The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-018-2737-8

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Design of casting systems for stainless steel exhaust manifold based

on defective prediction model and experimental verification
Jenn-Kun Kuo 1 & Pei-Hsing Huang 2,3 & Hsin-Yi Lai 4 & Wei-Jen Wu 3

Received: 3 April 2018 / Accepted: 17 September 2018

# Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract
High-performance exhaust manifolds are expected to operate in high-temperature and corrosive environments. Any cavitation or
surface corrosion induced by casting defects can cause air leakage, reduce exhaust efficiency, and shorten the lifespan of the
device. In this study, we sought to eliminate casting defects by optimizing the gating system used in the production of an SUS316
stainless steel exhaust manifold, based on the probability and distribution of porosity defects, as determined using the retained
melt modulus (RMM) model. Mold flow analysis and experiments were conducted to configure gating systems to operate under a
variety of processing parameters. Our predictions pertaining to defect formation were in good agreement with experiment results.
Simulations revealed that side gating systems improved flow stability and reduced the encapsulation of gas in the cavity of the top
gating section. The resulting scheme increased the casting yield from 24% (using the original casting scheme) to 28%.
Experimental verification using non-destructive testing methods revealed that the proposed scheme succeeded in eliminating
all of the porosity defects from the cast exhaust manifold.

Keywords Investment casting . Mold flow analysis . Retained melt modulus . Shrinkage

1 Introduction or controlled. Figure 1 illustrates a number of common casting

For thousands of years, the objective in casting has been seek-
ing to expand the range of the alloy materials, while increasing
the casting yield and eliminating casting defects [1–5]. In the
past, most casting manufacturers in Taiwan developed casting
solutions based on trial-and-error, i.e., repeatedly testing and
modifying casting schemes until a feasible scheme was
achieved. Unfortunately, this process is costly in terms of time
and materials, and defects cannot be predicted with accuracy
* Pei-Hsing Huang
phhuang1970@gmail.com; huangph@yuntech.edu.tw
1
Department of Greenergy, National University of Tainan,
Tainan 70005, Taiwan, Republic of China
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Yunlin University
of Science and Technology, Yunlin 64002, Taiwan, Republic of
China
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Pingtung
University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 912, Taiwan,
Republic of China
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng-Kung
University, Tainan 701, Taiwan, Republic of China
defects, including porosity defects, short pours, and surface
voids, which occurred in the production of exhaust manifolds
using the empirical rules established by the foundry.
Numerical simulation has proven effective in predicting the
likelihood of casting defect formation and a powerful tool in
the design of casting schemes [6–9]. Keste et al. [8] used finite
element method (FEM) to analyze shrinkage-induced residual
stress distribution in castings with the aim of optimizing the
casting design and minimizing residual stress. Vasva and Joshi
[9] described the principles underlying the application of
FEM-based computer simulation to the process of casting
A351 CF8 corrosion-resistant housings. Optimization of the
gating system during the manufacturing cycle can lead to sub-
stantial savings in time and capital expenditure. Chalekar et al.
[10] used computer simulation to develop methods to prevent
blowholes, shrinkage cavities, cold shuts, and misrun defects
in the investment casting of corrosion-resistant steel pistons.
Huang et al. [11, 12] used AnyCasting software to optimize
various processing parameters for A356 aluminum alloy cast-
ings with the aim of minimizing shrinkage and porosity de-
fects. Dou et al. [13] used ProCAST software to establish
processing parameters for the investment casting of turbine
blades. Chen and Yang [14] used AnyCasting simulations to

Fig. 1 a Casting defects
commonly encountered in
exhaust manifolds; b, c, and d,
respectively, show enlargements
of porosity defects, short pours,
and surface voids marked in a
analyze the flow and temperature fields for sand casting ex-
haust manifolds, based on predictions pertaining to the loca-
tion, size, and type of defects. Li et al. [15] employed a cellular
automation (CA) algorithm to simulate grain growth during
investment casting in order to predict the distribution of met-
allurgical microstructures. Huang et al. [16] used numerical
software to simulate transient turbulence in a gating system in
which the cross-sections were constricted using a V-shaped
notch. Using ProCAST to simulate the casting processes,
Zhi et al. [17] was able to eliminate casting defects at the
hub and eye of 200ZJA impellers. Huang et al. [18–20] used
the RMM method and Niyama criterion for the simulation of
casting defect formation and defect distribution. Their aim
was to reduce casting defects associated with short pouring,
turbulent flow, and shrinkage defects by improving the gating
system and relocating the risers. Fang et al. [21] used
ProCAST to simulate the filling and solidification of an ex-
haust manifold. They enlarged the risers to increase the feed
capacity and decreased the length of the main sprue to reduce
shrinkage defects. Liu and Zhang [22] employed FEM to sim-
ulate the LPDC of an exhaust manifold. They adjusted the
filling velocity, filling pressure, and boost rate to reduce cast-
ing defects and surface roughness. Lai et al. [23] sought to
predict the location of shrinkage defects in an exhaust mani-
fold through analysis of the casting scheme. They employed
sequential and directional solidification to produce pore-free
castings with no shrinkage defects. Wang [24] applied the lost-
foam process to the casting of exhaust pipes and cylinder
heads with a focus on slag inclusion, porosity, and cracking.
In this study, we employed mold flow analysis using the
RMM model in the development of a casting scheme for
stainless steel exhaust manifolds. We then conducted
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
experiments to evaluate the proposed solution in terms of
casting defect prevention.
2 Experimental and numerical methods
2.1 Materials and process parameters
SUS316 stainless steel (C: ≤ 0.08%; Mn: ≤ 2.00%; Si: ≤
1.00%; P: ≤ 0.045%; S: ≤ 0.03%; Cr: 16.00–18.00%; Mo:
2.00–3.00%; Ni: 10.00–14.00% [25]) was adopted for the
exhaust manifold because it possesses good resistance to high
temperature oxidation and corrosion and is well suited to
welding. Table 1 lists the thermo-physical parameters of
SUS316 stainless steel that include density (ρ), specific heat
(S), coefficient of thermal conductivity (K), liquidus tempera-
ture (Tl), solidus temperature (Ts), latent heat (L), dynamic
viscosity (μ), and solidification shrinkage (rs). The coefficient
of thermal expansion and the thermal conductivity were
shown to vary significantly with temperature and were there-
fore adopted as variables in this paper. The physical parame-
ters, such as density, specific heat, and latent heat, varied little
with temperature; therefore, they were treated as constants in
the simulations. In mold flow analysis, we designed five sets
of casting parameters based on the liquidus and solidus tem-
peratures of the material. Refractory zircon sand was used as
the ceramic shell material with a ceramic shell temperature
(Tceramic) ranging from 1050 to 1250 °C, pouring temperature
(Tpouring) ranging from 1550 to 1650 °C, pouring speed
(Vpouring) ranging from 4 to 11 cm/s, and shell thickness (δ)
6 mm. Gravity casting and air-cooling were employed. Details
of the parameter sets are listed in Table 2.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 1 Thermo-physical
properties of SUS316 stainless ρ (kg/m3) S (J/kg·K) K (W/m·K) Tl Ts L (kJ/ μ rs
steel [25] (°C) (°C) kg) (g/cm s) (%)

Variable Variable Variable 1444 1392 289.98 0.03053 3.16

(7980@300 K) (494@300 K) (13.43@300 K)

2.2 Numerical simulation method (2) The Navier-Stokes equations were used to predict the
pressure and velocity fields (i.e., the conservation of mo-
In this study, the numerical simulation of investment casting mentum):
was conducted in three stages: pre-processing, analytical cal-
∂u⇀ ⇀
þ ρu⇀⋅∇ u⇀ ¼ −∇ p þ μ∇ u⇀ þ f
2
culations, and post-processing. Pre-processing involved ρ ð2Þ
∂t
meshing the physical model of the gating system and estab-
lishing the casting conditions and physical parameters. (3) The energy conservation equation was used to calculate
Analytical calculation involved the analysis and calculation thermal conductivity, the temperature field, and the so-
of the physical phenomena associated with the casting pro- lidification process:
cess, such as the evolutions of the flow field, temperature
∂H
field, and heat transfer. It also involved the prediction of de- ρ þ ρH∇ ⋅u⇀−∇ ⋅ðk∇ T Þ−q ¼ 0 ð3Þ
∂t
fects based on solidification theory using the RMM method.
In post-processing, simulation and calculation results were (4) AnyCasting employs the three-dimensional Navier-
quantified for presentation [3, 5, 25]. Mold flow analysis in Stokes equation and the volume of fluid (VOF) equa-
AnyCasting employs FDM for the numerical calculations. tion for molding free surfaces. The VOF is based on
FDM is superior to other numerical methods in terms of con- the concept of a fluid volume fraction, which origi-
vergence speed and iterative computation. We based the three- nated from the volume-tracking feature of the Marker-
dimensional mesh segmentation of the gating system on a and-Cell (MAC) method [26–29]. Within each of the
Cartesian coordinate system, in which the gating system was grid cells used for calculations (control volume), it is
divided into numerous hexahedral elements of appropriate customary to retain only one value for each character-
size. The mesh and hexahedral elements formed the basic istic of the fluid (e.g., velocity, temperature, pressure
calculation grids used in the numerical simulations. …). As long as we know the amount of fluid in each
Numerical calculations pertaining to filling and solidification grid cell, it is easy to locate surfaces, determine sur-
as well as the pressure field, velocity field, and temperature face slopes, and derive surface curvatures (https://
field during the casting process were based on the continuity www.flow3d.com/resources/cfd-101/general-cfd/free-
equation, Navier-Stokes equations, energy conservation, the surface-modeling-methods/). That is because the air-
volume of fluid (VOF) function, and k-ε equations, as shown liquid interface is located in cells that are partially
below [3, 5, 25, 26]: filled with fluid or between cells that are full of fluid
and those with no fluid. The basic kinematic equation
(1) The continuity equation was used to predict the filling for fluid fractions is as follows [25–29]:
process (i.e., the conservation of mass):
∂F v ⇀
þ u ⋅∇ F v ¼ 0 ð4Þ
∂ρ ∂t
þ ∇ ⋅ðρu⇀Þ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
∂t
where Fv is the fraction of fluid function.
(5) The standard k-ε equations dominate the evolution of
turbulent flow, as follows:
Table 2 Design parameters used in manifold casting process
  
∂k e ∂k e ∂ ut ∂k e
Exp.1 Exp.2 Exp.3 Exp.4 Exp.5 þ uj ¼ uþ þ Pk e −ε ð5Þ
∂t ∂x j ∂x j σke ∂x j
Casting material SUS 316
Shell mold material Zircon (Zr) sand
  
Mesh number 3,015,488 ∂ε ∂ε ∂ ut ∂ε
Tceramic (°C) 1050 1050 1050 1150 1250 þ uj ¼ uþ
∂t ∂x j ∂x j σε ∂x j
Tpouring (°C) 1550 1600 1600 1600 1650
Vpouring (cm/s) 11 9 7 5.5 4 ε ε2
þ C ε1 Pk −C ε2 ð6Þ
δ (mm) 6 ke ke

ut ¼ ρC μ k 2e =ε ð7Þ
*
In the equations above, u denotes the flow velocity vectors
(m/s); ρ indicates the density (kg/m3); p stands for pressure (Pa),
μ is the dynamic viscosity of the molten flows (mPa·s); T refers
to the temperature (°C); t denotes the time; k denotes the thermal
*
conductivity (W/m·K); f represents the body force of particles; q
symbolizes the volume heat flux; H is the enthalpy (J); uj repre-
sents the velocity component in the corresponding direction; ke
indicates the turbulence kinetic energy; ε denotes the dissipation
rate of turbulence kinetic energy; ut represents the turbulent (or
eddy) viscosity; Fv denotes the fraction function; and σk and σε
are the Prandtl numbers corresponding to turbulence kinetic en-
ergy ke and the rate of dissipation ε, respectively. The parameters
used in the turbulence model in Eq. (7) were treated as constants:
Cμ = 0.09, σk = 1.00, σε = 1.30, Cε1 = 1.44, and Cε2 = 1.92 [25].
When a calculation cell was empty (i.e., no fluid inside), the
value of Fv was zero. When a cell was full, Fv = 1. When the
fluid interface was included, 0 < Fv < 1 [25, 26].
We employed a variety of numerical models to predict the
formation of casting defects [3, 5, 30–32], among which, the
Niyama criterion is the most common. However, this semi-
empirical prediction method is based on instability in heat conduc-
tion, which is affected by the size and shape of the casting [33, 34].
We therefore adopted the statistical RMM model to evaluate the
probability of shrinkage cavity formation when implementing the
optimum casting conditions derived through numerical simula-
tions. The RMM model allowed us to view areas where shrinkage
cavity was likely to occur, as follows [3, 5, 25]:
M R ¼ V R =S R ð7Þ
where VR and SR denote the volume and surface area of isolated
melt at the time when the critical solid fraction was reached at
each mesh [25]. Our predictions regarding the formation of
shrinkage cavities and porosity defects in the RMM model were
based on the formation of isolated retained melts resulting from
uneven temperature distribution during solidification. Smaller SR
values refer to melts of greater concentration. Larger VR values
refer to larger pool regions associated with the isolated melt.
These two conditions facilitate the formation of shrinkage de-
fects. Thus, a lower RMM value indicates a higher likelihood
of defect formation [3, 5].
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Simulation results and experimental verification
of initial casting scheme (case 0)
Case 0 involved a top gating system for the exhaust man-
ifold. During the casting process, molten metal that was
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
poured into the sprue cup flowed past the transverse runner
and ingates/gates into the mold cavity. The air originally in
the cavity escaped via vent holes, as shown in Fig. 2. The
diameter of the sprue cup was 90 mm, and the dimensions
of the vertical runner were ø62.5 mm × H20.3 mm. Below,
the main sprue was a transverse runner that acted as a
buffer for the molten metal. The tops of the two ends of
the transverse runner had vent holes that allowed air in the
cavity to escape and thereby reduce pressure within the
gating system. Molten flow filled the exhaust manifold
cavity from the upper four inlets. The length, width, and
height of the ingates were 30 mm, 12 mm, and 19 mm,
respectively. The gating system in the numerical simula-
tions was divided into 3,015,488 mesh grids, and the yield
of this casting scheme was approximately 24%.
We used the RMM model to evaluate the potential of
casting defect. The unit of MR was cm. The probabilis-
tic defect parameter was adopted to get more realistic
predictive results. In RMM model, the probabilistic de-
fect parameter is defined as the rate of shrinkage during
solidification multiplied by the casting constant [33].
This method makes it possible to identify areas with a
high likelihood of defect formation simply by searching
for elements with a relatively low MR value. The prob-
abilistic defect parameter is dimensionless, with a value
between 1.0 (highest likelihood) and 0.0 (lowest likeli-
hood). Figure 3a–c illustrates the probabilities and dis-
tributions of defect formation in case 0 using the RMM
model with the process parameters of Exp. 3. Red and
blue, respectively, indicate areas with high and low
probabilities of shrinkage defect formation. In Fig. 3a,
the exterior of the pattern tree in case 0 shows apparent
casting defects concentrated mainly at the surfaces and
along pipe joints. In Fig. 3b, we can see many gray
areas at pipe joints, indicating short pour defects, which
could severely compromise structural rigidity and cause
leakages. Figure 3c presents an enlargement of
Fig. 2 Initial design of gating system for exhaust manifold (case 0)
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 3 Probability of shrinkage

defect formation in case 0 (Exp.
3) estimated using the RMM
model: a configuration of pattern
tree, b, c top and bottom views of
exhaust manifold

shrinkage porosity defects in the bottom half of the
exhaust manifold.
Figure 4 shows the actual exhaust manifold cast for the
scheme of case 0 as well as the location of defects.
Figure 4b, c presents close-ups of the pipe joint, showing
defects in the shape of irregular pores. We speculate that
these sites lack sufficient feeding during solidification,
resulting in isolated retained melt forming shrinkage po-
rosity defects. Figure 4d presents the surface of the cast-
ing near the ingate, showing many pine hole defects, the
formation of which may be due to inadequate venting of
air during the filling process. Figure 5a–d presents X-ray
images used in non-destructive inspection. The dark gray
spots indicate pores in the interior and exterior of the
casting. The casting defects in this experiment are consis-
tent with the results of numerical analysis.
3.2 Improvements in design of gating system
for exhaust manifold
The results obtained in experiments and simulations for
case 0 revealed severe defects at the pipe joint and on the
surfaces of the castings. We developed four casting
schemes (cases 1~4) in an attempt to overcome these issues,
as shown in Fig. 6. In case 1, two tapered ingates were set at
the pipe joint with the aim of eliminating defects in that area
by providing effective feeding during solidification. Case 2
was similar to case 1, except that the ingates were moved
slightly upward toward the surface of the pipe to keep it at a
distance from the joint in order to facilitate post-processing.
The placement of two thin plates (L52 × W50 × H4.5 mm)
at the sides of the joint and the four ingates were meant to
provide adequate feeding. In case 3, we arranged the

Fig. 4 a Distribution of defects in

experimental verification of case
0 (Exp. 3). b–d Enlarged views of
surface shrinkage porosity and
pinhole defects in a
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 5 a–d X-ray images of

manifold casting obtained in case
0 (Exp. 3)

exhaust manifolds in a vertical pattern tree, placed tapered the side of downsprues to facilitate post-processing (i.e.,
ingates at the top and bottom of three downsprues, and removal of the castings), and the dimensions of the ingates
connected the three downsprues by a bottom runner to in- were adjusted in the hopes of reducing splash and increas-
crease the yield. In case 4, the ingates were made level with ing ventilation during the filling process.

Fig. 6 Improved gating system designs: a case 1, b case 2, c case 3, d case 4

Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 7 Predictions of defect
formation in case 1 (Exp. 4): a
isometric view, b cross-sectional
view, and c bottom view of
casting scheme
3.3 Numerical analysis of improved gating system
designs
Mold flow analysis of case 1 (Exp. 4) revealed that as the molten
metal cooled, solidification began at the outer edges of the ex-
haust manifold and gradually progressed inward. However, the
thicker joint dissipated heat poorly, resulting in isolated retained
melt. We speculate that the pouring speed influenced defect for-
mation. A pouring speed of 5.5 cm/s and higher ceramic shell
temperature had the greatest effect on reducing defect formation,
as shown in Fig. 7. In case 2, placement of the thin plates at the
joint facilitated feeding during solidification and led to the accu-
mulation of defects. Unfortunately, the thin plates inhibited heat
dissipation and ventilation, and this overall design hindered dip-
ping and coating in ceramic slurry, as shown in Fig. 8.
In case 3, we employed bypassed tapered ingates on the
runner sides to feed the joint site and improve the stability of
the flow field during pouring. The simulation results in Fig. 9
show that the casting scheme of case 3 (Exp. 3) reduced the
probability of defect formation and increased the yield to 31%.
However, removal of the casting from the casting tree was
hindered by the tapered ingates, which were not level with
Fig. 8 Predictions of defect formation in case 2 (Exp. 2): a isometric view, b cross-sectional view, and c bottom view of casting scheme
the sides of downsprues. Finally, in case 4, we employed
bypassed oblique ingates along the downsprues for filling
the cavity. The oblique shape of the ingates provided adequate
feeding for the joint and improved the stability of the flow
field during casting. The tapered ingates were made level with
the sides of downsprues to facilitate removal. The widened
runner also made the flow field more stable and greatly facil-
itated removal of the casting. The simulation results in Fig. 10
show that the casting scheme of case 4 significantly reduced
defect formation.
3.4 Prediction of gas pressure in gating system
A good gating system should vent air from the cavity during
the filling process to reduce the amount of gas remaining in
the cavity during solidification, thereby reducing porosity de-
fects in the resulting cast. In Fig. 11, dark red and dark blue,
respectively, indicate areas of higher pressure and lower pres-
sure. In Fig. 11, we included the most important aspects of the
various casting schemes in order to clarify the profiles of
trapped gas and pressure in the castings. This is the reason
for the difference in the viewpoints in case 0~case 5.
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 9 Predictions of defect

formation in case 3 (Exp. 3): a
isometric view, b cross-sectional
view, and c bottom view of
casting scheme

Figure 11a shows a considerable volume of residual gas near
the ingates of the exhaust manifold in the initial scheme (case
0). We speculate that poor ventilation hindered the venting of
air during casting, which increased the likelihood of micro-
pore formation. Figure 11b indicates that the ventilation in
case 1 was far superior to that of case 0. Nonetheless, the
surfaces of the exhaust manifold indicate that some of the air
was unable to escape, thereby necessitating further improve-
ments to reduce the trapped gas. As shown in Fig. 11c, the
gating system in case 2 included additional ingates to enhance
ventilation. Nevertheless, simulation results indicate that this
was insufficient to entirely overcome the ventilation problems.
As shown in Fig. 11d, we adopted a side gating system in case
3 in the hope that air in the cavity would be discharged
smoothly from the bottom of the cavity upwards. Our simula-
tion results revealed that this scheme was far more effective
than the previous casting schemes. Nonetheless, some of the
gas was still trapped along the top rim of the exhaust manifold.

Fig. 10 Predictions of defect

formation in case 4 (Exp. 3): a
isometric view, b cross-sectional
view, and c bottom view of
casting scheme
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 11 Predictions of trapped gas and pressure in various gating system designs: a–e case 0 to case 4 in different views

We determined that this casting scheme was the most effective shows the revised scheme using tilted ingates to improve ven-
in terms of ventilation; therefore, all subsequent improve- tilation in case 4. This design was shown to eliminate almost
ments were based on this overall casting scheme. Figure 11e all of the gas trapped in the cavity.

Fig. 12 Flow velocity of ingates as a function of pouring time: a initial casting scheme in case 0 and improved casting schemes in b case 1, c case 2, d
case 3, and e case 4

Fig. 13 Casting scheme of case 4:
a wax tree; b ceramic shell mold;
c pouring; d cast tree
3.5 Flow analysis of gating systems
Liquid metal forms readily thin-film oxide layers on the sur-
face of the melt. During the pouring process, the surface of the
liquid metal is susceptible to turbulent flow. In cases where the
local velocity of the molten metal exceeds a certain threshold,
the liquid metal may fold over itself trapping a pocket of gas
[1]. Gases associated with the oxidized film are often
entrained within the cavity during pouring. Once solidified,
this results in bifilm defects, which can greatly undermine
mechanical properties [1, 35]. We monitored changes in the
velocity of the flowing liquid metal to avoid these difficulties.
The highest flow velocity is likely to appear in the lowest
region of the casting or in the narrowest sections of runners;
therefore, we set virtual flow sensors at the ingates to facilitate
analysis.
Fig. 14 a–d X-ray images of
exhaust manifold using casting
scheme of case 4
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
An ideal gating system design allows the molten metal to
flow at a moderate velocity through the ingates, thereby min-
imizing flow instability, slag entrapment, and gas encapsula-
tion in the cavity. A moderate flow velocity also prevents the
formation of defects and enhances casting quality. In our sim-
ulations, we placed virtual sensors at the ingates to observe the
velocity of the molten metal flowing through the cavity, to
serve as the basis for the design of the gating system.
Figure 12a–e, respectively, display the flow velocity curves
for the casting schemes in case 0 to case 4. Figure 12a shows
that the maximum flow velocity (60 cm/s) occurred when the
molten metal reached the ingates where it began filling the
exhaust manifold cavity. A sustained high flow velocity was
shown to undermine flow field stability in the cavity between
1 s and 4 s and decrease the stability of the flow field. As
shown in Fig. 12b, the top gating system in case 1 presented
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
the same difficulties encountered in case 0, i.e., a flow velocity
of 65 cm/s produced an unstable flow field at the pipe joint
during the filling process. Figure 12c presents the flow veloc-
ities in case 2, in which the ingates were larger than those in
case 0. Increasing the number of ingates (case 2) also dredged
the flow of the molten metal and slowed the flow velocity
down to 55 cm/s. This had the effect of stabilizing the flow
of molten metal in the cavity to below that of case 0 and case
1. Figure 12d, e presents the results obtained using a side
gating system. In case 3, locating the ingates higher than the
bottommost runner resulted in the formation of a shallow run-
ner well capable of buffering the flow of molten metal into the
cavity. However, the limited depth of the well greatly reduced
the effectiveness of this solution. The ingates in case 4 were
made level with the sides of three downsprues to facilitate
removal of the castings. Note that the molten metal underwent
free fall until striking the bottom of the runners. The lack of
buffering in this configuration resulted in unstable transient
flow during the first 3 s in case 4, as shown in Fig. 12e.
Nonetheless, the cross-sectional size of the ingates in case 4
far exceeded that in case 3. After t = 3.5 s, the flow velocities
had rapidly stabilized at between 10 and 35 cm/s until the
exhaust manifold was completely filled at t = 15.5 s.
3.6 Experimental verification and non-destructive
testing
The results of mold flow analysis and defect prediction re-
vealed that case 4 produced a stable flow field and eliminated
shrinkage defects. This configuration also produced a feasible
yield of 28% with directional solidification. Thus, we adopted
the design of case 4 as the basic casting solution for all sub-
sequent experiments. We first heated wax material to 56 ±
2 °C and injected it into the mold at an injection temperature
of 65 ± 2 °C and injection pressure of 22 ± 2 kg/cm 2 .
Following the completion of injection (18 s), the pressure
was maintained for 3 to 6 s to prevent the formation of de-
pressions or holes on the surface of the pattern or in the interior
of the wax mold, as shown in Fig. 13a. Dipping and coating
were repeated until a ceramic shell mold with thickness of
6.0 mm had formed. However, this process required waiting
for the binder and zircon sand to air-dry, which added up to a
processing time of five to seven workdays. We placed the
ceramic shell in a Taichi energy-saving calcination kiln to
sinter for approximately 45 min until the ceramic shell tem-
perature reached 1050 °C, as shown in Fig. 13b. Molten metal
was then poured into the cavity at a pouring temperature of
1600 °C, as shown in Fig. 13c. After air-cooling, the exhaust
manifold was removed using a shell removal machine, as
shown in Fig. 13d.
Non-destructive testing is used to detect hidden voids and
defects in a variety of casting materials. We employed X-ray
inspection to identify defects in the exhaust manifold created
using the gating system design in case 4. The thickness of the
casting determines the amount of X-ray radiation that can
penetrate through to the silver halide of a negative film to form
a distinct shadowgraph. Thin structures allow the penetration
of high energy X-rays resulting in darker spots. Thick struc-
tures prevent the penetration of high energy X-rays resulting
in brighter spots. Figure 14a–d presents X-ray shadowgraphs
of the exhaust manifold fabricated using the casting solution
of case 4. These images revealed no dark gray spots or defects
in any area of the exhaust manifold.
4 Conclusions
This study employed numerical simulations to perform mold
flow analysis with the aim of reducing shrinkage and short-
pour defects in exhaust manifold castings. Experiments were
conducted to evaluate various gating system designs and pro-
cess parameters. Analysis of molten metal flow was used to
predict the formation of defects. Our objective was to reduce
the probability of defect formation and enhance the casting
quality and yield. The conclusions of this study are outlined
in the following:
1. Defect distribution revealed that porosity defects at pipe
joints were caused by insufficient feeding. A failure to
take into account the effects of ventilation also resulted
in numerous porosity defects on the surface of the exhaust
manifold casting.
2. Flow analysis of the top gating system led to improve-
ments that had a mild effect in reducing the number of
defects. Unfortunately, this ingate configuration and the
use of thin plates to improve feeding increased the time
and costs of post-processing, thereby precluding these
schemes from further consideration.
3. The side gating system was shown to vent nearly all of the
gas trapped in the cavity. Mold flow analysis revealed that
increasing the temperature of the ceramic shell to 1150 °C
and increasing the pouring speed to 5.5 cm/s reduced the
probability of defect formation. Leveling the ingates with
the side of downsprues facilitated removal of the castings.
Moving the tapered ingates away from the pipe joint of
the exhaust manifold promoted ventilation while facilitat-
ing post-processing (i.e., grinding and cutting).
4. The introduction of a side gating system reduced fluctua-
tions in the flow velocity and splashing during the filling
process. It also allowed the smooth discharge of air from
the cavity upward from the bottom.
5. The yield in case 0 through case 4 was 24, 34, 23, 31, and
28%, respectively. Case 1 and case 3 presented high yield;
however, case 4 was superior in terms of post processing
and quality.

Funding information This study was financially supported by the
Ministry of Science and Technology, R.O.C. under grants MOST 106-
2221-E-020-014 and MOST 106-2622-E-020-004-CC3.
Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdic-
tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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