cause the disorder. Males are affected by X-linked recessive disorders much more
frequently than females. A striking characteristic of X-linked inheritance is that fathers cannot pass X-
linked traits to their sons.
Describe Diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by high blood sugar (glucose) levels,
which result from defects in insulin secretion. Diabetes mellitus, commonly referred as diabetes,
means "sweet urine." lead to spillage of glucose into the urine, hence the term is called sweet urine.
Normally, blood glucose levels are tightly controlled by insulin. Insulin is a hormone produced by the
pancreas. Insulin lowers the blood glucose level. When the blood glucose increase (for example, after
eating food), insulin is released from the pancreas to normalize the glucose level. In patients with
diabetes mellitus, the absence or insufficient production of insulin causes Diabetes. Diabetes mellitus is
a chronic medical condition, meaning it can last a lifetime.
What is the impact of diabetes?
Diabetes mellitus can lead to blindness, kidney failure, and nerve damage. Diabetes mellitus is also an
important factor in accelerating the hardening and narrowing of the arteries (atherosclerosis), leading
to strokes, coronary heart diseases, and other blood vessel diseases. Diabetes mellitus affects 15
million people (about 8% of the population) in the United States. In addition, an estimated 12 million
people in the United States have diabetes and don't even know it. From an economic perspective, the
total annual economic cost of diabetes in 1997 was estimated to be 98 billion dollars in the United
States. The per capita cost resulting from diabetes in 1997 amounted to $10,071, while to health care
costs for people without diabetes incurred a per capita cost of $2,699. During this same year, 13.9
million days of hospital stay were attributed to diabetes, while 30.3 million physician office visits were
diabetes related. Remember, these numbers reflect only the population in the United States. Globally,
the statistics are staggering.
Diabetes is the third leading cause of death in the United States after heart disease and cancer.
GENES AND MOLECULAR GENETICS

Introduction: Mendel (1865) was the first to put forward clearly the idea of
hereditary units, and referred to them as ’factors’. These were later named genes.
In 1903, Sutton and Bovery postulated the chromosomal theory of inheritance and
stated that the genes were located in the chromosomes. This was subsequently
confirmed by the works of Morgan and others and is now accepted universally.
Thus, it was established that the chromosomes are the carriers of the genetic
material. The chemical of which the genes are composed is called the genetic
material.
Quest for the identification of the genetic material: The nucleic acids were discovered by
Meischer in 1869. In later years, it was also established that chromosomes are made up of proteins
(histones and protamines) and nucleic acids (DNA). Now, the question was, which of these actually
represented the genetic material? Was it the proteins or the DNA? The process of identification of
genetic material began in 1928 and was successfully concluded in 1952. It was conclusively established
that it is the
DNA that contains the genetic material and not the proteins in the chromosomes. This fact could be
established only through some brilliantly conceived and designed novel experiments. The most notable
among these are:
i. Experiments of Griffith (1928): Through his experiments, Griffith discovered the phenomenon
of transformation (a special type of genetic recombination) in which the non-virulent strain of
the bacterium Diplococcus pneumoniae was transformed into the virulent strain. Griffith’s
experiments started the process of the identification of the genetic material.
ii. Avery, Macleod and Mc Carty (1944) : repeated, elaborated and modified the transformation
experiments of Griffith. They provided the first clear evidence the DNA is the genetic material
and is responsible for the transformation in bacteria. They also gave evidence of the chemical
nature of genes.
iii. Lederberg and Zinder (1952) : confirmed the identity of DNA as the genetic material through a
bacteriophage (vector), and the subsequent incorporation of the segment in the recipient DNA
thereby causing transformation.
iv. Hershey and Chase (1952) : confirmed that at least in the bacterial virus called T2-phage, DNA
is the only genetic material. This fact has been universally accepted since then.
v. Frankel - Conrai and Singer (1957) : established that in some viruses, RNA functions as the
genetic material (and not the DNA).
Table: Some additional historical events
Year Scientists Discovery/Event
1909 Johannsen Coined the term "gene"
1924 Feulgen Showed that chromosomes contain DNA
1953 Waston and Double stranded helical model for structure of DNA molecule
Crick
he Structure of DNA
Deoxyribonucleic nucleic Acid (DNA) is a highly complex mega-bio-molecule. The long chain molecule
is formed of repeating units called nucleotides. Hence, it is described as the polynucleotide molecule.
It consists of two polynucleotide anti-parallel strands which are spirally coiled round each other along
their lengths (Watson and Crick, 1953).
(a) Chemical Components of DNA: The highly complex DNA molecule is composed of only three types
of chemical components. These are (i) deoxyribose sugar, (ii) a phosphate, and (iii) nitrogen containing
organic bases.

i. Deoxyribose sugar : The sugar present in the DNA molecule is called deoxyribose sugar and
hence the nucleic acid is called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). It is a pentose sugar (with 5 carbon
atoms) having a pentagonal ring structure (Figure 8.3)
ii. Phosphate (Figure 8.3) : The phosphate in the DNA is present as phosphoric acid (H3PO4). It
has three reactive (-OH) groups of which two are involved in the formation of the sugar-
phosphate backbone of each DNA strand.
iii. The nitrogen-containing organic bases
These are heterocyclic compounds containing nitrogen in their rings and therefore called
nitrogenous bases. DNA contains four different bases called adenine (A), guanine (G) cytosine (C), and
thymine (T). These are grouped into two classes on the basis of their chemical structure: (i) Purines
(with a double ring structure) and (ii) Pyrimidines (with a single ring structure) (Figure 8.3)
Nucleosides : In the molecules of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), each pentose sugar molecule has one
nitrogen base attached at carbon number 1. It may be either a purine or a pyrimidine base. Thus, a
pentose sugar with the attached N-base forms a nucleoside.
[Sugar + N-base] = Nucleoside.
In DNA, the deoxyribose sugar has one of the four bases (A,G,T or C) attached. Therefore, the
nucleosides in DNA are called deoxyribosides.
[deoxyribose sugar + N-base] = Deoxyriboside
Fig. Chemical components of DNA and the phosphodiester linkage

Nucleotides: A nucleoside with a phosphate group attached to it is called a nucleotide.
[Nucleoside + Phosphate] = Nucleotide
A nucleotide is the basic unit or monomer in the structure of a nucleic acid molecule.
Thus, a nucleotide is a nucleoside phosphate. In a nucleotide, the phosphate group is linked with the
pentose sugar at carbon-5.
In the DNA, each nucleotide is called deoxyribonucleotide.
[Deoxyribose sugar + N-base + Phosphate] = Deoxyribonucleotide
As there are four different bases (A,#T,#G and C) in DNA, there can be only four types of nucleotides in
DNA.
The nucleotides act as the building block molecules for the synthesis of the polynucleotide molecules.
When two nucleotides are linked together, a dinucleotide (or dimer) results.
Similarly, when many nucleotides are linked with each other in a linear fashion, the resulting chain, is
referred to as a polynucleotide (polymer, or). For example, each strand of DNA molecule has many
deoxyribonucleotides linked in a chain-like arrangement. Therefore, it is described as polynucleotide
strand and DNA molecule as polynucleotide molecule.
In the DNA polynucleotide strands, the nucleotides are joined with each other by ‘phosphodiester
linkages’ (Figure. 8.3).
In a phosphodiester linkage, the phosphate group present at the C-5 of the sugar of one nucleotide
gets attached to the C-3 of the sugar of the next nucleotide in the chain.
(b) The Watson-Crick model of the DNA double helix : The most widely accepted model for the
structure of DNA molecule (Figure 8.4) was proposed by Watson and Crick in 1953 (who won the Nobel
Prize for Medicine in 1962). According to their model, the DNA has the following structural
characteristics.
Molecule : The DNA molecule is a double helix (Fig. 8.4A). The molecule is formed by two antiparallel
polynucleotide strands which are spirally coiled round each other in a right-handed helix. The two
strands are held together by hydrogen bonds. The double stranded helical molecule has alternate
major (or deep) and minor grooves.
Figure. Structure of DNA (Watson and Crick model)

(A) DNA double helix. (B) Detailed structure of the two strands. (C) C-5 and C-3 ends and antiparallel
nature of strands (diagrammatic)
ii. Structure of each strand (8.4 B): Each strand is a long polynucleotide of deoxyribonucleotides. The
backbone of the strand is formed by alternately arranged deoxyribose sugar and phosphate molecules
which are joined by the phosphodiester linkages. Each sugar in the strand has one base horizontally
attached to it at carbon-1. It can be any one of the four: A,#T,#G or C. These four N-bases can occur in
any possible sequence along the length of a strand.
iii. Complementary nature of the strands: The two strands are complementary to each other with
regards to the arrangement of the bases in the two strands. For example, where adenine (a purine)
occurs in one strand, thymine (a pyrimidine) is present in the corresponding position in the opposite
strand and vice versa. Similarly, wherever guanine (a purine) is present in one strand, the other strand
has cytosine (a pyrimidine) opposite to it and vice versa. Thus, in the double helix, purines and
pyrimidines exist in base pairs, i.e., (A and T) and (G and C). As a result, if the base sequence of one
strand of DNA is known, the base sequence of its complementary strand can be easily deduced.
vi. Complementary base pairing: In each pair, the two bases of the opposite strands are joined by
hydrogen bonds. A and T are joined by two hydrogen bonds, while G and C are joined by three
hydrogen bonds. This is called complementary base pairing. The two strands are thus held together all
along their lengths by these hydrogen bonds.

v. Purine : Pyrimidine ratio : Because of the fixed or complementary base pairing in the DNA molecule,
the total number of A is equal to the total number of T and the total number of G is equal to the total
number of C. In other words, (A+G)= (T+C). Hence, purines: pyrimidines ratio is 1:1.
vi. C-3 and C-5 ends of the strand : In each strand one end of the strand has one free phosphate group
on carbon-5 of the sugar molecule. This is the end of the strand is called C-5 (or 5') end. The other end
of the strand has a free -OH on carbon-3 of the sugar molecule. This is called C-3 (or 3') end of the
strand (Figure 8.4c).
vii. Antiparallel nature of strands: The two strands are oppositely oriented and hence are called
antiparallel. This means, the 3' end of one strand is adjacent to the 5' end of the other strand (Fig. 8.4c)
This is because, the phosphate-sugar linkages run in opposite directions in the two strands.
viii. Dimensions: The diameter of the DNA double helix is 20 Ao. The length of each complete spiral
(turn or pitch) of the molecule measures 34 Ao. 10 pairs of nucleotides are present in each complete
spiral. Therefore, each nucleotide in the strand occupies a distance of 3.4A 0.
(c) Circular DNA molecules : Chromosomes of most prokaryotes (e.g. bacteria, cyanobacteria,) are
circular molecules of DNA.
In bacteria, there is no organized nucleus. The bacterial nucleoid consists of a single circular DNA
molecule (bacterial chromosome). The molecule has two complementary strands forming a covalently
closed circle. Generally, the circular molecule is present in a highly folded and suspercoiled state
(Figure 8.5A). This is expected because the diameter of a bacterial cell (e.g. Escherichia coli) is about 1-
2 microns while the total length of the circular DNA is about 1100 microns. The circular molecule has
40-50 folds or looped domains. These folds are held in position by RNA molecules (RNA connectors)
and some non-histone proteins associated with the bacterial chromosome. (Histones are absent in
bacteria). The DNA segment in each loop is supercoiled independently. Because of this characteristic
formation of loops as well as the supercoils within the loops, the large circular DNA molecule can be
packed into a small bacterial cell. Otherwise, the relaxed and fully expanded circular molecule (Figure
8.5) would be too large (about 350 microns diameter) to be contained in the bacterial cell. The coils of
the supercoiled circle can be relaxed by treatment with enzymes such as RNAse or DNAse. The
uncoiling occurs due to a break (nick) in one or both the strands of DNA.
In some viruses, e.g. certain bacteriophages, the circular DNA is single stranded. It becomes double
stranded only during replication (replicatable form).
Replication Of DNA In Eukaryotes

Definition: "The process by which DNA produces daughter DNA molecules which are exact copies of
the original DNA is called replication of DNA."
In eukaryotes, DNA is double stranded. The two strands are complementary to each other because of
their base sequences.
Semi-conservative method of DNA replication
Important points:
(i) This is the most common method of DNA replication.
(ii) It takes place in the nucleus where the DNA is present in the chromosomes.
(iii) Replication takes place in the S-phase (synthesis phase) of the interphase nucleus.
(iv) The deoxyribose nucleotides needed for the formation of the new DNA strands are present in the
nucleoplasm.

At the time of replication, the two strands of DNA first separate. Each strand then acts as a template
for the formation of a new strand. A new strand is constructed on each old strand, and two exactly
identical double stranded DNA molecules are formed. In each new DNA molecule, one strand is old
(original) while the other is newly formed. Hence, Watson and Crick described this method as semi-
conservative replication.
(A) An overall process of DNA replication showing replication fork and formation of new strands
template and lagging template
Figure: Stages in the semi-conservative method of DNA replication in eukaryotes

The various steps involved in this process are summarized as follows:
i. The mechanism of replication starts at a specific point of the DNA molecule. This is called the
origin.
ii. At the origin, the DNA strand breaks because of an incision (nick). This is made by an enzyme
called incision enzyme (endonuclease).
iii. The hydrogen bonds joining the two strands are broken by the enzyme.
iv. The two strands start unwinding. This takes place with the help of a DNA unwinding protein.
The two polynucleotide strands are thus separated.
v. The point where the two strands separate appears like a fork or a y-shape. This is described as a
replicating fork.
vi. A new strand is constructed on each old strand. This takes place with the help of a small RNA
primer molecule which is complimentary to the DNA at that point. Each old DNA strand acts as
a template (site) for the construction of new strand. The RNA primer attaches itself to the old
strand and attracts the enzymes which add new nucleotides. The deoxyribose nucleotides are
present in the surrounding nucleoplasm. Appropriate nucleotides are selected from the
nucleoplasm, and are attached by H-bonds to their respective complementary bases on the old
strand. A new DNA strand is thus constructed opposite to each old strand.

vii. The formation of new complementary strand always begins at the 3' end of the template strand
(original strand) and progresses towards the 5' end (i.e in 3' 5' direction). Since the new strand
is antiparallel to the template strand, it is obvious that the new strand itself is always developed
in the, 5' 3' direction. For this reason when the two original strands separate (then with respect
to the origin of separation), one acts as 3' 5' template while the other acts as 3' 5' template. Of
the two, the replication of 3' 5' template begins first. Hence the new strand formed on it is
called the leading strand. The other template (5' 3') must begin replication at the fork and
progress back toward the previously transcribed fragment. The new strand formed on it is
called the lagging strand.
viii. Replication of the lagging strand takes place in small fragments called Okazaki fragments.
These are then connected together by the enzyme polynucleotide ligase.
ix. Replication may take place in only one direction on the DNA helix (unidirectional) or in two
directions (bidirectional).
x. At the end of the process, two double stranded DNA molecules are formed from the original
DNA molecule.
xi. In each newly formed DNA, one strand is old while the other is new. Hence, it is described as
semi-conservative replication.
The semi-conservative nature of DNA replication was confirmed by Meselson and Stahl (1958) with the
help of an experiment. They marked the DNA in Esherichia coli with heavy isotope of nitrogen (15N)
and then traced it in the following generations of the E-coli progeny. It was demonstrated that every
daughter DNA is an exact copy of the parent DNA and that each daughter DNA has one strand of the
parent (old strand) and the other strand in newly formed.
RNA: Structure and Types
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is another polynucleotide which occurs in the cells as non-genetic material,
with the exception of some viruses. RNA is present in the nucleus as well as in the cytoplasm.
General structure
RNA molecule is single stranded and consists of nucleotides arranged in a long series. The single strand
of RNA may be simple and straight, or it may be variously folded upon itself in certain regions.
Structural components : RNA molecule has three primary components.
1. Ribose sugar (a pentose sugar), with a pentagonal ring structure
2. Phosphate, as phosphoric acid
3. Nitrogenous bases
There are four kinds of nitrogenous bases found in RNA. Of those, two are purines and two are
pyrimidines, as follows :
Thus in RNA, uracil is present in place of thymine found in DNA.

RNA : Structure and Types
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is another polynucleotide which occurs in the cells as non-genetic material,
with the exception of some viruses. RNA is present in the nucleus as well as in the cytoplasm.

General structure
RNA molecule is single stranded and consists of nucleotides arranged in a long series. The single strand
of RNA may be simple and straight, or it may be variously folded upon itself in certain regions.
Structural components: RNA molecule has three primary components.
1. Ribose sugar (a pentose sugar), with a pentagonal ring structure
2. Phosphate, as phosphoric acid
3. Nitrogenous bases
There are four kinds of nitrogenous bases found in RNA. Of those, two are purines and two are
pyrimidines, as follows :
Thus in RNA, uracil is present in place of thymine found in DNA.

Structure of an RNA strand : The strand is made up of alternating molecules of ribose sugar and the
phosphate. The nitrogen bases are attached to the sugar molecules in the strand and ’stick out’
laterally as in DNA (figure 8.9). A sugar, a N-base and a phosphate together form a ribonucleotide. A
nucleotide without the phosphate is called ribonucleoside.
RNA being single stranded, the nitrogen bases remain mostly unpaired. However, the strand may be
folded upon itself in certain regions. In such folded regions, base pairing occurs between purines and
pyrimidines as follows :
Adenine = Uracil (two H-bonds). Guanine = Cytosine (three H-bonds). Nitrogen bases remain unpaired
in the unfolded regions of the strand. Because of this variability in base pairing in different regions of
the same strand, the total number of purines need not be equal to the total number of pyrimidines in
RNA.
Figure General structure of RNA
Describe Genetic Code in detail?

Definition:
Genetic code may be defined as a code which is used by DNA to control various biological activities of
cell.
Explanation: As we know that DNA is made up of four different nitrogen basis. Adenine, Guanine,
Thiamine, and cytosine. We also know that Adenine is linked with Thiamine and Guanine is linked with
cytosine. The arrangement of these nitrogen basis changes frequently. When ever, sequence of
nitrogen bais changes, it produces new nature of nucleoside, therefore a new gene is produced which
performs new function.
Further explanation:

If you think of four letter of English, i.e. POST and change their sequence you may still have same letter
but with different meaning. For example STOP and POTS. In same way the four nitrogen bases of DNA
change their sequence and produce a next gene which performs separate function.
In DNA is genetic material and contains genetic information. The expression of a gene takes place
through specific enzymes. Each gene produces a specific (one-gene one-protien hypothesis). In other
words, formation of each specific protein is controlled by a particular gene. A gene is a segment of DNA
strand so, the information for the formation of a protein is contained in the DNA strand.
Further, each protein is a long polypeptide chain molecule formed by joining amino acid molecules.
From the cell pool, only 20 different types of amino acids are used for protein synthesis.
The sequence of the nitrogen bases in the DNA determines the sequence of amino acids in a protein
molecule through the mRNA. This sequence is copied down by the mRNA (transcription). It is present
on the mRNA strand in the form of coded language (cyptogram or mRNA language or genetic code).
The mRNA bases (A, U, C and G) serve as the four alphabets of the coded language.
Codon : The smallest sequence of the nitrogen bases (nucleotides) on the mRNA which can specify one
amino acid is called a codon . Each codon consists of three successive bases on the mRNA.
Why each codon in the genetic code should consist of 3 bases (triplet codon) and not of one base each
or 2 bases each? This is because there are 20 different amino acids which can be used in the synthesis
of proteins in the cells. There must be at least one specific codon for each amino acid. Thus, there has
to be at least 20 different codons in the genetic code. There are only four bases. A minimum of 3 bases
per codon is necessary to have (a minimum of) 20 codes.

PRACTICE SHEET#01
1. Contrast form of gene is called
(a) Allelomorphs (b) Allele (c) Contrast gene (d) All
2. The position of genes on chromosomes is called
(a) Locus (b) Loci (c) Position (d) Both a&b
3. Some total of aggregate genes present in entire population is called
(a) Gene pool (b) Genetic drift (c) Gene frequency (d) All
4. If a dominant character hides a recessive character in F1 generation, the phenomenon is
called
(a) Law of Dominance (b) Law of incomplete dominance
(c) Co-dominance (d) None
5. Recessive genes can express them in
(a) F1 generation (b) F2 generation (c) F3 generation (d) All
6. The genetic ratio of dominant and recessive in F2 is
(a) 3:1 (b) 2:1 (c) 1:2:1 (d) None
7. If heterozygous dominant is crossed with homozygous recessive, it defines
(a) Back cross (b) Test Cross (c) Both a&b (d) None
8. To test homozygocity and heterpzygocity ----test is performed
(a) Test cross (b) Back cross (c) Both a&b (d) None
9. When dominant and recessive traits appear in equal ration in F1 generation, it defines----------
(a) Law of dominance (b) Law of co dominance
(c) Law of incomplete dominance (d) None
10. Separation of a pair of genes into gametes defines
(a) Law of segregation (b) Law of dominance
(c) Co dominance (d) All
11. Pink flower is phenotypic expression of cross between Red & White. Is explains
(a) Dominance (b) Co dominance
(c) Incomplete dominance (d) All
12. Blood group AB is example of
(a) Multiple allele (b) Co dominance (c) Both a&b (d) None
13. ABO grouping of blood is example of
(a) Codominance (b) Multiple allele (c) Polygenic inheritance (d) All
14. One of the following is international donor
(a) O+ve (b) O-ve (c) Both a&b (d) None
15. Blood group of mother differs from baby, she can produce antibodies and can cause ------------
problem in next child
(a) Erythroblast foetalasis (b) Leukemia
(c) Blood disorder (d) All
16. Effect of a gene on non pair allele is called
(a) Epi-stasis (b) Polygenic inheritance (c) Both a&b (d) None
17. When more than one set of genes control single trait, it is
(a) Double trait inheritance (b) Polygenic inheritance
(c) Multiple varying trait (d) Both a&c

18. One of the following is not example of polygenic inheritance in humans
(a) Skin color (b) Height (c) Intelligence (d) Color blind ness
19. The multiple effect of a single gene is called
(a) Pleiotropy (b) Epistasis (c) Both a&b (d) None
20. Mendel performed his famous experiments of heredity on
(a) Maize (b) Mirabilis (c) Garden pea (d) Bean plant
21. Mendel in his experiments considered characters
(a) Five (b) Three (c) Six (d) Seven
22. In a cross appearance of dominant and recessive character is known as
(a) Co-dominance (b) Incomplete dominance (c) Epistasis (d) None
23. If in a cross both characters equally appear then it is called
(a) Co-dominance (b) Incomplete dominance
(c) Interaction of gene (d) Multiple allele
24. Blood group is also known as universal donor
(a) Blood group A (b) Blood group B (c) Blood group AB (d) Blood group O
25. Each human being possesses pairs of chromosomes
(a) 21 pairs (b) 22 pairs (c) 23 pairs (d) 24 pairs
26. Genes for one of the following disorder are not sex linked
(a) Color blindness (b) tallness (c) Sickle cell anemia (d) All of above
27. Which of the following is an alternate form of a gene?
(a) Allele (b) genotype (c) linkage (d) phenotype
28. An individual who is heterozygous for two genes is represented:
(a) Aabb (b) AaBb (c) AAbb (d) AABb
29. How many genetically different kinds gametes will an individual with genotype AAbb
produce?
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
30. Round seed is dominant over wrinkled seed in pea. If homozygous, round seeded peas are
crossed with wrinkled seeded peas, the offspring will be:
(a) all round (b) all wrinkled
(c) 50 % round + 50% wrinkled (d) 75 % round + 25% wrinkled
31. If heterozygous round seeded pea plants are self-pollinated the offspring will be:
(a) 75% round (b) 50% heterozygous (c) 25 % aa (d) All of the above
32. Assume that red-green colorblindness is sex-linked. A colorblind woman and a man with
normal vision have a son. The son's genotype is:
(a) Aa (b) ay (c) Ay (d) AxAx
33. A man and a woman, both with normal thumbs, have a son with hitchhiker's thumb. It is
likely that ___________ is (are) heterozygous.
(a) the son (b) the man (c) the woman (d) both parents
34. A man has blood type A. His wife has blood type B. Their children can have blood type:
(a) AB (b) A or B (c) A or B or AB (d) A or B or AB or O
35. Inheritance of the A,B,O blood groups is an example of:
(a) incomplete dominance (b) linkage
(c) multiple alleles (d) sex linkage (e) all of the above

36. One parent has genotype DD and the other has dd. All of the offspring will be
(a) heterozygous. (b) homozygous. (c) dominant. (d) recessive.
37. If two hybrid tall pea plants are crossed, what is the probability that the offspring will be
hybrid tall?
(a) 0 percent (b) 50 percent (c) 75 percent (d) 100 percent
38. If two white guinea pigs with genotype bb are crossed, what is the probability that the
offspring will be white?
(a) 0 percent (b) 50 percent (c) 75 percent (d) 100 percent
39. As a result of meiosis, the number of chromosomes
(a) is reduced by half in sex cells. (b) stays the same in sex cells.
(c) is doubled in sex cells. (d) is quadrupled in sex cells.
40. Which of the following statements about RNA is false?
(a) RNA is a one-stranded ladder.
(b) RNA has a different sugar molecule from the sugar found in DNA.
(c) RNA contains uracil.
(d) RNA contains thymine.

ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B D A A B A B A B A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
C B B C A A B D A C
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D A A D C B A B B D
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
C C D B C B C D A D

CHAPTER#09
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Amniocentesis: A diagnostic procedure in which a small amount of amniotic fluid is withdrawn from
the amniotic sac to detect the genetic abnormalities.
Adenovirus: A vector system that is used in gene therapy (especially for genes that you want to be
active in the lungs).
Agrobacterium: a type of soil-inhabiting bacteria that is capable of introducing DNA from plasmids in
the bacteria into the genome of plant cells. Often used in genetic transformation of plants.
Allele: one of several alternate forms (DNA sequences) that resides at the same locus on the
chromosome and controls the same phenotype (although with potentially differing effects).
Amino acid: a building block of proteins. Each protein consists of a specific sequence of amino acids
(with the sequence of amino acids determined by the sequence of the underlying DNA). There are 20
types of amino acid molecules that make up proteins.
Antibody: a type of protein, produced by certain blood cells in mammals and birds, that specifically
recognize a foreign antigen.
Antibiotic: a chemical substance that can kill or inhibit the growth of a microorganism.
Antigen: a molecule, usually a protein or polysaccharide (sugar) that induces the production of specific
antibodies against itself. Molecules on the surfaces of viruses and bacteria are antigens.
Beta galactosidase: A protein that metabolizes the sugar, lactose, into two smaller sugar molecules.
Used with a chromogenic analog of lactose, beta galactosidase can be used as a reporter gene to
confirm the presence/expression of a transformation experiment.
Biodegradation: the process whereby a compound is decomposed by natural biological activity.
cDNA (complementary DNA): a single-stranded DNA molecule which is complementary to a specific

RNA molecule and synthesized from it. Complementary DNA's are important laboratory tools as DNA
probes and for isolating and studying individual genes.
Chromosome: a condensed structure found in the cell nucleus that contains the genes of that cell.
Chromosomes are composed of DNA wrapped in proteins. They can be seen with a microscope during
certain stages of cell division, when they appear as rod-like structures.
Cloning: asexually producing multiple copies of genetically identical cells or organisms descended from
a common ancestor (compare with gene cloning).
Codon: a triplet of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule that codes for one of the 20 amino acids in
proteins, or for a signal to start or stop protein production. Each gene that codes for protein is a series
of codons that gives the instructions for building that protein.

Complementary: the opposite or "mirror" image of a DNA sequence. A complementary DNA sequence
has an "A" for every "T" and a "C" for every "G". Two complementary strands of single stranded DNA
will join to form a double-stranded molecule.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): the substance of heredity; a long linear molecule composed of
deoxyribose (a sugar), phosphate, and one of four bases, adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and
cytosine (C). DNA contains the genetic information necessary for the duplication of cells and for the
production of proteins. In its native state, DNA is a double helix composed of two complementary
strands.
DNA probe: a single-stranded DNA molecule used in laboratory experiments to detect the presence of
a complementary sequence among a mixture of other singled-stranded DNA molecules (same as Gene
Probe).
DNA profie: the distinctive pattern of DNA restriction fragments or PCR products that can be used to
identify, with great certainty, any person, biological sample from a person, or organism from the
environment.
DNA sequencing: determining the order of nucleotides in a specific DNA molecule.
Dominant: a phenotype that is expressed in organisms that are either homozygous or heterozygous for
the corresponding allele.
Electrophoresis: a method of separating substances, such as DNA fragments, by using an electric field
to make them move through a "gel" at rates that correspond to their electric charge and size.
Embryo transfer: implantation of an embryo into the oviduct or uterus.
Enzyme: A functional protein that catalyzes (speeds up) a chemical reaction. Enzymes control the rate
of metabolic processes in an organism; they are also the active agents in the fermentation process.
Fermentation: The biochemical process of converting a raw material (such as glucose, a sugar) into a
final product (such as ethanol)
Functional genomics: the field of study that attempts to determine the function of all genes (and gene
products) largely based on knowing the entire DNA sequence of an organism.
Gene: the fundamental unit of heredity; a bundle of information for a specific biological structure or
function.
Gene cloning: isolating a gene and making many copies of it by inserting the DNA sequence into a
vector, then into a cell, and allowing the cell to reproduce and make many copies of the gene.
Gene library: a collection of DNA fragments (carried on vector molecules) which, taken together,
represents the total DNA of a certain cell type or organism.
Gene mapping: determining the relative locations of different genes on a chromosome. In the process,
genetic markers located at or near important genes are identified.

Gene regulation: process of controlling the synthesis or suppression of gene products in specific cells
or tissues.
Gene splicing: joining pieces of DNA from different sources using recombinant DNA technology.
Gene therapy: introducing a normal, functioning copy of a gene into a cell in which that gene is
defective.
Genetic code: the language in which DNA's instructions are written. The code consists of triplets of
nucleotides (codons), with each triplet corresponding to one aminoacid in a protein structure or to a
signal to start or stop protein production.
Genetic engineering: the manipulation of genes, composed of DNA, to create heritable changes in
biological organisms and products that are useful to people, living things, or the environment.
Genetic erosion: the loss of genetic diversity caused by either natural or man-made processes.
Genetic pollution: uncontrolled escape of genetic information (frequently refering to products of

genetic engineering) into the genomes of organisms in the environment where those genes never
existed before.
Genome: the complete genetic repertoire of an organism.
Genomics: the field of study that seeks to understand the structure and function of all genes in an
organism based on knowing the organism's entire DNA sequence and extensive reliance on powerful
computer technologies.
Genotype: The specific combination of alleles present at a single locus in the genome.
Germ cells: the sex cell(s) of an organism (sperm or egg, pollen or ovum). They differ from other cells
(somatic) in that they contain only half the usual number of chromosomes. Germ cells fuse during
fertilization to begin the next generation.
Germplasm: the sum total of all hereditary material in a single (interbreeding) species.
Green Revolution: an agresssive effort between 1950 and 1975 where agricultural scientists applied
modern principles of genetics and breeding to improve crops grown primarily in less-developed
countries.
Hemoglobin: a very well-characterized protein that carries oxygen within the blood of animals.
Herbicide: a chemical compound that kills targeted plants (weeds).
Heterozygous: situation where the two alleles at a specific genetic locus are not the same.
Homologous: stretches of DNA that are very similar in sequence, so similar that they tend to stick
together in hybridization experiments. Homologous can also be used to indicate related genes in
separate organisms controling similar phenotypes.

Homozygous: situation where the two alleles at a specific genetic locus are identical to one another
Hybridization: bringing complementary single strands of nucleic acids together so that they stick and
form a double strand. Hybridization is used in conjunction with DNA and RNA probes to detect the
presence or absence of specific complementary nucleic acid sequences.
In vitro: outside the living organism; in a test tube.
In vitro fertilization: fertilizing an animal egg with sperm in a test tube or culture dish (not in the
uterus or oviduct), and then implanting the fertilized egg back into the uterus or oviduct.
In vivo: within the living organism
Locus: the position on a chromosome where the gene for a particular trait resides; a locus may be
occupied by any one of several alleles (variants) for a given gene.
Marker: a detectable genetic variant, such as one of the ABO blood types, antibiotic resistance, or
different DNA fragment patterns. Markers located near genes of interest can be used to deduce the
presence or absence of deleterious genes; other markers can be used to detect the presence of an
organism in the environment.
Messenger RNA (mRNA): the ribonucleic acid molecule that transmits the genetic information from
the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where it directs protein synthesis.
Microarray: a large set of cloned DNA molecules spotted onto a solid matrix (such as a microscope
slide) for use in probing a biological sample to determine gene expression, marker pattern or
nucleotide sequence of DNA/RNA. See also DNA Chip.
Mineralization: the conversion of organic compounds into inorganic (mineral) ones. For example, the
conversion of an organic solvent, like ethanol, into carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
Monoclonal antibodies: antibodies derived from a single source or clone of cells, all recognizing only
one kind of antigen.
Mutation: a permanent change in the genetic material involving either a physical alteration in the
chromosome or a biochemical change in the underlying DNA molecule.
Pathogen: a specific biological causative agent of disease in plants or animals.

Phenotype: a biological characteristic or trait possessed by an organism that results from the
expression of a specific gene.
Plasmid: a small, self-replicating molecule of DNA that is separate from the main chromosome.
Because plasmids are easily moved from cell to cell or to the test tube, scientists often cleave them
with restrictionenzymes and insert foreign DNA, and then transfer the recombinant DNA plasmid
molecule (as a vector) into other cells.

Polymer: a chemical compound or mixture of compounds formed by polymerization and consisting of
repeating structural sub-units.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): a technique to amplify a specific DNA sequence in vitro using a DNA
replicating enzyme, specific oligonucleotide primers, and repeated cycles of heating and cooling. PCR
often amplifies the starting material many thousands or millions of times.
Recessive: a phenotype that is expressed in organisms only if it is homozygous for the corresponding
allele.
Recombinant DNA: a hybrid DNA molecule produced in the laboratory by joining pieces of DNA from
different sources.
Restriction enzyme: an enzyme that recognizes a specific nucleotide base sequence (usually four to six
base pairs in length) in a double stranded DNA molecule and cuts both strands of the DNA molecule at
every place where this sequence occurs.
Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP): the presence of two or more variants in the size of
DNA fragments produced by a restriction enzyme. These different sized fragments result from an
inherited variation in the presence of a restriction enzyme's target sequence. RFLP's are used for gene
mapping and DNA profiling.
Retrovirus: a type of virus that can insert its DNA into the genome of its host cell. This ability has been
used as a basis for genetic transformation of animal cells.
Rhizobium: the group of bacteria that form symbiotic associations with legume plants and are
responsible for fixing atmospheric nitrogen into a form that can be used by plants and animals.
Screening: a method to identify specific cells (or clones of cells) expressing a specific phenotype (trait),
such as the ability to turn "blue-gal" into a bluish color.
Sequence tandem repeat:A highly polymorphic region of DNA that can be used to produce a unique
DNA profile for a given individual.
Somatic cell: cells in the body that are not involved in sexual reproduction (that is, not germ cells).
Stem Cells: Self-newing cells that with proper growth conditions can be made to differentiate into a
number of different cell types with specific biological functions.
Tissue culture: growing cells, tissues, or tissue fragments (from complex, multicellular organisms) on a
nutrient medium in a dish, test tube, or flask.
Totipotent: a cell that is capable of regenerating an entire adult organism by itself.
Totipotent Cells: Cells from the Inner-cell mass that can give rise to a complete individual.

Transcription: the transfer of information from specific sequences in a DNA molecule to produce new
strands of messenger RNA, which then carry this information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm
(where the messenger RNA is translated into protein).
Transformation: introduction of an exogenous DNA molecule into a cell, causing it to acquire a new
phenotype (trait).
Transgenic: an organism that has been transformed with a foreign DNA sequence.
Translation: synthesis of protein using information contained in a messenger RNA molecule.
Vaccine: a preparation of killed or living attenuated microorganisms or part thereof, that are
administered to a person or animal to produce artificial immunity to a particular disease.
Vector: a type of DNA molecule, usually a plasmid or virus that is used to move recombinant DNA
molecules from one cell to another.
BGH: Bovine Growth Hormone which has been artificially introduced into various animals to improve
productivity.
Nutra Sweet: Genetically engineered bacteria which are used to produce phenylalanine, an organic
compound to make a sweetener called Nutra sweet.
SCID: Sever combined immunity deficiency disease. A kind of genetic problem in which gene becomes
mutant and can not produce Adenosine Diamanase enzyme. In absence of this enzyme, bone marrow
can not produce WBCs which is why immune power of body decreases.
DNA finger printing: A genetic technique which is used to collect individual’s genetic information.
Cystic Fibrosis: A genetic disorder in which lungs become susceptible to infection and digestive system
can not absorb fats and minerals.
Huntington’s disease: A kind of genetic disorder in which victim looses volunteer control over muscles.
The diseases usually appear at 40-50 years.

NOTES
Define genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering may be defined a sub-branch of genetics which deals with the artificial handling of
DNA. This branch is also called as DNA Re-combinant technology or Bio-technology.
Explanation: When Mendel introduced genetics, there were many theories regarding inheritance of
characters from parents to off spring. Initially it was thought that this responsibility is fulfilled by
chromosomes Later on research proved that chromosomes are only platform where many kind of
genes are located, there for it is responsibility of genes to transfer the characters. In 1966 the structure
of DNA was studied in detail. Experiments on DNA revealed that It is DNA which has property of
transfer of heredity characters from generation to generation.
With progress in genetic research, scientist became able to play with genetics. They discovered
enzymes by which it became possible to cut and paste the DNA as desired. This manual handling of
DNA is called Bio-technology.
Describe DNA re-combinant technology in detail?

Recombinant DNA: Recombinant DNA is DNA taken from two different sources and fused into a
single DNA molecule. Special DNA cutting enzymes, called restriction enzymes, cut the DNA at specific
sites. Each restriction enzyme recognizes a different nucleotide sequence. DNA that is cut with a
restriction enzyme will have single-stranded ends, called “sticky ends”. Two molecules of DNA cut with
the same restriction enzyme will have the same exposed nucleotides and will undergo complementary
base pairing.
It is not possible to prepare recombinant DNA molecules unless DNA ligase enzyme is not used to seal
the sticky ends.
Requirements of rDNA technology
There are three requirements of this technology
1. Preparation of rDNA molecule:
2. Insertion of rDNA molecule into host cell
3. Multiplication rDNA
4. Selection of bacteria with required gene.
1. Preparation of rDNA molecule:
Basically three tools are required (a) Vector (b) Restriction enzyme (c) Ligase enzyme.
Vector: it refers to a virus or a bacterium which is used in preparation of rDNA molecule. Plasmid from
a bacterium is taken and its small portion is cut. The DNA of host cell is removed and inserted into
bacterium plasmid. It is generally observed that plasmid accepts the DNA from host.
Restriction enzyme: This is an enzyme which is used to cut the required portion of DNA of bacterium
or host. This enzyme is found in cells and is termed as DNA cutter.
DNA Ligase: It is another enzyme which is used to seal the sticky ends of host DNA with bacterial
plasmid.

Insertion of Modified DNA into Host cell:
After modifying the DNA, next step is to insert it into host cell. For this purpose mostly bacterial cell is
used, because it easily accepts the DNA of host.
Multiplication of Host with rDNA:

When rDNA is successfully inserted into host cell, it starts producing the copies (clones) of the rDNA
molecule. In this way it is possible to make as many copies of rDNA molecule as possible

What are the applications of genetically engineered bacteria?
There are many applications which are mentioned below.
1. To use such bacteria in plants to make them insect-resistant
2. To use these bacteria in cleaning the land and water pollution
3. To use these bacteria in preparation of pharmaceutical products
4. To use these bacteria in plants to enable them produce insect killing toxins
5. To use these bacteria in detection of metals
6. To use these bacteria to clean oil spills on the water surface.
7. To use these bacteria in production of insulin hormone which was previously prepared from
cattle and other animals
8. To use these bacteria in producing growth hormone which helps in
► Mass production of proteins

► Production of hormones
► Treatment of Dwarfs
► Treatment of hemophilia by producing clotting factor VIII
► Production of vaccines
► Production of resistant cotton, corn, potato & Soybean
► Production of herbicide
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): In order for scientists to study DNA, it is necessary that they have
large enough quantities, much larger than most samples of DNA that are usually obtained. A technique
called polymerase chain reaction, PCR, allows for the amplification of DNA molecules.

PCR
A segment of DNA can be rapidly copied, or amplified, thousands of times with a laboratory
technique called PCR or polymerase chain reaction. The DNA of interest is mixed with a heat-resistant
form of DNA polymerase, the four types of nucleotides, and primers. The primers are synthetic strands
of nucleotides which are designed to base pair with the ends of the DNA. The mixture is heated to
separate the DNA strands and then cooled so that the primer binds to one end of the DNA. Now DNA
polymerase, beginning at the primer, adds complementary nucleotides along the single-stranded DNA.
The DNA sequence has now been doubled. The process is repeated as the mixture is alternately heated
and cooled and the quantity of DNA doubles again and again. Each cycle of heating, cooling, and DNA
doubling takes about 5 minutes. After 20 cycles there will be 1,048,576 copies of the DNA molecule.
This technique has revolutionized molecular biology in such areas as diagnosis of disease, study of
genetic disorders and forensic medicine.

PRACTICE SHEET#01
1. Animals are not yet being genetically engineered.
(a) True (b) false
2. Gene therapy replaces defective genes with healthy genes.
(a) True (b) false
3. DNA polymerase starts the replication process.
(a) true (b) false
4. It is not possible to alter the genotype in plants and animals.
(a) True (b) false
5. Polymerase chain reaction is nonspecific.
(a) true (b) false
6. Clotting factor VIII treats hemophilia.
(a) true (b) false
7. Atrial natriuretic factor treats cancer.
(a) true (b) false
8. The polymerase chain reaction can create millions of copies of a single gene.
(a) true (b) false
9. It is possible to make a mammalian gene that lacks entrons.
(a) true (b) false
10. Viruses are often the vector of choice for animal cells.
(a) True (b) false
11. A vector is the means by which rDNA is introduced into a host cell.
(a) True (b) false
12. In vivo gene therapy procedures use __________ to introduce genes directly into patients.
(a) viruses (b) laboratory-grown cells
(c) synthetic carriers (d) all of the above
13. During __________ therapy, cells are removed from a patient, treated, and returned to the
patient.
(a) ex vivo (b) in vivo
(c) in vitro (d) any (d) All of the above
14. Bovine growth hormone has been used to produce larger __________.
(a) cows (b) fishes (c) pigs (d) all of the above
15. PCR is used mainly to
(a) detect viral infections (b) diagnose genetic disorders.
(c) diagnose cancer (d) A.O.T
16. Because a DNA probe is single-stranded, it _______________ a complementary DNA strand.
(a) seeks out (b) binds to (c) both a and b (d) neither a or b
17. Transgenic organisms are organisms which
(a) have mutated genes.
(b) have foreign genes inserted in them.
(c) are free living organisms whose genes have been modified.
18. PCR is carried out in order to
(a) identify the evolutionary relationship of organisms.
(b) determine the nucleotide sequence of human genes.
(c) conduct molecular paleontology (Study of fossils).
19. After the primers bind by complementary base pairing to the DNA strand, the DNA
polymerase copies the
(a) target DNA (b) mRNA (c) rDNA (d) none of the above
20. Vaccines for __________ are in experimental stages.
(a) Chlamydia (b) malaria (c) AIDS (d) all of the above
21. Proteins produced by biotechnology include
(a) human growth hormone (b) insulin
(c) Lectoferin (d) all of the above
22. Human lung surfactant treats __________ in premature infants.
(a) jaundice (b) respiratory distress syndrome (c) both a and b
23. Biotechnology is used to treat __________.
(a) diabetes (b) hemophilia (c) SCID (d) All of above
24. The second enzyme needed for preparation of rDNA is DNA __________.
(a) ligase (b) oxidase (c) transcriptase (d) none of the above
25. The introduction of foreign DNA into vector DNA to produce rDNA requires _________
enzyme(s).
(a) one (b) two (c) three (d) four
26. Plasmids that are used as vectors
(a) have been removed from bacteria (b) have had a foreign gene inserted into them.
(c) both a and b. (d) neither a or b.
27. Genetically-engineered bacteria are also released into the environment to
(a) clean up pollutants. (b) increase the fertility of the soil.
(c) kill insect pests. (d) All
28. Genetically-engineered bacterial products include
(a) drugs that promote human health. (b) vaccines.
(c) nucleic acids for laboratory research. (d) A.O.T.
29. A protoplast is
(a) a plant cell that had the cell wall removed (b) an animal cell that had the cell wall removed.
(c) both a and b. (d) N.O.T
30. DNA __________ is a cellular enzyme that a seal breaks on DNA molecules.
(a) transcriptase (b) ligase (c) polymérase
ANSWER KEY:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B A A B B A A A B B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A D B C B B B D B D
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D B D C B A D D A B

CHAPTER#10
EVOLUTION
MYTHOLOGY
The study of old ideas
LAMARCK
A scientist who gave theory of “Inheritance of Acquire Characters”
LAMACRKISM
The theory given by Lamarck. Original name of his theory is Inheritance of acquired characters.
PHILOSOPHIE ZOOLOGIQUE:
A book written by Lamarck. It is in French language
WEISMANN
A scientist who opposed Lamarck and conducted experiments on the tail of mice. He did cut the
tails of parents and crossed 10 generations, but in all new generations, the offspring were born
with tail.
CHARLS DARWIN
A scientist who gave theory of Natural selection
ORIGIN OF SPECIES
A book written by Darwin
ATAVISM
Appearance of characters of ancestors. For example some children are born with tail. These
children are called Coxy children.
BIONOMINAL NOMENCULTURE
System of naming the living organisms
LINNAEUS
The father of taxonomy
VESTIGIAL ORGANS
Organs which are still present in body but they are
functionless. For example appendix of human digestive
system
GENETIC DRIFT
Any change in gene pool of small population due to
chance

GENE POOL
All the genes in population at any one time
GENETIC RECOMBINATION
Production of chromosome having different gene than
original chromosome
GENETIC EQULIBBRIUM
If the frequency of genes in population remains same
PLEOTROPIC GENE
A gene which affects more than one character
SPECIES
Organisms which can inter-breed and produce off
spring. E.g. all human beings are one species
SPECIATION
The making (formation) of new species
PHYLETIC EVOLUTION
A type of new species formation where genetic
change occurs without under going reproduction
SYMPATRIC SPECIES
Closely related species which live in same geographical location
ALLOPATRIC SPECIES
Closely related species which live in different
geographical location
STERLITY
A condition in which organism is unable to reproduce
GENE FREQUENCY
The proportion of different alleles in population

PRACTICE SHEET#01
/usr/w eb/home/m /usr/w eb/home/m /usr/w eb/home/m
1. The end result of natural selection
is pre-desired.
(a) True (b) false
2. An adaptation is a trait that helps an organism to be more suited to its environment.
(a) true (b) false
3. Lamark said that adaptive traits are represented in each succeeding generation.
(a) true (b) false
4. For Darwin, variations were not essential to the natural selection process.
(a) true (b) false
5. New variations are harmful as helpful to the organism.
(a) true (b) false
6. Darwin noted that when humans carry out artificial selection, they select the animals that
will reproduce.
(a) true (b)false
7. Lamarck supported the idea of inheritance of acquired characteristics.
(a) true (b) false
8. Darwin saw that the available resources were not sufficient for all members of a population
to survive.
(a) true (b) false
9. According to pre-Darwinian thinking, which of the following statements are true?
(a) earth is relatively young (b) species are related by descent
(c) adaptation to the environment is the work of a creator (d) both a and c
10. Carolus Linnaeus believed in
(a) special creation (b) fixity of species (c) both a and b (d) neither a or b.
11. __________ occupied the last rung of Linnaeus's sequential ladder of life.
(a) Plants (b) Human (c) Birds (d) Reptiles
12. Fossils allow us to deduce that reptiles preceded __________ in the history of life.
(a) birds (b) amphibians (c) mammals (d) both a and c
13. Preconditions of natural selection include
(a) the members of a population have heritable variations.
(b) in a population, many more individuals are produced each generation than can survive and
reproduce.
(c) some individuals can survive and reproduce better than other individuals.
(d) all of the above
14. Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck was the first biologist to
(a) support common descent clearly. (b) link diversity with adaptation to the environment
(c) both a and b
15. Each generation has a(n) __________ reproductive potential than the previous generation.
(a) equal (b) greater (c) lesser
16. __________ proposed natural selection as a process to explain the origin of species.
(a) Lyell (b) Wallace (c) Hutton
17. Where are marsupials found today?
(a) Australia (b) South America (c) both a and b
18. Which lacked placental mammals?
(a) Australia (b) South America (c) both a and b
19. Mutations occur in a set pattern.
(a) True (b) false
20. Mutations cause a gene pool to have multiple alleles of each gene.

(a) True (b) false
21. Gene flow tends to increase the diversity between populations.

(a) true (b) false
22. Sexual reproduction alone cannot bring about a change in allele frequencies.
(a) true (b) false
23. Translocations are when a segment of chromosome is inverted.
(a) true (b) false
24. Exposure to a drug causes a bacteria to become resistant.
(a) true (b) false
25. Gene mutations are the ultimate source of variation.
(a) true (b) false
26. Fitness is the extent to which an individual
(a) enjoys reproductive success. (b) contributes fertile offspring to the next generation.
(c) both a and b. (d) neither a or b.
27. Evolution by natural selection requires
(a) variation (b) inheritance.
(c) differential adaptedness and reproduction. (d) all of the above
28. After populations become adapted to their environment, variation is still __________ by
various organisms.
(a) promote (b) maintaine (c) both a and (d) neither a or b
29. Random mating occurs when individuals pair up
(a) according to their genotypes. (b) by chance
(c) according to their phenotypes. (d) both a and b.
30. Chromosome mutations are
(a) an alteration in the number of chromosomes inherited.
(b) an alteration in the arrangement of the alleles on the chromosomes.
(c) either a or b.
(d) neither a or b.
31. In sexually reproducing organisms, __________ is (are) an important source of variation.
(a) gene mutations (b) chromosome mutations
(c) recombination of alleles and chromosomes (d) all of the above
32. A mutation can be __________ to an organism.
(a) beneficial (b) neutral in its effect (c) harmful (d) any of the above
33. Variations arise by
(a) gene mutations. (b) chromosome mutations.
(c) recombination. (d) all of the above.
34. Because of common descent, all organisms
(a) use DNA as the genetic material (b) use ATP as the energy molecule.
(c) have the same 20 amino acids in their proteins. (d) all of the above.
35. Variations arise by
(a) a gene mutation. (b) acquired characteristics
(c) environmental factors. (d) all of the above.

ANSWER KEY:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B A A B B A A A D A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B A D B C B A A B A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A B B A A C D C B C
31 32 33 34 35
D D D A D

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DR.

Dr. Abdullah Arijo Page 1

Dr. Abdullah Arijo Page 2

Dr. Abdullah Arijo Page 3

Dr. Abdullah Arijo Page 4

Dr. Abdullah Arijo Page 5

WHAT IS CONCEPT OF FEED BACK?

Negative Feed Back System

Positive Feed Back System

Dr. Abdullah Arijo Page 6

How plants do Osmoregulation?

Dr. Abdullah Arijo Page 7

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1. Development of water proof body covering:

2. Absorption of water before it is excreted:

3. Use of Metabolic water:

Dr. Abdullah Arijo Page 9

HOW MARINE WATER ANIMALS PERFORM OSMOREGULATION?

Dr. Abdullah Arijo Page 10

Dr. Abdullah Arijo Page 11

Removal of water from Stomata of leaf is called Stomatal Transpiration.

DIFFERENCE IN TRANSPIRATION AND GUTTATION

These water drops explain guttation

Dr. Abdullah Arijo Page 12

Removal of Ammonia as waste product:

Urea as Waste Product

Uric Acid as Waste Product:

Advantages and disadvantages of waste products:

Dr. Abdullah Arijo Page 13

1. Wastes form the blood enters the Malpighian tubules

Dr. Abdullah Arijo Page 14

LIVER AN IMPORTANT ORGAN

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Deamination and Urea formation:

(6) Formation of Cholesterol:

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DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF HUMAN KIDNEYS?

Anatomical structure of kidney

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The above diagram show normal and abnormal condition of kidneys

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Physiological temperature regulation in vertebrates

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Behavioral temperature regulation

Hibernation estivation and daily torpor

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(a) Medulla oblongata (b) Pituitary gland

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