Chee 81 To 141

11 The Per Unit System and Network
Applications
11.1 Introduction
The per unit system is a universal concept designed to ease the analysis and conceptualisation of electric
networks and systems. It makes it easier to judge whether values are within acceptable limits. For example,
even in a complex network involving transformers with varying transformation ratios, we can easily detect
abnormal or out-of-desired-range operation. If for example, we have a standard that voltages are not to be
outside ±10%, and we find a bus voltage of 1.2 per unit (p.u.), we can easily detect the abnormality because
we know that the voltage on any bus has to be a maximum of 1.1 p.u. and a minimum of 0.9 p.u.
Some of the advantages of per unit system

• The per unit system gives more meaning to network data especially because we can quickly compare the
values to the normal.
• It simplifies some of the problems of three-phase networks involving changes from line to phase voltages
and vice versa.
• It works well in computerised power system analysis and eases the computational load. Certain computer
simulations have to be done very quickly to allow real-time power system operators to make appropriate
and often critical decisions.
• The per unit values of system components vary only within small limits, allowing us to make better
comparisons.
• When dealing with transformers, which are present in many networks, the per unit values referred to the
primary or secondary are the same. This reduces the risk of making calculation errors.
• The transformer configuration e.g. Y- or Y-Y, is not a problem when dealing with per unit.
• It enables a quick way of modelling a network and make calculations on it such as short-circuit
calculations.
11.2 Overview of the Per Unit System

One of the most powerful features of the per unit system is the ability to easily reduce an elaborate network of
generators, transmission lines, transformers and electrical machines into a Thevenin equivalent circuit.
Consider the power system of Figure 11.1. Among electrical networks, it is one of the simplest ones, yet
to analyse it as presented, can be quite challenging. If however we were able to convert the networks to
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Concise Higher Electrical Engineering
reactances and voltage sources, i.e. into a standard electrical circuit then the analysis is simpler. The problem
can be solved in standard ways, we would save ourselves unnecessary effort and we would make less errors.
Being able to do this network conversion allows us to use other network analysis tools, for example to calculate
fault currents. Among the most useful tools would be the Norton and Thevenin equivalent circuits. The way to
achieve per unit conversion is quite straightforward. We will rely on the use of a few definitions and formulas.
T1 T2
G M1
Line
M2
Figure 11.1: General electrical network
Definition of per unit

Per unit value = __
Actual Value
(11.1)
Base Value
There are four fundamental quantities involving electrical networks:
• S apparent power
• V voltage
• I current
• Z impedance.
So theoretically, we can have four bases. Fortunately, only two are necessary as the others can be derived from
the chosen two. In practice we usually choose S, the rated apparent power and V, the rated voltage as bases.
We can derive the other bases as follows:
Sbase
Ibase = _
V
(11.2)
base
V
Zbase = _
I
base
base
We are often concerned with circuits involving voltages in the kV rage and powers in the MVA range and
therefore voltage bases are frequently cited in kV and power bases in MVA. Note also that the base power
does not change throughout the system under study. The base voltage however will change from one side
of a transformer to another, i.e. it is dependent on the transformer ratio. This will become clearer when we do
examples involving transformers.
V
Zbase = _
base
(11.3)
Ibase
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Chapter 11 The Per Unit System and Network Applications
(V )2
=_
base
(11.4)
Sbase
(kV )2
=_
base
(11.5)
MVAbase
To find the actual values (usually this is the last step) we use:
Actual Value = Base Value × Per Unit Value (11.6)
Example 11.1
The generator in Figure 11.2 is supplying a load of ZF=R F +jX F
IL
impedance ZL through a feeder line ZF. The feeder
impedance is 1 + j2 or (2.24∠ 63.4) The load
impedance is 8 + j6 (or 10∠36.9). If the voltage
ZL VL
across the load is 120 V, use the per unit system to find EG
the real and reactive power supplied by the generator.
Use as base voltage, 120 V and as base VA, 1500.
Figure 11.2: Generator-load system for

Solution: Example 11.1Hicastius esse, vignos
In per unit terms, the voltage across the load is:
V
VL p.u = _
V
actual
p.u. = _
120∠0
120
p.u.
base
= 1∠ 0 p.u.
V
Zbase = _
I
base
base
(Vbase)2
=_Sbase
(120)2
=_
1 500
= 9.6
Z
ZL p.u = _
Z
actual
base
= __
10∠ 36.9
9.6
p.u.
= 1.04∠36.9 p.u.
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V
IL p.u = _
p.u.
Z
p.u.
Lp.u.
= __ 1∠0
1.04∠ 36.9
p.u.
= 0.96∠ – 36.9 p.u.
Zƒ p.u = __
2.24∠63.4
9.6
p.u.
= 0.233∠ 63.4 p.u.

We can see that the generated voltage is:
EG = VL + ILZF
Substituting:
EG p.u. = 1∠0 + (0.96∠ – 36.9)(0.233∠63.4)
= 1.204∠4.8 p.u.
Since we know from Equation 11.6 that:
Actual Value = Base Value × Per Unit Value

Then:
EG (volts) = 144.5∠4.8 V
Apparent power is:
SG = EGIL*
SG = (1.204∠4.8)(0.96∠– 36.9)
= 1.156∠41.7
= 0.863 + j0.769
From this, the per unit real power supplied is 0.863, and per unit reactive power supplied is +0.769.
By multiplying with base values, we find:
PG = (0.863)(1 500) W = 1294.5 W
QG = (0.769)(1 500) VAR = 1153.5 VAR
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11.3 Transformer Short-circuit (%) Impedance and the Per Unit

System
The impedance of a transformer is usually quoted in terms of percentages. This allows you to quickly decide on
the relative merits of one transformer over another for a given application. Lets briefly examine the relationship
between the % impedance and the per unit system.
Consider a transformer rated at 1200 VA, with a 240 V primary and a 24 V secondary. A quick calculation
(shown in the text that follows) tells us that the full load primary current is 5 A. Let us suppose that to circulate
this primary current with the secondary short-circuited, 30 V was required, this voltage being applied at the
primary.
The short-circuit ‘percentage voltage’ is given by:
V
V% = _
V
s/c
(100)
rated
V% = _30
240
(100)
= 12.5%
The transformer is therefore as described in Figure 13.3. 1200 VA
From the transformer testing procedure we know that:

V
Zs/c = _ s/c 240V
I
= Z01 24V
s/c
Is/c is the rated current, i.e.
Is/c = Irated = _
1 200 VA V%=12.5%
240 V
= 5A Figure 11.3: Short-circuit
voltage as a percentage.
Assuming negligible resistance
Zs/c = Z01
= Xs/c = X01 = _
30
5
=6
Therefore:
Zs/c = _
30
5
=6
This transformer is represented in Figure 11.4.
Figure 11.4: Transformer

impedance referred to
primary
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Choosing 1 200 as base VA and 240 as base voltage then the base impedance is:
2
(Vbase) 2
Zbase = _ = _
(240)
S 1 200
base
= 48
2
Z
Zp.u. = _
Z
=_6
48base
= 0.125 p.u.
Thus, we see that to convert transformer impedance from % to per unit, we simply divide by 100. It is also seen
that Vs/c expressed as a percentage also gives Z% and p.u. impedance, thus some manufacturers refer Z% as
percentage voltage.
We can apply the same reasoning to electrical machines. A machine such as a motor or generator with a
reactance of 20% has 0.20 p.u.
Note that Zpu can also be more directly calculated from:
S
Zpu = _
base
Z
2
(11.7)
(Vbase)
11.4 Bases and Equipment Ratings (specifications)

In the per unit system there has to be consistency when doing conversion of machine ratings to per unit. We
need to modify the per unit impedance equipment specifications or ratings given by the manufacturer if the
MVA and kV at which they are specified are different from our chosen MVA and kV bases.
An impedance, Z, can be expressed in per unit using two bases, Zbase1 and Zbase2, yielding Zpu1 and Zpu2.
Whatever base is used, the ohm value should be the same, i.e.:
Z = Zpu1Zbase1 = Zpu2Zbase2
Zbase1
Zpu2 = Zpu1 _
Z base2
Vbase12/Sbase1
= Zpu1__
2
Vbase2 /Sbase2
Sbase2 Vbase1
( )
2
= Zpu1 _
S
_
V
base1 base2
Now Sbase1 is usually the rated or specified value of the equipment, so we may call it simply Sspec. Similarly,
Vbase1 is simply called, Vspec. It is also common practice to call Sbase2, simply Sbase and Vbase2, Vbase and we will
also call Zpu1, Zspec. We will proceed to name Zpu2, Zpu (new).
From the above formula, we note the following:
(a) If our chosen base MVA is higher that that on the nameplate, then the per unit value of the impedance
on the nameplate will increase proportionally. That is, we apply a factor of:
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S( )
Sbase
Sk = _
spec
(11.8)
(b) For example, if for a transformer we have Sbase = 50 MVA, X% = 15 (0.15 p.u.) and the transformer
is rated at 25 MVA, then we should work with double the nameplate per unit value, i.e. a higher base
MVA increases the per unit value of the specified impedance.
(c) If our chosen base voltage is higher than that on the nameplate, then the per unit value of the impedance
on the nameplate will decrease but not in direct proportion. We apply a factor of:
( )
V 2
Vk = _
spec
V
(11.9)
base
It is very important to note that unlike Sbase and Sspec which may differ greatly, Vbase and Vspec and are expected
to be very close to one another, typically within 20% of one another unless there is an abnormality in the
system.
In real systems, the equipment specifications or ratings will differ for both S and V from our chosen base and
we often have to apply both Sk and Vk.
Therefore to translate a per unit impedance to a common base usable on a common system being studied, we
must apply this very important result:
( )( )
Sbase V 2
Zpu (new) = Zpu (spec) _ _spec
Sspec Vbase
(11.10)
Or:
Zpu (new) = (Sk)(Vk)(Zpu (spec))
Example 11.2 T1 Transformer

T2
Transformer
Lets make a per unit representation of a Specifications: Specifications M1 Motor
S=25 MVA : Specifications:
simple network. It consists of a generator, S=20 MVA S=10MVA
two transformers, a transmission line and an XT1 =12% XT22 = 15%
33kV /0.4kV XM1
1 = 10%
11kV /33kV L1
induction motor (Figure 11.5). V=0.40 kV
Line Spec:
j5
M
M1
G1 Generator
Specifications:
SG=25MVA
XG=10%
VG=11 kV
Figure 11.5: Network for Example 11.2
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Solution:
For this example, we have the freedom to choose bases. It would be convenient to choose values coinciding
with one of the items in the network. Generators are convenient, especially if they have several parameters.
It certainly makes sense to choose the base voltage from one of the ratings (Vspec ) of one of the items of the
system. A nominal busbar voltage is also convenient choice.
Lets then use Sbase = 20 MVA, and Vbase = 11 kV.
Then: VGpu = _ ( )
11 p.u. = 1 p.u., S
11 Gpu
= _( )
25
20
p.u. = 1.25 p.u.
Also, XGpu = _10
100
= 0.1 p.u.
Consider now transformer T1.
Using Equation 11.10:
XT1pu (new) = 0.10 _

20
25( ) (_
11 )
11 2
= 0.08 p.u.
Next, consider the transmission line, line L1.

Note an actual value is given rather than the per unit value. We can apply Equation 11.7 directly, thus:
S
Zpu = _
base
Z
2
(Vbase)
XL1(pu) = _20
(5)
(33)2
= 0.092 p.u.
Next, we consider T2.
XT2pu (new) = 0.15 _

20
20( ) (_
33 )
33 2
= 0.15 p.u.
Note that as the specified voltage and MVA coincide with base voltage and base MVA, there is no change
in the per unit value of this component. Also, we could have used 0.4 kV instead of 33 kV in applying the
formula.
Finally, lets consider the motor.
Again using Equation 11.10, we have:
XMTpu (new) = 0.10 _

20
10 ( ) (_
0.4 )
0.4 2
= 0.20 p.u.
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Notice how the base voltages have been shifting each time we move from one side of the transformer to
the other.
Lets combine all the information we have into one diagram (Figure 11.6).
XT1 XL1 XT2
0.092 0.15
0.096
0.08
XG1 0.20
XM1
VG1=1pu M1 M
Figure 11.6: Final per unit representation
Example 11.3
Example 11.2 was a ‘well behaved’ network, now lets make a p.u. diagram of a more complicated network
that makes sure we understand the importance of Equation 11.10. Consider the network of Figure 11.7.
T2
T1 Transformer Transformer
Specifications: Specifications M1 Motor
S=25 MVA : Specifications:
S=20 MVA S=10MVA
XT1=12% XT2=15%
12kV /33kV L1 35kV /0.4kV XM1= 10%
Line Spec: V=0.38 kV
j5 Ω
M
M1
G1 Generator
Specifications:
SG=25MVA
XG=10%
VG=11 kV
Figure 11.7: Network for Example 11.3

This time we are given a base voltage of 33 kV (assume this is also the rating of the transmission line) and
a base MVA of 20. We proceed much the same way as before, but have to take great care that we adhere
to Equation 11.10.
For this example, we have no freedom to choose bases. The 33 kV chosen happens to be the secondary
rating of transformer T1. Therefore the base on the generator side is _ ( )
12 (33) = 12 kV. Similar reasoning is
33
used to calculate the base for the motor side.
For generator G1:
VG = _
11 p.u. = 0.92 p.u.
12
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XG1pu (new) = 0.10 _

20
25( ) (_
12 )
11 2
= 0.067 p.u.
Consider now transformer T1.
XT1pu (new) = 0.12 _

20
25( ) (_
12 )
12 2
Next consider the transmission line, line L1.

Note an actual value is given rather than the p.u. value so we can apply Equation 11.7 directly, thus:
S
Zpu = _
base
Z
2
(Vbase)
XL1(pu) = _
20
2
(5)
(33)
= 0.092 p.u.
Next, we consider T2.
XT2pu (new) = 0.15 _

20
20( ) (_
33 )
35 2
= 0.169 p.u.
Finally, let us consider the motor.
Again using Equation 11.10, we have:
XMTpu (new) = 0.10 _ ( )(

20 _0.38
10 0.377 ) 2
= 0.203
Notice how the motor voltage rating has changed from that of Example 11.2 and more significantly, how we
changed the base voltage on the motor side. We used the transformer ratio, so that:
VBase(on motor side) = __Vbase

Secondary Spec
Primary Spec
_
0.4
= 35 (33)
= 0.377 kV
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Lets combine all the information we have into one diagram:
XT1 XL1 XT2
0.096 0.092 0.169
0.067
XG1 0.203
XM1
VG1=0.92pu M1 M
Figure 11.8: Final per unit diagram for Example 11.3
11.5 Uses of the Per Unit Diagram

XT1 XL1 XT2
How can we use a diagram such as Figure 11.8? First of
0.169
all, the simplicity of the result is very apparent. We can also 0.096 0.092
0.067
make certain investigations. What happens if there is a XG1
Fault 0.203
XM1
bolted three-phase fault (i.e. a short circuit of all lines to
M1
ground or together, also called a three-phase symmetrical VG1=0.92pu M
fault) at the generator terminals, or one at the end of the

transmission line? Refer to Figure 11.9.
In Figure 11.10 Thevenin’s theorem is used to reduce the Figure 11.9: Faulted at T2 end of the line
network to an equivalent circuit.
XT1 XL1 XT2
0.096 0.092 0.169
0.067
XG1 0.203
XM1
Xth
VG M1
j0.255 j0.372
Xth
j0.151
0.92
0.92 Isc (pu)=
j0.151
= -j6.09
Figure 11.10: Application of Thevenin’s theorem
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To find the actual current we use:
Iactual = (Ibase)(I pu)

For single-phase systems in VA and volts:
Sbase
Ibase = _
Vbase
For three-phase systems in MVA and kV:
Sbase(MVA)
Ibase = __
_ =__20 = 0.35 kA
√3 V (kV) √3 × 33
base
Iactual = (0.35)(6.09) = 2.13 kA
Exercises for Chapter 11

1. What are the advantages of working in per unit?
2. A one-line impedance diagram for a power system is shown in Figure 11.11. The three-phase line-to-
line ratings are as follows:
Table 11.1 System ratings
Item Power Rating (MVA) Voltage (kV) Reactance (X p.u.)
Generator G 20 13.8 0.18
Motor M1 7 13.8 0.15
Motor M2 5 14.5 0.15
T1 25 13.2/161 0.1
T2 15 14/160 0.15
The line connecting T1 and T2 has a reactance of j80 (actual ohms).
Using a 100 MVA and a 161 kV transmission line voltage as bases, draw a per unit impedance
diagram for the system and calculate the predicted fault current at the secondary terminals
of transformer T2.
T1 T2
G M1
Line
M2
Figure 11-11: Network for Question 2
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12 Modelling and Analysis of Power Systems
12.1 Introduction
Modern power systems are increasingly complex and the use of computers to analyse and simulate their
performance is now commonplace. There are many computer analysis packages on the market. Unfortunately,
it is not simply a matter of entering data. It is important to have a good grasp of how the input data was arrived
at and also to be able to distinguish between good and bad data. Figure 12.1 shows a hypothetical electrical
network comprising generators, motors, transmission lines and transformers. For each of these items data is
required before meaningful results can be obtained.
B1
L1
B2
G
L2 L3
B4 T1 B6 B3
M
M
G FDR
L4
B5
SVC
Figure 12.1: Hypothetical electrical network
In this chapter we shall summarise and consolidate the representations of the most important power system
components. As far as possible, the data format used in modern power system packages will be utilised.
12.2 Modelling of Transmission Lines

Single-phase, two-wire transmission line
The inductance of a single-phase two-wire transmission line is given by the expression:
0
[1 + 4ln(_
d – r )]
L=_
4 r H/m (12.1)
Where d is the distance between the centres and r the radius of the conductors.
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Three-phase line A
A three-phase line in an equilateral triangle configuration shown in
Figure12.2 will have a line-to-neutral inductance given by: r
0 d
L=_8
[
1 + 4ln _(
d–r
r )]
H/m (12.2)
d
N
–7 ()
_
d
= (2)(10 )ln r for d >> r
The line-to-neutral inductance is important since in doing power C B
d
systems analysis, a single-phase representation is used.
Figure 12.2: Three-phase line,
If the configuration is not equilateral (such as three conductors in a
equilateral triangle configuration
plane as in Figure 12.3), d in equation 12.1 and 12.2 can be replaced
by a geometric mean distance between the conductors:
__
deq = √
3
dAB.dBC.dCA (12.3)
Substituting:
__
deq = √
3
(2.5).(2.5)(5) = 3.15 m
2.5m 2.5m
A B C
Figure 12.3: Three conductors, in-line configuration
Unsymmetrical spacing of the conductors can cause unacceptable uneven inductances and voltage drops as
well as induction of worrisome voltages in nearby communication lines.
For the reactance of the transmission line we obviously have to take into account the supply frequency. This
would be 60 Hz in the in the Americas and 50 Hz for other countries in the world.
Line resistance
For reasons of economy, aluminium and not copper is used for high voltage overhead cables. To achieve
mechanical strength, the stranded twisted aluminium conductors have a steel wire at the centre. They are
therefore called aluminium conductor steel reinforced conductor (ACSR). The cross-sectional area used for
these conductors is often based on what is called a copper equivalent and the constants given are those of this
copper equivalent. On this basis the area given is therefore smaller than that of the real aluminium conductor.
Figure 12.4 on the next page shows that overhead line data is dependent on circuit configuration.
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Chapter 12 Modelling and Analysis of Power Systems
Capacitance
The capacitance of a single-phase two-wire transmission line is given by the expression:
pe
C=_0
F/m (12.4)
ln[_]
d–r
r
Where d is the distance between the centres and r the radius of the conductors. A three-phase line on an
equilateral triangle configuration shown in Figure 12.2, will have a line to neutral capacitance given by:
2pe
C=_ 0
F/m (12.5)
ln[_
d–r
r ]
Charging current
Charging current is the current that flows through line capacitance. This can be calculated by dividing the
phase voltage by the reactance at line frequency.
Example 12.1
Consider the three-phase line of Figure 12.3. The geometric mean diameter, GMD or deq = D = 3.15 m. Let
the conductor radius be 0.006 m, the length of the line is 1 km. The line voltage is 220 kV, at 60 Hz.
Solution:
Now, the capacitance to neutral can be shown to be,
2e
C=_ 0
d–r
ln[_
r ]
2(8.854)(10–12)
C = __
3.15
ln_ 0.006
= 8.88 pF/m
Xc = ___
1
–12
M
2(60)(8.88)(10 )
= 298.6 M
__
220 _000
√3
Ic = __
(298.6)(106)
= 0.000425 A/m
For 1 km, therefore Ic = 1 000(0.000425)
= 0.425 A
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CHEE.indb 296
296
Sectional RDC RAC XAC at 60 Hz XAC at 60HZ and shunt capacitance
Area of (20oC) (20oC) 66kV 132kV
Aluminium 3.3kV 6.6kV 11kV 22kV 33kV
Flat Circuit Double Helical Triangle Double Vertical Double Triangle Flat Circuit
X C X C X C X C X C X C X C
2
mm ohm/m ohm/km ohm/km ohm/km ohm/km ohm/km ohm/km nF/km ohm/km nF/km ohm/km nF/km ohm/km nF/km ohm/km nF/km ohm/km nF/km ohm/km nF/km
13.3 2.159 2.159 0.474 0.491 0.503 0.520 0.534 8.7 0.604 7.6 0.615 7.4 0.624 7.3 0.649 7.0 0.633 7.2 0.668 6.8
15.3 1.877 1.877 0.469 0.486 0.498 0.515 0.529 8.8 0.598 7.7 0.610 7.5 0.619 7.4 0.644 7.1 0.628 7.3 0.662 6.9
21.2 1.356 1.356 0.457 0.474 0.486 0.503 0.516 9.0 0.586 7.8 0.598 7.7 0.606 7.6 0.632 7.2 0.616 7.4 0.650 7.0
23.9 1.201 1.201 0.452 0.469 0.481 0.498 0.511 9.1 0.581 7.9 0.593 7.8 0.601 7.6 0.627 7.3 0.611 7.5 0.645 7.1
26.2 1.093 1.093 0.449 0.466 0.478 0.495 0.508 9.2 0.578 8.0 0.590 7.8 0.598 7.7 0.624 7.3 0.608 7.5 0.642 7.1
28.3 1.025 1.025 0.423 0.440 0.452 0.469 0.483 9.4 0.552 8.2 0.564 8.0 0.572 7.8 0.598 7.5 0.582 7.7 0.616 7.3
33.6 0.854 0.854 0.439 0.456 0.468 0.485 0.499 9.4 0.569 8.1 0.580 7.9 0.589 7.8 0.614 7.5 0.598 7.7 0.633 7.2
37.7 0.765 0.765 0.392 0.409 0.421 0.438 0.452 9.7 0.521 8.4 0.533 8.2 0.541 8.1 0.567 7.7 0.551 7.9 0.585 7.4
42.4 0.677 0.677 0.431 0.447 0.460 0.477 0.490 9.6 0.560 8.3 0.572 8.1 0.580 7.9 0.606 7.6 0.589 7.8 0.624 7.3
44.0 0.652 0.652 0.384 0.400 0.413 0.429 0.443 9.9 0.513 8.5 0.525 8.3 0.533 8.2 0.559 7.8 0.542 8.0 0.577 7.5
47.7 0.604 0.604 0.383 0.400 0.412 0.429 0.443 9.9 0.513 8.5 0.524 8.3 0.533 8.2 0.558 7.8 0.542 8.1 0.576 7.6
51.2 0.563 0.564 0.380 0.397 0.409 0.426 0.440 10.0 0.510 8.6 0.521 8.4 0.530 8.2 0.555 7.9 0.539 8.1 0.573 7.6
58.9 0.489 0.490 0.375 0.392 0.404 0.421 0.435 10.1 0.505 8.7 0.516 8.5 0.525 8.3 0.550 7.9 0.534 8.2 0.568 7.7
63.1 0.455 0.455 0.416 0.432 0.445 0.462 0.475 9.9 0.545 8.5 0.557 8.3 0.565 8.2 0.591 7.8 0.574 8.0 0.609 7.5
67.4 0.426 0.426 0.413 0.430 0.442 0.459 0.473 10.0 0.543 8.5 0.554 8.3 0.563 8.2 0.588 7.8 0.572 8.1 0.606 7.6
73.4 0.393 0.393 0.367 0.384 0.396 0.413 0.427 10.3 0.496 8.8 0.508 8.6 0.516 8.5 0.542 8.1 0.526 8.3 0.560 7.8
79.2 0.362 0.362 0.407 0.424 0.436 0.453 0.467 10.1 0.536 8.7 0.548 8.4 0.556 8.3 0.582 7.9 0.566 8.2 0.600 7.6
85.0 0.337 0.338 0.404 0.421 0.433 0.450 0.464 10.2 0.534 8.7 0.545 8.5 0.554 8.4 0.579 7.9 0.563 8.2 0.598 7.7
94.4 0.305 0.306 0.363 0.380 0.392 0.409 0.423 10.3 0.492 8.8 0.504 8.6 0.512 8.4 0.538 8.0 0.522 8.3 0.556 7.8
105.0 0.273 0.274 0.396 0.413 0.426 0.442 0.456 10.4 0.526 8.8 0.537 8.6 0.546 8.5 0.572 8.1 0.555 8.3 0.590 7.8
121.6 0.237 0.238 0.353 0.370 0.382 0.399 0.413 10.6 0.482 9.0 0.494 8.8 0.502 8.6 0.528 8.2 0.512 8.4 0.546 7.9
127.9 0.225 0.226 0.348 0.365 0.377 0.394 0.408 10.7 0.477 9.0 0.489 8.8 0.497 8.7 0.523 8.2 0.507 8.5 0.541 8.0
131.2 0.220 0.220 0.347 0.364 0.376 0.393 0.407 10.7 0.476 9.1 0.488 8.8 0.496 8.7 0.522 8.3 0.506 8.5 0.540 8.0
135.2 0.213 0.214 0.357 0.374 0.386 0.403 0.416 10.5 0.486 9.0 0.498 8.8 0.506 8.6 0.532 8.2 0.516 8.4 0.550 7.9
148.9 0.194 0.194 0.346 0.362 0.375 0.392 0.405 10.8 0.475 9.1 0.487 8.9 0.495 8.7 0.521 8.3 0.504 8.6 0.539 8.0
158.7 0.181 0.182 0.351 0.367 0.380 0.397 0.410 10.7 0.480 9.1 0.492 8.9 0.500 8.7 0.526 8.3 0.509 8.5 0.544 8.0
170.5 0.169 0.170 0.348 0.365 0.337 0.394 0.408 10.8 0.477 9.1 0.489 8.9 0.497 8.8 0.523 8.3 0.507 8.6 0.541 8.0
184.2 0.157 0.157 0.345 0.362 0.374 0.391 0.405 10.9 0.474 9.2 0.486 9.0 0.494 8.8 0.520 8.4 0.504 8.6 0.538 8.1
201.4 0.144 0.145 0.336 0.353 0.365 0.382 0.396 11.0 0.466 9.3 0.477 9.1 0.486 8.9 0.511 8.5 0.495 8.8 0.529 8.2
210.6 0.137 0.137 0.340 0.357 0.369 0.386 0.400 11.0 0.469 9.3 0.481 9.1 0.489 8.9 0.515 8.4 0.499 8.7 0.533 8.1
221.7 0.131 0.132 0.328 0.345 0.357 0.374 0.388 11.3 0.458 9.5 0.469 9.3 0.478 9.1 0.503 8.6 0.487 8.9 0.522 8.3
230.9 0.125 0.126 0.331 0.348 0.360 0.377 0.391 11.2 0.460 9.4 0.472 9.2 0.480 9.0 0.506 8.6 0.490 8.9 0.524 8.3
241.7 0.119 0.120 0.335 0.351 0.364 0.381 0.394 11.2 0.464 9.4 0.476 9.2 0.484 9.0 0.510 8.5 0.493 8.8 0.528 8.2
263.7 0.109 0.110 0.326 0.343 0.355 0.372 0.386 11.3 0.455 9.5 0.467 9.3 0.476 9.1 0.501 8.6 0.485 8.9 0.519 8.3
282.0 0.102 0.103 0.329 0.346 0.358 0.375 0.389 11.3 0.458 9.5 0.470 9.3 0.478 9.1 0.504 8.6 0.488 8.9 0.522 8.3
306.6 0.095 0.096 0.320 0.337 0.349 0.366 0.380 11.5 0.450 9.7 0.461 9.4 0.470 9.2 0.495 8.7 0.479 9.1 0.514 8.4
322.3 0.090 0.091 0.324 0.341 0.353 0.370 0.384 11.5 0.453 9.6 0.465 9.4 0.473 9.2 0.499 8.7 0.483 9.0 0.517 8.4
339.3 0.085 0.086 0.318 0.335 0.347 0.364 0.378 11.6 0.448 9.7 0.459 9.5 0.468 9.3 0.493 8.8 0.477 9.1 0.511 8.5
362.6 0.080 0.081 0.314 0.331 0.343 0.360 0.374 11.7 0.443 9.8 0.455 9.6 0.463 9.4 0.489 8.9 0.473 9.2 0.507 8.5
386.0 0.075 0.076 0.313 0.330 0.342 0.359 0.373 11.8 0.443 9.8 0.454 9.6 0.463 9.4 0.488 8.9 0.472 9.2 0.506 8.6
402.8 0.072 0.074 0.313 0.330 0.342 0.359 0.372 11.8 0.442 9.9 0.454 9.6 0.462 9.4 0.488 8.9 0.472 9.2 0.506 8.6
428.9 0.067 0.069 0.320 0.337 0.349 0.366 0.380 11.5 0.449 9.7 0.461 9.4 0.469 9.2 0.495 8.7 0.479 9.0 0.513 8.4
448.7 0.064 0.066 0.308 0.325 0.337 0.354 0.367 11.9 0.437 10.0 0.449 9.7 0.457 9.5 0.483 9.0 0.467 9.3 0.501 8.7
456.1 0.064 0.065 0.305 0.322 0.334 0.351 0.364 12.0 0.434 10.0 0.446 9.7 0.454 9.6 0.480 9.0 0.463 9.4 0.498 8.7
483.4 0.060 0.062 0.306 0.323 0.335 0.352 0.366 12.0 0.435 10.0 0.447 9.8 0.455 9.6 0.481 9.0 0.465 9.4 0.499 8.7
494.4 0.058 0.060 0.305 0.322 0.334 0.351 0.365 12.1 0.435 10.0 0.446 9.8 0.455 9.6 0.480 9.0 0.464 9.4 0.980 8.7
510.5 0.057 0.059 0.303 0.320 0.332 0.349 0.362 12.1 0.432 10.1 0.444 9.8 0.452 9.6 0.478 9.1 0.462 9.4 0.496 8.7
523.7 0.055 0.057 0.303 0.320 0.332 0.349 0.363 12.1 0.432 10.1 0.444 9.8 0.452 9.6 0.478 9.1 0.462 9.4 0.496 8.7
Figure 12.4: Dependence of Overhead Line data on configuration (Source Network Protection and Application Guide, AREVA T&D)
2009/10/15 01:01:25 PM
12.3 Representation of Transmission Lines

General representation
r L
C R C R
Figure 12.5: -representation of a transmission line
Long lines
The parameters of a long line are distributed over the entire length of the line and the voltage V at any point,
x from one end is given by:
_
d2V
= 2V
dx2
Where:
_
= √yz = the propagation constant
And y is the shunt admittance per unit length and z the series impedance per unit length.
Medium length line
Figure 12.6: Representation of a medium length line
Short line
r L
Vs VR
Figure 12.7: Short line model
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General representation of lines: ABCD constants

The behaviour of lines can be readily analysed by using a ‘black box‘ approach, or ABCD constants. These
constants take values which depend on whether the lines are considered to be short, medium or long. The
constants A, B, C and D for such lines are summarised in Table 12.1 for a line of length L, series impedance
per unit Z, shunt admittance Y.
For long lines, the characteristic impedance given by:
_
Zc = √Y (note that Z and Y are usually given per unit distance (km).
_
Z
The propagation constant, is also required.
Table 12.1 ABCD constants for various types of lines

Length Model A B C D
Short Series Impedance 1 Z 0 1
Medium Nominal 1 + 0.5YZ Z Y(1 + 0.25YZ) 1 + 0.5YZ
Medium Nominal T 1 + 0.5YZ Z(1 + 0.25YZ) Y 1 + 0.5YZ
Long Distributed cosh L Zc sinh L (sin L)/Zc cosh L
The sending end and receiving end voltages and currents are related by the equations:
Vs = AVR + BIR
IS = CVR + DIR
When expressed in matrix form these equations rend themselves to easy solutions.
Example 12.2
Calculate the sending-end voltage and current for a 100 km transmission line. The receiving line to line
voltage is 132 kV. The line parameters are R = 0.3 per km per phase, inductive reactance 0.55 per
km per phase. The capacitive susceptance is 400 μS. The current at the receiving end is 400 A at 0.8 power
factor lagging. Use the nominal -line model.
Solution:
The sending end voltage and current can be expressed in matrix form:
Receiving phase voltage:
VR = (_
132 _000
).
√3
In phasor form:
VR = (76 210 + j0) V
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Receiving line current:

IR = 400(cos j − jsin j) = 400(0.8 − j0.6) = 320 − j240 A
Note the negative sign for lagging current.
For a medium line in the nominal -model:
ZL = 30 + j55
YL = j(4 × 10−4) S
Then using Table 12.1:
A = 1 + 0.5YZ = 0.9890 + j0.006
B = 30 + j55
C = ( − 1.2)(10−6) + j(3.9)(10−4)
D = 0.9890 + j0.006
[VI ] = [(–1.2 0.9890

S
S
–6
+ j0.006
–6
)(10 ) + j(3.9)(10–4
30 + j55
) 0.9890 + j0.006 ] [76320210– j240
+ j0
]
This is readily computed using Matlab to yield:
Vs = 98 172 + j1.0857 = 98 790∠6.3°
Is = 318 − j205 = 378∠ − 33°
12.4 Bundled Conductors

To reduce potential gradients and therefore corona loss, Extra High Voltage (EHV) lines are usually constructed
with more than one conductor per phase separated at regular intervals by metal spacers. To deal with such
conductors, one method treats them as a phase conductor with a diameter given by:
_______
n
D = √ ndA(n – 1) (12.6)
Where:
d = diameter of bundled conductor
n = number of bundled conductors
A = diameter of the circle through the centres of the bundled conductors.
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12.5 Underground Cables

Single conductor cable Dielectric
The capacitance of a single conductor cable illustrated in Figure 12.8
is given by, R1
Sheath
R2
C =_
2pe
(12.7)
R
()
ln _1
R2
Three-conductor cable Conductor
The inter-conductor capacitance, C2 is shown in Figure 12.9. Figure 12.8: Single conductor cable
The effective capacitance is: components
Ceƒƒ = C1 + 3C2 (12.8)
C1
C2 C2
C1 C1
C2
Figure 12.9: Representation of three-conductor cable
12.6 Loss-less Lines

These lines have zero line resistance and no shunt elements. They may be used for preliminary, often manual
assessment of network performance to reduce time and cost. Such lines can be represented by Figure 12.10.
X
Figure 12.10: Loss-less lines
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12.7 Line Data for Computerised Power System Analysis

Although we have used the standard metric units to represent line parameters (principally line impedance, Z,
and admittance, Y), the usual practice, especially for computerised power system analysis, is to use per mile
or per kilometre, e.g. /km, or /mile.
12.8 Representation of Electrical Machines

Synchronous machines
Chapter 10 on synchronous machines modelled the machines in their steady state. The simpler treatment
was that of a wound-rotor machine, with synchronous reactance Xs. For salient pole machines, direct axis
synchronous reactance Xd and quadrature axis reactance Xq, were introduced, but also in the steady state.
When a synchronous machine is operating under short-circuit (disturbance) conditions, we are often interested
in the period immediately following the disturbance. Observation shows that when a synchronous generator is
short-circuited the stator starts off with a very high current which decays to the steady-state value (see Figure
12.11). We can calculate this steady-state value exactly, knowing Xd and Xq or Xs. If we ignore stator resistance
and assume that the machine is a wound-rotor type then the magnitude of the steady-state value of the short
circuit current is:
|Eƒ|
|Iss| = _ =_
os_
X
(see Figure 12.11) (12.9)
√2
d
Figure 12.11 shows an oscillogram of a previously unloaded generator subjected to a short circuit. Only one
half (the positive part) has needed to be drawn because the other half is a mirror image. Observing Figure
12.11 we see the effect of the short circuit on machine reactances. The period immediately following the short
circuit is the sub-transient period and the highest short-circuit current occurs during this period. However, the
current decreases more rapidly here than in the following period, designated the transient period.
|Eƒ| ov
|I″| =_=_ _ (12.10)
X″d √2
X″d is called the sub-transient reactance (ov is marked in the figure).
X″d
_
X ratio = _ (12.11)
R Rg
Where Rg is the generator stator resistance.
|Eƒ| ou
|I′| =_=_ _ (12.12)
X′d √2
X′d is called the transient reactance (ou is marked in the figure).
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By observing Figure 12.11, we see that:
X″d < X′d < Xd

Sub-transient reactances are most
applicable for short circuit studies while
transient reactances are used for transient
stability studies.
Stability of Synchronous Machines

From Chapter 10 we understand that the
power delivered by a synchronous generator Figure 12.11: Short circuit response of a synchronous
depends on load angle, excitation, terminal generator
voltage and synchronous reactance, i.e.
P=_
VE
X
sin G
s
For constant load G remains constant, assuming a new increased value for increased demand. There is a limit
however beyond which G must not go. This is the stability limit. Instability means loss of synchronism (the
machine will run out of step out with other connected machines and may have to be taken out of service).
Disturbances in a power system cause even more serious stability problems.
Steady-state stability
Steady-state stability relates to a machine’s response to a gradually increasing load or small disturbance. A
machine with steady-state stability will return to initial operating state after a small disturbance. For machines
connected to an infinite busbar the stability limit is the maximum power limit which is reached for 90o load
angle for cylindrical rotor machines and about 80o for salient pole machines.
Dynamic stability
Dynamic stability relates to a machine’s response following a small disturbance with operating angles
beyond 90o. Dynamic stability depends on a machine’s inertia, damping, reactance and its control system. A
dynamically stable machine will have oscillations of successively decreasing amplitude. If the amplitudes of
the oscillations keep on increasing then the machine is dynamically unstable.
Transient Stability
This concerns large disturbances: such as a loss of a major load or generating unit, or severe fault. This may
cause large changes in rotor speeds, power angles or power transfers.
Assessment of stability requires us to study the angular motion of the rotor, or its acceleration. The rotor will
change its position when the power input, Pi exceeds the electromagnetic power output Pe. The stability of
the machine depends very much on its inertia. If J is the polar moment of inertia of the machine, and the
synchronous angular velocity, then the kinetic energy stored in it is:
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CHEE.indb 302 2009/10/15 01:01:29 PM

KE = _21J s2, where s is the synchronous speed. (12.13)

We can relate this energy to the size of the machine (MVA) by introducing an inertia constant, H. This is the
energy stored in the rotating parts of the machine at synchronous speed per MVA. Then if the machine’s MVA
is G, then it will store GH at synchronous speed. Therefore:
GH = _21J s2 (12.14)
We know from physics, that M, the momentum of the machine is Jws
We can re-write 12.14 as,
GH = _21 Jwsws
We know from physics, that M, the momentum of the machine is Jws
GH = _21 J wsws
or GH = Mws
therefore,
M=_
2GH
w [12.15]
s
we can express M in p.u. by dividing by the machine MVA, G so that M p.u. = _

2H
w s
Neglecting damping effects and the influence of any installed control system, the equation of motion of the
rotor in p.u. can then be given by,
Net torque Ti − Te = J
and accelerating power,
dw
P − P = P = w (T − T ) = w J
= M _r
i e a s i e s dt
where Pi is shaft power and Pe is electromagnetic power
dw d 2
Since we can write, _r = _
dt

dt2
dw d 2
M_ _= P − P = _ _
2
r d 2H
= M w = Pi − Pe = Pa [12.16a]
dt dt 2 i e s dt
2
d 2 _ ws
_ = (P − Pe) [12.16b]
dt2 2H i
This equation, in forms [12.14a] or [12.14b] is known as the swing equation. Its solution gives the rotor angle
with respect to time.
By integration of the swing equation, we can arrive at the equation for the angular velocity of the rotor. As part
of the integration process, we multiply both sides by _
d
dt
, thus :
_
2H _d 2 _
d _
d
ws dt 2 dt = Pa dt
or integrating both sides,
_ d 2 _
_
∫ dt = ∫ Pa _
d
2H ddt
ws 0 dt 2 dt
0 dt
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CHEE.indb 303 2009/10/15 01:01:30 PM

using partial integration rule,
ò u(x).v′(x)dx = u(x).v(x) − òu′(x).v(x)dx,

from which,
òu(x).u′(x)dx = _21[u(x)]2 + C
and therefore
_
2H _1 _
( )
ws 2 dt = ∫ Pa d
d 2
__ 0
ws
_
d
dt H √
= _∫ Pa d
__
0
_
√
= _∫ Pa d
d 2ƒ
dt H
[12.17a]
0
where o is the load angle before the disturbance.

For stability it is required that at some moment the rotor will come to a rest position, when in fact,
_
d
= 0
dt
and by implication,
∫ Pa d = 0

[12.17b]
0
Equation 12.15b summarises the equal area criterion, which says that for stability the area between the P-
curve and the line representing the power input must be zero. To illustrate this consider a P versus is a
sinusoidal as in Figure 12.11aa. The machine is originally operating at power level Pi0 (operating point p0)
and equilibrium is maintained with input power and electromagnetic powers being equal. If through a sudden
increase of demand the requirement is Pi1, then the rotor angle will change, overshooting to 2 before, hopefully,
resting at p1, corresponding to angle 1. According to the equal area criterion, 2 cannot just be any value, its
maximum will be such that A2=A1. Inspecting Figure 12.11a we have:
G1 G2
∫ (Pi – Pmaxsin G)dG = ∫ (PmaxsinG – Pi) dG
G0 G1
leading to:
Pi(G1 – G2) + Pmax (cos G1 – cos G0) = Pi (G1 – G2) + Pmax(cos G1 – cos G2)
since Pi = PmaxsinG1
The equation becomes:
(G1 – G0) sin G1 + (cos G1 – cos G0) = (G1 – G2) sin G1 + (cos G1 – cos G2)
or
(G2 – G0) sin G1 + cos G2 – cos G0 = 0 (12.17a)
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CHEE.indb 304 2009/10/15 01:01:31 PM

Figure 12.11a: Equal area criterion
Figure 12.11aa
Example 12.3
A synchronous generator develops
a maximum power of 450 MW and
operates at a power angle of 10o.
How much more power can be added
suddenly without loss of stability?
Refer to Figure 12.11b.
Figure 12.11b: P-G curve for Example 12.3
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Solution:
The initial operating point is with 0=10°. So that Peo=450sin(10)=78.1 MW
max = – 1
( − 1 − 0) sin 1 + cos ( – 1) – cos 0 = 0
= ( – 1 – 0) sin 1 – cos 1 = cos 1 = 0
with 0 = 10° = 0.174 radians,
(3.142 − 1 − 0.174) sin 1 − cos 1 − 0.985 = 0
(2.96 − 1) sin 1 − cos 1 − 0.985 = 0 [12.16]
In Equation 12.16 1 cannot be explicitly obtained but can be readily solved using, for example the Newton
Raphson, algorithm (described fully in section 12.12) as follows.
ƒ(1) = (2.96 − 1) sin 1 − cos 1 − 0.985 = 2.96 sin 1 − 1 sin 1 − cos 1 − 0.985 and
dƒ( )
ƒ′(1) = _1
= 2.96 cos 1− (1 cos 1 − sin 1) − sin 1
d1
= 2.96 cos 1 − 1 cos 1
let 0 = 1 radian, the initial guess for 1 then 1, nearer to the correct answer, is,
ƒ( )
1 = 0 − _1
ƒ′(1)
1 = 1 − _
0.124
1.6
= 0.922
Then substitute 1 = 0.922 radian, the better solution for 1 then, 2, nearer to the correct
answer, is,
ƒ( )
2 = 1 − _1
ƒ′(1)
2 = 0.922 − _
0.0347
1.7885
= 0.903
Finally with just one more iteration convergence is reached with, 1 = 0.897 radians, i.e. 51.4°. With this
angle,
Pe1 = 450 sin 1
= 450 sin 51.4
= 351.1MW
With the initial power at 78.1 MW, the additional power is (351.1-78.1)=273 MW.
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Transient Stability and Critical Clearing Angle

The equal area criterion can be applied to the assessment of the stability of a machine in a faulted network.
Consider a synchronous generator linked by two parallel lines to an infinite busbar and a fault occurs on one
line. Figure 12.11c shows the pre-fault, fault and post-fault power-load angle curve. When the fault occurs, the
rotor swings to G2 and then settles at G1 such that the areas A1 and A2 are equal. The angle G1 is called the
critical fault clearing angle. The time corresponding to this rotor angle is called the critical fault clearing
time. This is the time within which the fault must be cleared to avoid instability.
Figure 12.11c: P-G curve for Example 12.4

The critical condition is reached at point marked C when:
P0 = Pa sin G′2
P
sin G′2 _0
Pa
G′2 = sin–1 _ ()
P0
Pa
G2 = 180 – G′2
()
P0
Note, for _
Pa
= 0.5, for example, there are two solutions, sin30o and sin(180 − 30)o .
Here we are interested in the second solution.
P0
G0 = sin–1 _ (P )
max
Inspecting Figure12.11c:
G1
A1 = ∫ (P0 – Pƒ sin G)dG
G0
G2
A2 = ∫ (Pa sin G – P0)dG
G1
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From the equal area criterion:

A1 – A2 = 0
G1 G2
i.e. ∫ (P0 – Pƒ sin G)dG – ∫ (Pa sin G – P0)dG = 0
G0 G1
or
G1 G2
∫ (P0 – Pƒ sin G)dG + ∫ (P0 – P0 sin G)dG = 0
G0 G1
So that:
G1 G
[P0G + Pƒ cos G]G 0
+ [P0G + Pa cos G]G2 = 0
1
P0G1 + Pƒ cos G1 – P0G0 – Pƒ cos G0 + P0G2 + Pa cos G2 – P0G1 – Pa cos G1 = 0
(Pƒ – Pa )cos G1 + P0 (G2 – G0) – Pƒ cos G0 + Pa cos G2 = 0

From which:
P0 (G0 – G2) + Pƒ cos G0 – Pa cos G2
cos G1 = ____
Pƒ – Pa
Example 12.4
Before a fault, a generator previously delivering a maximum of 300 MW is connected to an infinite busbar
through a double line. A fault occurs and the power is reduced to a maximum of 80 MW. After the fault the
maximum power is 250 MW and the operating point is 200 MW. Calculate the critical clearing angle.
Solution:
Pmax = 300 MW, Pƒ = 80 MW,
Pa = 250 MW, P0 = 200 MW,

P0
G0 = sin–1 _ (P )
max
G0 = sin–1 _
200
(300)
= 41.8°
P
G2 = 180 – sin–1 _0 (P )
a
= 180 – 53.1
= 127°
(Pƒ – Pa )cos G1 + P0 (G2 – G0) – Pƒ cos G0 + Pa cos G2 = 0
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CHEE.indb 308 2009/10/15 01:01:37 PM

From which:
P0 (G0 – G2) + Pƒ cos G0 – Pa cos G2
cos G1 = ____
Pƒ – Pa
cos G1 = _____
200(0.73 – 2.214) + 80(0.7454) – (250) (–0.6)
80 – 250
= 0.513
G1 = 59.1°
These results are shown in Figure 12.11c.
Transformers
Standard single-phase and three-phase transformers have straight-forward models for power system study
purposes. They are usually represented by the R-X model of Figure 12.12.
R X
V1 V2
Figure 12.12: Transformer model (core loss ignored)
Three-winding transformers (Figure 12.13), however require extra care, as we need to specify three voltages
(primary, secondary & tertiary) and three impedances. The impedances may be entered as Z% and R% or in
the form of corresponding % impedance voltages. Both forms can readily be transformed into the per unit form,
as we saw in Chapter 11.
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Figure 12.13: Three-winding transformer
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CHEE.indb 309 2009/10/15 01:01:38 PM

Referring to Figure 12.14, if we denote:

Z12 = impedance of the primary with secondary short circuited and tertiary open
Z13 = impedance of the primary with tertiary short circuited and secondary open
Z23 = impedance of the secondary with tertiary short circuited and primary open
Then the impedances for the three windings are given by:
Z1 = _21 (Z12 + Z13 – Z23), Z2 = _21 (Z12 + Z23 – Z13), Z3 = _21 (Z13 + Z23 – Z12)
3
11kV
1
220kV
220kV
11kV
66kV
66kV
Figure 12.14: Three winding transformer equivalent circuit
Induction motors
There are several models used to represent the induction motor, such as the and the T-configuration. Figure
12.15 shows the IEEE model. In this model, the core losses are not accounted for by a shunt resistor, Rc. These
losses are lumped with the friction and windage losses.
R1 X1 R2 ' X 2'
V ph=V L Im
Xm R2 '(1-s)
3 s
Figure 12.15: IEEE Induction motor model
In Figure 12.15, the parameters have been referred to the stator. Other power systems analysis packages may
have implementations with parameters referred to the rotor. They may also use different symbols.
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CHEE.indb 310 2009/10/15 01:01:38 PM

12.9 Modelling of a Network

Networks such as those depicted in Figure 12.1 can be analysed using the building blocks represented in the
preceding sections. Modern analysis packages contain additional advantages in that you can input additional
data, such as cost, failure rates etc., and the software can then evaluate the economic viability as well as
reliability of the network.
12.10 Power System Analysis: Load Flow

Power networks are becoming increasingly complex. At the same time for a number of reasons, it is required
to be able to assess their state and performance on an almost continuous basis. In the past this was done
manually and with hardware-based simulators. The increased power of computers and their reduced cost has
enabled most analysis to be done by computers. However, to be able to understand the operation of the models
and software that is used, it is important to start with the foundation of such models. This is another reason
why modelling is so important.
Much of the computation required is about load flow. This helps us in the planning as well as the assessment
of the loading and utilisation of circuits. A load flow study also helps us to establish the voltage levels at every
bus and thus assess power quality. The information that can be derived from such a study is as follows:
• Real and reactive power in all circuits to prevent overloading of equipment.
• Busbar voltages to ensure that the voltage stays within limits.
• Transformer tap settings for satisfactory operation.
• Reactive power requirements under all feasible loading conditions for the determination of the amount and
optimum location of reactive power compensation.
• Effects of faults and planned outage.
The data required for a load flow study includes:
• Maximum rated and reactive power outputs of all generating stations.
• A generation schedule based on a priority system.
• A load schedule of loads connected at each busbar and related equipment data.
• Resistance, reactance and susceptance of all circuits in the system.
For the purpose of the study, it is assumed that:
• All loads are sinks of real and reactive power
• Terminal voltages of generators remain constant and their internal voltages and impedances do not need to
be considered
• The network is linear and balanced and therefore may be represented by a single phase diagram and the
components may be assigned per unit values.
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CHEE.indb 311 2009/10/15 01:01:39 PM

Iteration method
Consider Figure 12.16
S 1=P 1+jQ S 2=P 2+jQ 2

1 I 12
Z12
V1 V2
Figure 12.16: Two-bus network to illustrate iterative methods
Suppose it is required to find V2. We can start by setting up two equations:
S2 = V2I*12 (12.19)
V1 = V2 + Z12I12 (12.20)
Eliminate I, then:
V2 = V1 – Z12I12
S*
V2 = V1 – Z12_2* (12.21)
V2
In the iterative method we can assume a value of V2 on the right hand side of Equation 12.21. Lets call this V2(0)
(we will use its complex conjugate). We will then get a revised value of V2 on the left, call it V2(1).
Then:
S2*
V2(1) = V1 – Z12_ (12.22)
V2(0)
*
In the next iteration, we substitute replace V2(0) on the right with the newly evaluated V2(1), to obtain a better
estimate for the bus 2 voltage, call this V2(2), that is:
S2*
V2(2) = V1 – Z12_
V2(1)
*
We can generalise this to any number of iterations. For iteration, k, for example:
S2*
V2(k) = V1 – Z12_ (12.23)
V2(k – 1)
*
Where k is, 1,2,3,4,5….etc.
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Example 12.5
In Figure 12.16, let Z12=0.04+j0.03, S2=1.0+j0.5 and V1=1∠0 p.u. Find V2 and sending end power, S1.
Solution:
Then, using Equation, 12.16, start with V2(0)=1+j0
V2(1) = 1 + j0 − (0.04 + j0.03)__

(1 − j0.5)
1 − j0)
= 0.95 − j0.01
V2(2) = 1 + j0 − (0.04 + j0.03)__

(1 − j0.5)
0.95 + j0.01
= 0.942 − j0.01
V2(3) = 1 + j0 − (0.04 + j0.03)__

(1 − j0.5)
0.942 + j0.01
= 0.9415 − j0.01
V2(4) = 1 + j0 − (0.04 + j0.03)__

(1 − j0.5)
0.9415 + j0.01
= 0.94147 − j0.01
V2(5) = 1 + j0 − (0.04 + j0.03)__

(1 − j0.5)
0.94147 + j0.01
= 0.94147 − j0.01
Convergence has been arrived at the 5th iteration. To find sending power, S1, we use,
S1 = V1I*
S*
I=_2
V* 2
= __
1 − j0.5
0.94147 + j0.01
= 1.0676 − j0.5197
S1 = V1I*
= (1)(1.0676 + j0.5197)
= 1.0676 + j0.5197
= 1.187∠26
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CHEE.indb 313 2009/10/15 01:01:40 PM

12.11 Multi-bus Networks: Nodal Analysis

Consider the three-node network of Figure 12.17. Imagine that three currents are being injected into the
three buses from three sources. If we know the voltages at the node then for node 1, for example, we can use
Kirchoff’s Junction Law and the convention that currents entering the junction are positive and those leaving
are negative and their vector sum equating to zero.
Thus:
I1 = V1y10 + (V1 – V2)y12
I2 = V2y20 + (– V1 + V2)y12 + (V2 – V3)y23
I3 = V3y30 + (V3 – V2)y23
Assembling:
I1 = (y10 + y12) (V1 – V2y12
I2 = –y12V1 + (y20 + y12 + y23)V2 – y23V3
I3 = y32V2 + (y30 + y23)V3
Or:
[] [ ][ ]
I1 Y11 Y12 Y13 V1
I2 = Y21 Y22 Y23 V2 (12.24)
I3 Y31 Y32 Y33 V3
Where:
Y11 = y10 + y12
Y22 = y20 + y12 + y23
Y33 = y30 + y23
Y12 = Y21 = –y12
Y13 = Y31 = – y13 = 0
Y23 = Y32 = –y23
Yii is the self or driving point admittance I2
and is the sum of all the admittances

terminating at the node. Yik is the S1=V1 I1 * S2 =V 2 I2 * S3 =V 3 I3 *
1 2 3
mutual or transfer admittance.
The matrix Y, is called a bus y 12 y 23
I1
admittance matrix and its inverse, a y 10
V2 y 20 y 30
I3
bus impedance matrix.
REFERENCE
Figure 12.17: Nodal voltage method for multi-bus systems
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Example 12.6
Obtain the admittance matrix for Figure 12.17a, and solve for V1 and V2.
–j2
V1 V2
–j3 –j5
4∠30
4∠0
Figure 12.17a: A two-bus network
Solution:
Y11 = –j3 – j2 = –j5
Y22 = – j2 – j5 = – j7
Y12 = Y21 = j2
[–j5 j2 ]
Ybus = j2 –j7
[ 4∠30
4∠0
] = [–j5j2 j2 _
][ ]
V1
–j7 V2
[VV ] = [–j5j2 –j7j2 ] [ 4∠30° ]

–1
1 4∠0°
2
[VV ] = [–j5j2 –j7j2 ] [ 4(cos 30°4 ++j0jsin 30°)]

–1
1
[]
V1
V2
= [
1.134∠96.5°
0.878∠111.6°
p.u. ]
Names of buses
A bus (or busbar) is a connection point for one or more components of an electrical network. From a power
system analysis point of view, we define three buses:
(i) A load or PQ bus. On this bus the net active (P) and reactive power (Q) are constant and specified. The
magnitude of the voltage and its angle G (or T) are unknowns.
(ii) A generator or PV bus. On this bus the net active power (P) and voltage (V) are known and the net
reactive power Q and G (or T) are to be found.
(iii) A slack or swing bus. This is a generator or bus on which voltage and angle G (or T) are known and P
and Q to be found. Since it is not possible to know in advance the losses of the system, one generator
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CHEE.indb 315 2009/10/15 01:01:41 PM

is chosen by the analyst to take up the ‘slack‘. The voltage is usually chosen to 1 p.u. and the angle
chosen to be 0.
Example 12.6a
A 100 MW, 60 MVar load (bus 2) is connected to a generator (bus 1) through a line with z=0.02+0.06 p.u.
There is a capacitor of susceptance j0.3 at bus 2. At each bus, take note of the effect of line capacitance
represented by a suspectance of j0.08. Calculate the voltage at bus 2, assuming that the voltage of the
generator is 1 p.u.
Solution:
We will use:
( )
Pk – jQk n = N
Vk = _
Y
1 _ – ∑ YknVn
kk Vk * n=1
n¹k
For two buses or nodes (N=2) and for bus 2:
V2 = _
Y
1 _
22
[
P2 – jQ2
– (y21V1)
V2* ]
We note that the number of buses is 2, but n cannot have a value of 2, the same as k (2nd bus). So for a
2-bus n can only have a value of 1, and therefore we have V1 only in the above equation. Note: for a 3-bus
system n can have K–1 (i.e. 3–1=2) values; if solving for bus 2 of a 3-bus system, the values will be 1 and 3.
Note also that instead of Y21, –y21 has been used (see explanations after Equation 12.24, from which
Y12=Y21=–y12=–y21).
Our first guess for V2 is 1∠0 (also called a “flat start”).
We shall use the generator convention, that S is the power into the bus. For a load then we have –S.
S2=1+j0.6 p.u., into the bus)

S2*=–1+j0.6
y12=1/z12=(1/0.02+j0.6)=6.9–j17.24
Y22=6.9–j17.24+j0.08+j0.3=6.9–16.9
Substituting:
V2(0) = (1 + j0) (Flat start)
V2(1) = __ 1 __
[
–1 + j0.6
6.9 – j16.9 1 + j0
– (–6.9 + j17.24)(1 + j0) ]
= 0.9639 – j0.0445
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CHEE.indb 316 2009/10/15 01:01:44 PM

V2(2) = __ 1 __
[–1 + j0.6
6.9 – j16.9 0.9639 + j0.0445
– (–6.9 + j17.24)(1 + j0) ]
= 0.9644 – j0.0451
V2(3) = __ 1 __
[–1 + j0.6
6.9 – j16.9 0.9644 + j0.0451
– (–6.9 + j17.24)(1 + j0) ]
= 0.9644 – j0.0451
Convergence has been reached at the 3rd iteration.
Equations for the calculation of node voltages in a multi-node network

It can be seen from Figure 12.17 that:
S2 = P2 + jQ2 = V2I*2
So that:
P – jQ
I2 = _
2
*
2
V2
Using Kirchoff’s Law:
P2 – jQ2
_
*
= Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 (12.25)
V2
Solving for V2:
V2 = _
Y
P2 – jQ2
1 _
22
* [– (Y21V1 + Y23V3)
V2 ] (12.26)
For node 1:
V1 = _
Y
P1 – jQ1
1 _
11
* [– (Y21V2 + Y23V3)
V1 ] (12.27)
A similar expression can be derived for node 3.

To generalise, for N nodes we come up with:
( )
Pk – jQk n = N
Vk = _
Y
1 _ – ∑ YknVn (12.28)
kk Vk * n=1
n¹k
To solve for the voltage for a particular node, k, we assume values Vk (except for the slack bus which is already
known) on the right hand side of the equation and proceed as in the example of the two-bus case already
described. In the three-bus example we only need to calculate V2 and V3. This is the Gauss-Seidel method.
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12.12 Newton-Raphson Method

A disadvantage of the Gauss-Seidel method is that it is slow in convergence (i.e. it takes many iterations to
get to the final result), although acceleration factors (mathematical means of getting quicker convergence) can
help. The Newton-Raphson method (NR) holds good for solving the roots of an equation of the type ƒ(x) = 0
and can be applied to solving power networks. We shall start by examining how the method is applied to one
dimension and then extend the method to the multi-dimension case.
There is only a set of roots such as x1, that satisfy the equation ƒ(x) = 0.
Estimates such as xr, will give us an error, Δ xr. The true root is really then xr + Δ xr, so that:
ƒ(xr + 'xr) = 0
Expanding the left side we have:
( ) ( )
r
dƒ r _ d2ƒ
ƒ(xr) + 'xr _ + 21('xr)2 _ +…=0 (12.29)
dx dx2
If the error is small we can neglect terms in (Δ xr)2 so that:
(dx )
dƒ r
ƒ(xr) + 'xr _ ≈0 (12.30)
From the above equation, we can solve for an approximate value of the error:
ƒ(xr)
'xr = – _ (12.31)
(dx )
dƒ r
_
By adding this to xr we obtain an improved solution, call this xr+1.

ƒ(xr)
xr+1 = xr – _ (12.32)
(dx )
dƒ r
_
Example 12.7
Using the NR method, solve:
ƒ(x) = x2 + x – 12 = 0
Solution:
Here:
¶ƒ(x)
_ = 2x + 1
¶x
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CHEE.indb 318 2009/10/15 01:01:45 PM

Starting with an initial guess of 2, and repeatedly applying Equation 12.32, we have the results in
Table 12.2.
Table 12.2 NR results

Iteration Estimates ƒ(x) _
dƒ 'x (error) Improved
dx Estimate, xr – 'xr
xr (x2 + x – 12) (2x + 1)
1 2 –6 5 –1.2 3.2
2 3.2 1.44 7.4 0.194 3.005
3 3.005 0.0000028 7.000005 0.0000004 3
4 3 0 7 0 3 (Convergence)
It can be seen that an indication of convergence at x = 3 was already apparent at the end of the second
iteration.
Multi-dimensional NR algorithm
The NR algorithm can be extended to the general multi-dimensional case of:
ƒ(X) = 0, where X is the vector [x1, x2, x3, ….xn].
Instead of an error, Δxr, we have an error matrix, ΔXr. Further, the function _
dƒ
dx ( )
is now also replaced by a
matrix, called a Jacobian. The corresponding multi-dimensional NR algorithm can be written thus;
[X(r + 1)] = [X(r)] – [J(r)]–1 [F(X(r))] (12.33)
In other words if we start with an initial guess [X(0)], then [X(1)], is more accurate, and can be determined from:
[X(1)] = [X(0)] – [J(0)]–1 [F(X(0))] (12.34)
Example 12.8
Use the NR algorithm to solve:
ƒ1 = x12 + x22 – 9 = 0
ƒ2 = x1 – x2 + 1 = 0
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CHEE.indb 319 2009/10/15 01:01:45 PM

Solution:
Form the Jacobian:
[ ][
¶ƒ1
_ ¶ƒ1
_
[J] =
¶x1
¶ƒ2
_
¶x2
¶ƒ2
_
2x 2x
= 1 1 –12 ]
¶x1 ¶x2
Starting with X(0) = [30] and the mismatch or error is ƒX = [04] (0)
Then a better estimate is:
X(1) = [X(0)] – [J(X(0))]–1 [ƒ(X(0))]
X(1) = [ 30] – [ 61 –1 ] [4] [4]

0 –1 0 = 3
With
X(1) = [34] , ƒ(X) = [160 ]

(1)
We can calculate a better estimate using X(2):
X(2) = [X(1)] – [J(X(1))]–1 [ƒ(X(1))]
X(2) = [ 34] – [ 61 –1 ] [ 0 ] [2.857]

8 –1 16 = 1.857
With
X(2) = [ 1.857
2.857 ]
, ƒ(X(2)) = [ 2.6
0]
(real improvement).
Proceeding:
X(3) = [ 1.857
2.857 ] [ 1 –1 ] [2.60 ] = [1.58
2.58 ]
–1
– 3.714 5.714
With
X(3) = [ 1.58
2.58 ]
, ƒX((3)) = [ 0.158
0 ]
(much reduced error, suggests quick convergence)
Finally with:
X(4) = [ 1.561
2.561 ]
, ƒX((4)) = [ 0.004
0 ]
Thus the solution is, X1 = 1.561 and X2 = 2.561
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The results of further iterations are shown in Table 12.3.

Table 12.3
Estimates Errors / Mismatches
Iteration X1 X2 ƒ(X1) ƒ(X2) Improved Estimates
0 (guess) 0 1 –4 2 0, 3
1 0 3 4 0 –0.6667, 2.333
2 –0.6667 2.333 0,889 0.00 –0.9333, 2.0667
3 –0.9334 2.0667 0.143 0.0001 0,996, 2.004
4 –0.996 2.004 0.008 0 –0,99998, 2.0000
5 –1 2 0 0 Convergence
This example has an exact solution (1.561, 2.561) at which we observe convergence.
Application of multidimensional NR to power flow

What are the dependent variables? For our examples we have used, x1 and x2, etc. For power flow, we will use T,
and V. In matrix language this is written:
x= T PQ and PV nodes
V PQ nodes only
This means that we need to find T for every PQ node and every PV node and V for all the PQ nodes. How many
unknown variables? Iƒ the number oƒ PQ buses is Npq and the number oƒ PV busbars is NPV, then the
number oƒ unknown variables is 2Npq + Npv.
This will also enable us to establish the size of the Jacobian.
The apparent power at bus i, with neighbouring buses k is:
Si = Pi + jQi (12.35)
n
= Vi ∑ Yi*kV*k
k=1
n
= ∑ ViVk(cos Tik + sin Tik)(Gik – jBik)
k=1
Where: Tik = Ti – Tk
Separating real and imaginary parts, we can find the net real and reactive at any bus I, (Generation, Gi, less loads
connected there, Li) as follows:
n
Pi = ∑ |Vi||Vk|(Gik cos Tik + jBik sin Tik)= PGi – PLi (12.36)
k=1
n
Qi = ∑ |Vi||Vk|(Gik sin Tik – jBik cos Tik)= QGi – QLi (12.37)
k=1
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This is valid for all values of i.

For the specific case of i = k, sin Tik = 0 and cos Tik = 1, we have:
Pi = k = GiiVi2(i = k) (12.38)
Qi = k = –BiiVi2(i = k) (12.39)
Separating the i = k case from the i ¹ k case, Equations 12.36 and 12.37 can therefore be written as:
n
Pi = GiiVi2 + ∑ |Vi||Vk|(Gikcos Tik + jBik sin Tik)
k=1
k¹1
= PGi – PLi (12.40)

n
Qi = –BiiVi2 + ∑ |Vi||Vk|(Giksin Tik – jBik cos Tik)
k=1
k¹1
= QGi – QLi (12.41)

In the special case of a reactance-only line:
n
Pi = ∑ |Vi||Vk|(jBik sin Tik)
k=1
k¹1
= PGi – PLi (12.42)

n
Qi = –BiiVi2 + ∑ |Vi||Vk|(jBik cos Tik)
k=1
k¹1
= QGi – QLi (12.43)
Example 12.9
Consider a two-bus example (Figure 12.18). The line impedance is per unit, and the load S = 100 + j80. In the
diagram it has been converted to a 100 MVA base. We wish to find the voltage magnitude and phase angle at
the PQ bus 2. In the solution and subsequent treatment it will also be implied that |Vi| or |Vk| may be written
simply as Vi or Vk.
Load
V 1 =1 p.u. (1+ j0.8 ) p.u.
1=0 2
j0.2
2 -j5 j5
G X = V , YBus=
2 j5 -j5
Figure 12.18: Two-bus example
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Solution:
We note that there is one PQ (NPQ = 1) busbar and no PV (NPV = 0) busbars, thus there are two variables in our
equation.
The balance equations for bus 2, using equations 12.35 and 12.36 are:
P2 = V2V1(5 sin T2) = PGi – PLi
PG2 = 0, PLi = 1
Noting that G22 = 0:
P2 = V2V1(5 sin T2) + 1 = 0
QG2 = 0, QLi = 0.8

Noting that B22 = –5j:
Q2 = (5)V22 + V2V1(–5 cos T2) + 0.8 = 0

Thus, since V1 = 1 p.u.
P2(X)= 5V2 sin T2 + 1 = 0
Q2(X)= –5V2 cos T2 + 5V22 + 0.8 = 0
The power flow Jacobian is:
[ ][
¶P2(X)
_ ¶P2(X)
_
_
¶T2
¶Q 2
(X) _
¶V2
¶Q 2
(X)
5V cos T
2 2
5 sin T2
= 5V2 sin T 2 10V – 5 cos
2
T2 ]
¶T2 ¶V2
As a first guess, let:
X(0) = [ VT] = [ 01 ]
Then:
[
ƒ(X(0)) =
5V2sin T2 + 1
–5V2cos T2 + 5V22 + 0.8 ]
1
= 0.8 [ ]
J(X ) = [ ]
5V2cos T2 5sin T2
(0)
5V2sin T2 10V2 – 5cos T2
= 50 05 [ ]
Now:
X(1) = X(0) – J(X(0))–1 ƒ (X(0))
= [ 01] – [ 50 05] [ 0.8 ]

–1 1
= [ 01] – [ 0.2
0 0.2 ] [ 0.8 ] = [ 0.84 ]
0 1 –0.2
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We can now put the new values of T and V as:
ƒ(X(1)) = [–5(0.84)5(0.84)
cos (–0.2) + 5(0.84) + 0.8 ] [ 0.2117 ]
sin (–0.2) + 1
2 = 0.1656
) = [ 5(0.84) sin (–0.2) 10(0.84) – 5 cos(–0.2)]

5(0.84) cos (–0.2) 5 sin (–0.2)
J(X(1)
= [ –0.8344 3.4997 ]
4.1163 –0.9933
X(2) = X(1) – J(X(1))–1 ƒ(X(1))
= [ 0.84 ] [–0.8344 3.4997 ] [0.2117] [ 0.7656 ]

0.2 – 4.1163 –0.9933 –1 0.1656 = –0.2581
ƒ(X(2)) =[–5(0.7656)5(0.7656)
cos(–0.2581) + 5(0.7656) + 0.8 ] [ 0.0296 ]
sin(–0.2581) + 1
2 = 0.0225
) = [ 5(0.7656) cos(–0.2581)
5(0.7656) sin(–0.2581) 10(0.7656) – 5 cos (–0.2581) ]
5 sin (–0.2581)
J(X(2)
= [ –0.9774 2.8217 ]
3.7011 –1.2767
X(3) = X(2) – J(X(2))–1 ƒ(X(2))
= [ –0.2581
0.7656 ] [ –0.97748 2.8217 ] [0.0225
0.0296 ]
–1
– 3.7011 –1.2767
= [ –0.2692
0.7513 ]
ƒ(X(3)) = [–5(0.75135(0.7513
cos(– 0.2692) + 5(0.7513) + 0.8 ] [ 0.00105 ]
sin (–0.2692 + 1
2 = 0.0092
At the third iteration, we find that V2 = 0.7512 p.u., and T2 = − 0.2692 radians (− 15.4 degrees).
Figure 12.19 shows the network solved by a power system analysis package (NEPLAN) with the results in
Table 12.4. The results are, V2 = 0.7507, and T2 = -15.5 degrees. With quite good convergence at just three
iterations, this shows the power of the NR method.
Figure 12.19: Example 12.3 solved with NEPLAN
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Table 12.4 Network solution

ID Name U or V U or v U or V P Load Q P Gen Q Gen Q Sens.
angle Load Shunt PG/
kV % ° MW MVAR MW MVAR MVAR Nodal
Factors
1 437 N437 100 100 0 0 0 100 138.197 0 0
2 440 N440 75.074 75.07 –15.5 100 80 0 0 0 0
Figure 12.20 shows a load flow performed on a computerised analysis package, with the results in
Table 12.5.
Figure 12.20: Load flow analysis
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Table 12.5 Load flow analysis

Iteration
data
Iterations: 5
Mismatch: 0
From To P Loss Q Loss P Imp Q Imp P Gen Q Gen

Area/Zone Area/Zone MW MVAR MW MVAR MW MVAR
Network 0 58.197 100 138.197 100 138.197
Area 1 0 58.197 0 0 100 138.197
Zone 1 0 58.197 0 0 100 138.197
Un P Loss Q Loss Line P Loss Q Loss

Line Transformer Transformer
kV MW MVAR MW MVAR
100 0 58.197 0 0
Overloads
Nodes %
(lower)
N440 75.07
ID Node U u Angle U P Load Q Load P Gen

Name kV % ° MW MVAR MW
437 N437 100 100 0 0 0 100
440 N440 75.074 75.07 –15.5 100 80 0
ID Node Element Type P Q I Angle I

Name Name MW MVAR kA °
582 N437 SM-582 Synchronous –100 –138.197 0.985 125.9
Machine
618 N440 L618 Line –100 –80 0.985 125.9
618 N437 L618 Line 100 138.197 0.985 –54.1
482 N440 L-482 Load 100 80 0.985 –54.1
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Exercises for Chapter 12

1. Solve: ƒ(x) = x2 + x – 9 = 0 using the NR method.
2. Use the NR algorithm to solve:
ƒ1 = x12 + x22 – 4 = 0
ƒ2 = 1 + x1 – x2 = 0
Terminate after the 3rd iteration.
3. Consider a two-bus example (Figure 12.21). The line impedance is 0.15 per unit, and the load S = 120
+ j80. Take G as a slack generator with 1∠0 per unit. Find the voltage magnitude and angle at the PQ
bus B. The base MVA is 100.
A
B Load
Figure 12.21: Two-bus problem
4. Use a power system analysis package to compare the results you obtained in question 3.
5. Use a power system analysis package to produce a load flow for Figure 12.22 (see page 326). The
base MVA is 100, all other parameters are in per unit. Compare with the solution given in Figure 12.23
(see page 327).
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Figure 12.22: Network for Question 5
328
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Figure 12.23: Results obtained with NEPLAN
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13 Symmetrical Components and
Unbalanced Networks
13.1 Introduction
When the currents and voltages in a three-phase circuit are unbalanced, it is not easy to analyse the circuit.
Unbalanced systems arise due to faults and uneven loading. The method of symmetrical components is a
useful analytical tool to solve such circuits and networks. It involves converting a three-phase unbalanced
network into a set of three balanced networks, which are then easier to solve. Through this conversion we
are also able to discover ‘hidden’ information about the network and we will be able to take appropriate
action if necessary.
13.2 Unbalanced System Decomposition Va

Any unbalanced set of three related vectors (for example three unbalanced
vectors of voltages or currents in a three-phase system) can be resolved
into three sets of balanced vectors. The three sets of vectors are called
Vb
symmetrical components. If the system represents voltages such as
Figure 13.1, for example, it can be split into two balanced three-phase
‘generators’ and a third set of 3 in-phase (0 degrees apart) voltages. This
is shown in the Figure 13.2.
The three sets of phasors used to represent the unbalanced system are Vc
called sequences; positive, negative and zero. Assume in Figure 13.2 that
Figure 13.1: An unbalanced
for the positive sequence the three bars are rigid and rotating together in
three-phase system
the direction shown by the curved arrow. An observer, labelled P-Eye, will
see Va1, then Vb1 and then finally, Vc1, This is an a-b-c sequence and called a positive sequence. The observer
N-Eye will, on the other hand, see Va2, then Vc2 and then finally, Vb2. This is an a-c-b sequence and called a
negative sequence. By convention, we use the subscript 1 for positive sequence, 2 for negative sequence and
0 for zero sequence. Zero sequence signals each have equal magnitude and are in phase with each other.
From figure 13.1 and 13.2, it will be seen that a phase voltage such as Va, has been split into components,
Va1, Va2 and Va0 and similarly, Vb and Vc into Vb1, Vb2 and Vb0, Vc1, Vc2 and Vc0, respectively. We can observe
from Figure 13.3 that once a component of one phase is found, the components of the other two can easily be
determined. If we find all the components (i.e., positive, negative and zero) of one phase, then all the others
can easily be determined.
For example if Va1 is found we can readily see that Vb1 is simply displaced 120° from Va1, i.e. Vb1 = a2Va1, using
the a operator (Figure 13.3). This operator rotates a phasor quantity by 120° anticlockwise, similar in principle
to the j operator which rotates a phasor by 90°.
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Chapter 13 Symmetrical Components and Unbalanced Networks
The properties of a are summarised as:

_
√
a = 1∠120° = – _21 + j _
2
3
(13.1)
_
2 _
1 _√3
a = 1∠–120° = 1∠240° = – 2 – j 2 (13.2)
3
a =1 (13.3)
1 + a + a2 = 0 (13.4)
Va2
N-Eye Vc2
Va1
P-Eye
Negative Sequence
Vb2
Va0
Vb0
Vb1 Vco
Vc1
Zero Sequence
Positive Sequence
Figure 13.2: A decomposed three-phase system
We can re-create the unbalanced sets of currents in Figure 13.1 by adding the sequences in Figure 13.2 as
follows:
Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2 (13.5)
Vb = Vb0 + Vb1 + Vb2 (13.6)
Vc = Vc0 + Vc1 + Vc2 (13.7)
The above also works for unbalanced currents as follows:
Ia = Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2 (13.8)
Ib = Ib0 + Ib1 + Ib2 (13.9)
Ic = Ic0 + Ic1 + Ic2 (13.10)
We note in the above equations that from our definitions, Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0 so we can replace Ib0 and Ic0 with Ia0.
We can also replace, Ib1 with a2Ia1 and Ic1 with aIa1. Similarly, we can replace Ic2 with a2Ia2 and Ib2 with aIa2.
This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 13.3.
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Ia1
Va1
Ib1 =a2I
a1
Ic1 =aIa1
Vb1=a2V
a1
Vc1 =aV a1 Ia2
Ib2=aIa2 Ic2=a Ia2

2
Figure 13.3: Derivation of b and c sequences from phase a
Note that all the unbalanced currents have now been expressed in terms of the sequence components of
phase a. Thus once the sequence components of one phase (usually phase a, or the RED phase) are known
(Figure 13.3), the other phase currents can easily be determined from the above equations.
Also, if we assume that phase a is always the reference, then we can simplify the subscripts as follows:
Ia0 = I0; Ia1 = I; Ia2 = I2 (13.11)
We can then express the equation as follows:
Ia = I0 + I1 + I2 (13.12)
Ib = I0 + a2I1 + aI2 (13.13)
Ic = I0 + aI1 + a2I2 (13.14)
This can be expressed in matrix form as follows:
[] [ ][ ]
Ia 1 1 1 I0
Ib = 1 a2 a I1 (13.15)
Ic 1 a a2 I2
The above expression allows us to synthesise sequence values into phase values. Sometimes we need to
decompose a phase value into its sequences. We can do this by inverting the above matrix.
[] [ ] []
I0 1 1 1 –1 Ia
I1 = 1 a2 a Ib (13.16)
I2 1 a a2 Ic
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That is:
[] [ ][ ]
I0 1 1 1 Ia
I1 = _
1
1 a a2 Ib (13.17)
3
I2 1 a2 a I
c
Or, alternatively:
I0 = _31(Ia + Ib + Ic) (13.18)
I1 = _31(Ia + aIb + a2Ic) (13.19)
I2 = _31(Ia + a2Ib + aIc) (13.20)

Remember that the above decomposes phase a (i.e. Ia0, Ia1 and Ia2) only. However as we have already noted
(Figure 13.3), the other phases (e.g. Ib0, Ib1 and Ib2) can readily be determined, e.g., Ib1 = a2Ia1.
Example 13.1
The phases of a Y-connected generator are as follows, related to the neutral:
Va = 240∠0°
Vb = 240∠–120°
Vc = 240∠120°
Find the symmetrical components of phase a.
Solution:
[] [ ][ ]
V0 1 1 1 Va
V1 = _
1
1 a a2 Vb
3
V2 1 a2 a V
c
[] [ ][ ]
V0 1 1 1 240∠0
V1 = _
1
1 a a2 240∠–120
3
V2 1 a2 a 240∠120
Noting that the properties of a, in particular that 1 + a + a2 = 0

V0 = 0, V1 = 240 < 0, V2 = 0
This is an example of a balanced 3-phase system, only the positive sequence exists.
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Example 13.2
The phases of a generator are as follows:
Ia = 15∠–90°
Ib = 20∠–114°
Ic = 14∠0°
Find the symmetrical components of phase a.
Solution:
Using:
[] [
1 1 1 Ia
][ ]
I0
I1 = _
1
1 a a2 Ib
3
I2 1 a2 a I
c
Ia0 = 11.26∠–80°
Ia1 = 9.39∠–62.8°
Ia2 = 7.67∠144.6°
Example 13.3
Find the symmetrical components of phase a. Given:
Ia = 0∠0°
Ib = 20∠–120°
Ic = 15∠36°
Solution:
Ia0 = 2.92∠–75.9°
Ia1 = 8.74∠–34.7°
Ia2 = 11.11∠135.3°
Notice in the above example that even when Ia is zero, it has sequence components. Also the line currents
into a delta connection do have a zero sequence component, since the line currents must add to zero
I0 = _31(Ia + Ib + Ic). Similarly, if the line currents are flowing into a Y-connected load without a neutral wire
and with ungrounded neutral, the line current will have no zero sequence component (Kirchoff’s Junction
Law).
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Example 13.4
The following was determined for a three-phase cable. Investigate the fault on the cable (find the line
currents and determine the type of fault). Given:
Ia0 = 0∠0°
Ia1 = –j500°
Ia2 = j500°
Solution:
[] [ ][ ]
Ia 1 1 1 I0
Ib = 1 a2 a I1
Ic 1 a a2 I2
From Equation 13.15:
[] [ ][ ]
Ia 1 1 1 0
Ib = 1 a2 a –j500
Ic 1 a a2 j500
Ia = [0 – j500] = 0
Ib = [0 + (–0.5 – j0.866)(–j500) + (–0.5 + j0.866)(j500)]
Ic = [0 + (–0.5 + j0.866)(–j500) + (–0.5 – j0.866)(j500)]

Therefore:
Ia = 0, Ib = 866∠–180, Ic = 866∠0.
Phase a current is 0, and this is a b-c fault.
13.3 Sequence Impedances

The impedance of a power system component is its resistance to the flow of current. We have seen that this
current can be broken down into positive, negative, and zero sequence components. It is reasonable to conclude
that these components will display impedance to each of the current components. Thus we speak of impedance
to the positive sequence current (positive sequence impedance), impedance to the negative sequence current
(negative sequence impedance), and impedance to the zero sequence current (zero sequence impedance). In
our usual analysis at constant frequency, we take the impedance of components to be constant. However, the
impedances to the flow of positive, negative, and zero sequence currents, respectively, may be different. For
calculation of the fault circuit conditions it is important to know the value of each sequence impedance as seen
from the location of the fault and the current component that is contributed by this sequence.
We can present the three-phase unbalanced network in the Figure 13.1 as three separate networks:
335
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• a zero sequence
• a positive sequence
• a negative sequence network.
To simplify the analysis, it is better to reduce these networks into their Thevenin equivalents as in Figure 13.4.
Figure 13.4: Zero, positive and negative sequence impedances
Positive sequence impedance

This is the normal impedance of three-phase circuits to the flow of balanced three-phase current that is given
in the equipment specifications.
Negative sequence impedance

This is the impedance of three-circuits to the flow of currents whose phasors rotate in the opposite direction. For
most equipment, the negative sequence impedance is the same as the positive sequence impedance. Rotating
machines tend to have different values of positive and negative sequence. These values will be published by
their manufacturers.
Zero sequence impedance

Zero sequence currents are characterised by the fact that they must return to the source through the ground
and/or the neutral wire. The exact path of zero sequence current depends on the connection of the equipment
and on the current path through the ground.
13.4 Sequence Networks

In a system that is balanced up to the time of fault, the three sequence components are independent and do not
interact with each other and we can therefore solve them as three separate sequence networks.
Positive sequence network

It has been observed through examples that with a balanced three-phase system only positive sequence
quantities exist. Therefore, when modelling a positive sequence network, we find that it is the only sequence
network that has the generated e.m.f.s. This is because the generators rotate only in one direction and generate
voltages with positive phase order. Also we need to be include the positive sequence impedances in the positive
336
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sequence network. These positive sequence impedances are the same ones we are familiar with and they form
the basic data for transmission lines and electric motors among other components.
Negative sequence network

This network has no generator-generated voltages since these arise only from the positive sequence conditions
illustrated earlier. The voltage that appears at the negative sequence network is the voltage generated by the
unbalance at the point of fault.
Zero sequence network

Like the negative sequence network and for reasons already given, generator voltages cannot be placed in this
network. The voltage that appears at the zero sequence network is the voltage generated by the unbalance
at the point of fault. The zero sequence networks are quite difficult to determine correctly because the zero
sequence current returns through neutrals and ground. Through transformer connections it is possible to block
the flow of zero sequence currents.
Power in sequence networks

This is three times sequence power:
Sp= 3(V0I0* + V1I1* + V2I2*)
13.5 Use of Symmetrical Components for the Study of Faults

Single line to ground (SLG) fault
A single line-to-ground (SLG) fault is one of the most common faults in power systems. It is also quite severe
and we will do well to study it. Assume that for the system in Figure 13.5, the generator was unloaded and
healthy prior to a fault in line a. The fault has an impedance ZF. We can use now the theory that we have
acquired to find the sequence components of Ia, the fault current.
Ia
EA
If
ZF
N
EB
EC
Ib =0
Ic =0
Figure 13.5: A single line to ground fault of a generator (SLG)
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Thus:
I
I0 = _31 (Ia + Ib + Ic) = _
3
a
Ia
I1 = _31 (Ia + a2Ib + aIc) = _
3
Ia
I2 = _31 (Ia + aIb + a2Ic) = _
3
And:
I
I0 = I1 = I2 = _
3
a
Since the magnitude and direction of all the sequence currents of Ia are the same, we can deduce that the
sequence voltages behind them are in series. Remember that in the positive sequence network, the source
generator is present and we can represent this network as in Figure 13.6 (a). The negative and zero sequence
networks consist only of Z2 and Z0 respectively (Figure 13.6 (b) and (c)).
I1
I2
Ea1=E a I0
Z1 Z2 Z0
Va1 Va2
Va0
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 13.6: Sequence network of generator
Next, we connect all the networks in a series circuit carrying the same current as in Figure 13.7.
For transmission lines, Z2, the negative sequence impedance, is equal to the positive sequence impedance.
The calculation of sequence impedances for lines is usually complicated by mutual inductance effects.
The combined network is shown in Figure 13.7.
Vf = Va = Ia Zf,
But Ia = 3I1, therefore:
Vf = 3I1Zf = I1(3Zf).
Therefore, the fault impedance can be represented as 3Zf.
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CHEE.indb 338 2009/10/15 01:02:00 PM

I1
Ia
3
EA
Z1
3Z f
Va =V f
Va1
Z2
Va2
Z0
Va0
Figure 13.7: Sequence representation – generator with fault impedance Zf
From Kirchoff’s Voltage Law:
Ea = I1(Z1 + Z2 + Z0) + Vƒ
= I1 (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) + 3 I1 Zƒ (13.21)

Since Ia = 3I1:
3E
Ia = ___
a
(13.22)
(Z1 + Z2 + Z0) + 3Zƒ
If the generator is grounded through a neutral impedance Zn and has zero sequence impedance Zgo, then we
can combine them in Z0 using:
Z0 = Zgo + 3Zn
So that Equation 13.22 becomes:
3E
Ia = ____
a
(13.22a)
(Z1 + Z2 + Zg0) + 3(Zn + Zƒ)
If the fault occurs at a significant distance from the generator terminals such that we have to include line
impedance, Zl, can be added to Zf. The factor of 3 arises from examining Figure 13.8 where we observe
(Kirchoff’s Current Law) that the diagram on the left can be replaced with the one on the right.
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Ia0
I0
Ib0
Ic0
Zn 3Zn
V=3Ia0Zn V=I03Zn
Figure 13.8: Representation of neutral impedance
For a solid ground fault Zf = 0, then:

3Ea
Ia = __
Z +Z +Z
1 2 0
The above formulae can solve SLG fault currents directly given the phase voltage and sequence impedances.
Example 13.5
A resistive 0.05 : single line-to-ground (SLG) fault occurs on three-phase system supplied by an 11 kV
(line-to-line) generator. The parameters of the generator are as follows, Z1 = 0 + j0.5, Z2 = 0 + j0.2,
Zg0 = 0 + j0.1. The neutral is grounded with Zn = 0 + j0.2.
Calculate the fault current.
Solution:
This is a direct application of Equation 13.22a. Assuming that phase a is faulted then:
3E
Ia = ___
a
Z1 + Z2 + Zg0 + 3(Zn + Zƒ)
3_
11_
Ia = ____
3 √
kA
j0.5 + j0.2 + j0.1 + 3(j0.2 + 0.05)
= 13.6∠ – 84 kA
Line-to-line (b-c) fault

Consider Figure 13.9.
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Ia
A
Ea
Ec Eb
Ib
B
C
Ic
Figure 13.9: Generator with a b-c fault
For this fault, Ia = 0 and Ib = -Ic, which are substituted in Equation 13.17 to form:
[] [ ][ ]
I0 1 1 1 0
I1 = _
1
1 a a2 Ib
3
I2 1 a2 a –Ib
From which:
I0 = 0
Ib
I = j_ _
1 √3
I
I2 = – j__
b
(13.23)
√3
From which, I1 = –I2.
Substituting in Equation 13.15:
[] [ ][ ]
Ia 1 1 1 0
Ib = 1 a2 a I1
Ic 1 a a2 –I1
From which:
_
Ib = – jI1√3 = –Ic (13.24)
Where:
Ea
I1 = _
Z +Z
(13.25)
1 2
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11 The Per Unit System and Network

Some of the advantages of per unit system

11.2 Overview of the Per Unit System

CHEE.indb 281 2009/10/15 01:01:16 PM

Figure 11.1: General electrical network

Deﬁnition of per unit

CHEE.indb 282 2009/10/15 01:01:16 PM

Actual Value = Base Value × Per Unit Value (11.6)

Figure 11.2: Generator-load system for

CHEE.indb 283 2009/10/15 01:01:17 PM

= 0.96∠ – 36.9 p.u.

= 0.233∠ 63.4 p.u.

EG p.u. = 1∠0 + (0.96∠ – 36.9)(0.233∠63.4)

Actual Value = Base Value × Per Unit Value

PG = (0.863)(1 500) W = 1294.5 W

QG = (0.769)(1 500) VAR = 1153.5 VAR

CHEE.indb 284 2009/10/15 01:01:18 PM

11.3 Transformer Short-circuit (%) Impedance and the Per Unit

From the transformer testing procedure we know that:

Figure 11.4: Transformer

CHEE.indb 285 2009/10/15 01:01:18 PM

11.4 Bases and Equipment Ratings (speciﬁcations)

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Example 11.2 T1 Transformer

Figure 11.5: Network for Example 11.2

CHEE.indb 287 2009/10/15 01:01:19 PM

XT1pu (new) = 0.10 _

Next, consider the transmission line, line L1.

XT2pu (new) = 0.15 _

XMTpu (new) = 0.10 _

CHEE.indb 288 2009/10/15 01:01:21 PM

Figure 11.6: Final per unit representation

Figure 11.7: Network for Example 11.3

CHEE.indb 289 2009/10/15 01:01:21 PM

XG1pu (new) = 0.10 _

XT1pu (new) = 0.12 _

Next consider the transmission line, line L1.

XT2pu (new) = 0.15 _

XMTpu (new) = 0.10 _ ( )(

VBase(on motor side) = __Vbase

CHEE.indb 290 2009/10/15 01:01:22 PM

Lets combine all the information we have into one diagram:

XT1 XL1 XT2

0.096 0.092 0.169

Figure 11.8: Final per unit diagram for Example 11.3

11.5 Uses of the Per Unit Diagram

fault) at the generator terminals, or one at the end of the

0.096 0.092 0.169

Figure 11.10: Application of Thevenin’s theorem

CHEE.indb 291 2009/10/15 01:01:22 PM

To ﬁnd the actual current we use:

Iactual = (Ibase)(I pu)

Iactual = (0.35)(6.09) = 2.13 kA

Exercises for Chapter 11

Figure 11-11: Network for Question 2

CHEE.indb 292 2009/10/15 01:01:23 PM

Figure 12.1: Hypothetical electrical network

12.2 Modelling of Transmission Lines

Figure 12.5: -representation of a transmission line

The propagation constant, is also required.