3/11/2015

NAVIGATION
• Art and science of maneuvering safely and efficiently
from one point to another
NAVIGATIONAL
• From the Latin word “navis” meaning “boat” and “agire”
SYSTEMS meaning “guide”

ECE145P-3
• Traditionally meant the art or science of conducting
ships and other watercraft from one place to another
Broadcasting, Acoustics and
Navigational Aids

MAJOR NAVIGATIONAL AGENCIES MAJOR NAVIGATIONAL AGENCIES

• FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FAA), Washington, DC • INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION (ICAO), Montreal,
Canada
• Operates navigational aids and air traffic control systems for both civil
and military aircraft in the US and its possessions • A United Nations agency that allocates standards and recommend
practices, including navigational aids for all civil aviation
• FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION (FCC), Washington, DC
• INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU), Geneva,
• The agency that licenses transmitters and operators in the United States
Switzerland
and abroad US registered ships and aircraft
• An agency of the United Nations that allocates frequencies for best use
• INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION (IATA), Montreal,
of the radio spectrum
Canada
• The international association representing scheduled airlines

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METHODS OF NAVIGATION:
METHODS OF NAVIGATION CELESTIAL NAVIGATION
• CELESTIAL NAVIGATION
• When no landmarks or aids to navigation are visible,
navigators may use the Sun, the Moon, or other celestial
bodies to fix the craft’s position
• In celestial navigation, navigators measure the altitude of a
celestial body to derive a circle of position
• Altitude of a celestial body refers to its angle, in degrees,
above the horizon from every point on the circle of position,
the altitude of the celestial body is the same

METHODS OF NAVIGATION:
METHODS OF NAVIGATION NAVIGATION BY COASTAL PILOTING
• NAVIGATION BY COASTAL PILOTING
• Coastal piloting means navigating within sight of land
• In coastal piloting, navigators determine their position more
accurately by taking compass bearings – angular
measurement of line of sight between the craft and nearby
landmarks or aids to navigation

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METHODS OF NAVIGATION:
METHODS OF NAVIGATION NAVIGATION BY DEAD RECKONING
• NAVIGATION BY DEAD RECKONING
• A basic method of navigation in which position of a ship
aircraft is determined by calculation from a previous position
of the craft, the direction of travel from previous position, the
speed of the aircraft and the time travelled

METHODS OF NAVIGATION:
METHODS OF NAVIGATION ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION
• ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION
• Modern navigators rarely rely exclusively on their own
measurements and calculations
• They often use position calculations derived by high-tech
electronic navigational instruments
• These instruments usually can determine positions faster
and more accurately than humans
• They function in nearly all weather conditions, day or night,
and have a range far beyond that of the human senses
alone

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RADIO FREQUENCIES USE IN RADIO FREQUENCIES USE IN

ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION
SYSTEM FREQUENCY BAND SYSTEM FREQUENCY BAND
Omega 10 to 13 kHz VOR 108 to 118 MHz
VLF 16 to 24 kHz ILS Glide Slope 329 to 335 MHz
Decca 70 to 130 kHz DME 960 to 1215 MHz
Loran-C/D 100 kHz TACAN 960 to 1215 MHz
LFR 200 to 300 kHz ATCRBS 1030 to 1090 MHz
ADF/NDB 200 to 1,600 kHz GPS 1227 to 1575 MHz
Loran A 2 MHz Altimeter 4200 MHz
Marker Beacon 75 MHz MLS 5 GHz
ILS Localizer 108 to 112 MHz Weather Radar 5, 9 GHz
Doppler Radar 10 to 20 GHz

MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS:

SYSTEMS ADF
• AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDING/RADIO DIRECTION FINDING
(ADF/RDF)
• The oldest navigational system employing a combined rotating loop and • Older ADF indicators have
sense antenna non-rotating azimuth cards
• 0 degrees is fixed at the top
• ADF Basic Operation of the instrument and the
• The ground station transmits an AM signal in an omnidirectional pointer always indicates the
pattern. The receiver at the aircraft receives the transmitted signal in relative bearing to the ADF
a combined loop and sense antenna whose output is then calculated transmission antenna
to give relative station bearing. • To fly to the station the pilot
• The relative station bearing output from the ADF receiver drives the turns the aircraft until the
bearing pointers in Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) and EHSI’s ADF pointer indicates 0
(Electronic Horizontal Station Indicator) of the Electronic Flight degrees
Instrument System (EFIS)
• The pointer position with respect to the fixed lubber line is the
relative bearing while the position with respect to the North of the
compass is the magnetic bearing

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MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS: MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS:

ADF ADF

• The reception fields of a • A movable card ADF

loop and sense antenna indicator can be rotated to
combine to create a field put the aircraft’s heading at
with a sharp null on just the top of the scale
one side. • The pointer the points to
• This removes directional the magnetic bearing the
ambiguity when navigating ADF broadcast antenna
to an ADF station.

MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS: MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS:

ADF ADF – DIRECTION FINDING ERRORS
• COASTLINE REFRACTION (Land Effect)
• Radio waves crossing from a land to a water area, at any angle rather
than 90 degrees will refract, or bend towards the coastline
• NON-OPPOSITE MINIMUMS (Antenna Effect)
• Non directional broadcast • This is a form of loop unbalance due to stray signal pick-up through
antenna in the LF and
earphone cords or power lines or improper shielding or grounding of the
medium frequency range
used for ADF navigation loop
• RERADIATION
• Signals striking the loop may also strike nearby metal objects, including
current in them that produce reradiated signals and also pick up by the
• A cockpit mountable ADF
loop
receiver used on general
aviation aircraft

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MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS: MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

ADF – DIRECTION FINDING ERRORS
• GREAT CIRCLE ERROR
• Errors produce because of the earth’s curvature
• POLARIZATION ERROR (Night Effect)
• During nighttime hours, the sky wave refracts from the ionosphere and is
receivable for long distance. When the sky wave amplitude approaches
the ground wave amplitude, the null of a loop antenna will no longer be
reliable.
SYSTEMS
• VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR)
• Navigation system that provides omnidirectional bearing, establishes the
airways for airplane, and provides station identification
• VOR Basic Operation
• The VOR beacon is a ground station that transmits signals in all
directions. The transmitted radials all contain different information,
which makes it possible to separate the radial from each other.
• The VOR beacon transmits the first radial in the direction magnetic
north of the station we call it the zero degrees radial.
• The VOR beacon transmits on its carrier frequency two modulated
signals, a 30-Hz reference signal and a 30-Hz variable signal. The
radial is measured from the difference in phase between the
reference and variable signal.

MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
• VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR) • VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR)
• VOR Basic Operation • Ground station
• The 30-Hz reference-phase signal always has the same phase
whatever the aircraft’s position is with respect to the station
• The 30-Hz amplitude modulated variable-phase signal is generated
by a goniometer, a mechanically rotatable variable RF transformer
device.
• The phase of the variable signal varies with the aircraft’s position.

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MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
• VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR) • VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE
(VOR)
• V-shaped horizontally polarized bi-pole antennas are commonly used for
VOR and VOR/glidescope reception • A VOR transmitter produces
signals from 360 degrees
radials that an airborne receiver
uses to indicate the aircraft’s
location in the relation to the
VOR station regardless of the
aircraft’s direction of flight
• The aircraft shown is on the 315
degrees radial even though it
does not have a heading of 315
degrees

MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
• VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR) • VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL
RANGE (VOR)
• The phase relationship of two
broadcast VOR signals • An airline VOR control
head with two independent
NAV receivers each with
an active and standby
tuning circuit controlled by
a toggle switch

• A NAV/COM receiver typically found

in light aircraft

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MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
• VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL • VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR)
RANGE (VOR)
• VOR Deviation
• A traditional VOR gauge,
• VOR magnetic bearing sine and cosine signals are combined with
also known as a course
selected course information. The difference between these two
deviation indicator (CDI)
parameters is the VOR deviation.
and an omni-bearing
selector (OBS) • For a difference of 5 degrees left the receiver output is standardized
at 75 μA which causes a VOR deviation bar deflection of one dot.
• For a difference of 20 degrees, the receiver output is 300 μA
produces a four dot deflection.

MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS:

SYSTEMS VOR (NAIA)
• FOR ADF/RDF:
• Relative Bearing = Pointer Position w.r.t the fixed Lubberline (Aircraft
Heading)
• Magnetic Bearing = Pointer Position w.r.t the North of the compass card
• FOR VOR:
• Radial = Phase of Reference Signal – Phase of Variable Signal
• VOR Magnetic Bearing = Receive Radial + 180 degrees
• VOR Deviation = Selected Course – VOR MB

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MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS: MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

VOR SUMMARY SYSTEMS
PARAMETER DESCRIPTION • DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)
Guidance Information Omnidirectional Bearing • Distance Measuring Equipment is an interrogator-transponder two-way
Operating Frequency 108 MHz to 118 (117.95) MHz distance ranging system
200 mi for high-flying aircraft (enroute VOR) • It became an ICAO standard in 1959
Service Area
25 mi for low-flying aircraft (terminal VOR)
• The airborne equipment (interrogator) generates a pulsed signal that is
RF Output 25 to 200 W recognized by the ground equipment (transponder).
No. of Channels 20 to 40
Spacing between adjacent channels 100 kHz
Antenna Pattern Cardioid pattern rotates at a 30 Hz rate
Accuracy ± 1.4°, ± 3° with site error

MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS: MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS:

DME DME

An outer marker transmitter Aircraft mounted marker

antenna 4 – 7 miles from the beacon receiver antenna
approach runway transmits a
75 MHz signal straight up

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MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS: MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS:

DME DME

VOR with DME ground station
Distance information from the DME can
be displayed on a dedicated DME
instrument or integrated into any of the
electronic navigational displays found in
modern aircraft
A dual display DME with is remote
mounted receiver
A typical aircraft mounted DME antenna
Many DME’s only display the slant distance
which is the actual distance from the aircraft to
the DME station
This is different than the ground distance due
to the aircraft being at altitude

MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS: MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

DME SUMMARY SYSTEMS
PARAMETER DESCRIPTION • TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION (TACAN)
Guidance Information Slant distance and Time-to-Station • TACAN is a NATO military system that adds a bearing function to DME,
Operating Frequency 960 to 1215 MHz on the same frequencies, allowing greater portability of the ground
Interrogator RF Output 1 kW pulses of 3.5 μs duration, 30 times per station than with ICAO’s VOR/DME, particularly on aircraft carriers.
second
No. of channels 126
Spacing between adjacent channels 1 MHz
Ground Transponder Interrogator Capacity 100 aircraft simultaneously
Time Delay 50 μs
Transponder Reply 63 MHz above or below the interrogating
channel
Accuracy ± 0.2 mi

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MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

SYSTEMS
• COLLOCATED VOR/ TACAN STATION (VORTAC)
• In NATO countries having a common air traffic control system for the civil
and military, the ICAO Rho-Theta system is implemented
• Rho-Theta system is a generic term for navigation system that derives
position by measurement of distance and bearing from a single
collocated VOR/DME or VOR/TACAN station.
SYSTEMS
• INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)
• An ILS normally consists of two or three marker beacons, a localizer,
and a glide slope to provide both vertical and horizontal guidance
information.
• Localizer Basic Operation
• The localizer signal comes from a transmitter located at the end of
the runway that operates in the frequency range from 108 to 111.95
MHz
• The localizer transmits two beams, one on the right side of the
runway center line AM by a 150-Hz audio signal and one on the left
side of the runway center line AM by a 90-Hz audio signal

MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
• INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS) • INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)
• Localizer Basic Operation • Localizer Antenna
• When the airplane position is on the left of the on-course path, the
strength of the 90-Hz audio signal predominates and localizer
deviation indicators are deflected to the right and a yellow visual
lamp indicator are on, indicating that the runway centerline is to the
right.
• While when the airplane position is on the right side of the on-course
path, the strength of the 150-Hz audio signal predominates and
localizer deviation indicators are deflected to the left and a blue
visual lamp indicator are on, indicating that the runway centerline is
to the left.

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MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS: MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

ILS LOCALIZER SUMMARY SYSTEMS
PARAMETER DESCRIPTION • INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)
Guidance Information Azimuth (horizontal and lateral) • Glide-Slope Basic Operation
Operating Frequency 108 to 112 MHz band
• The glide-slope signal comes from a transmitter at the beginning of
RF Power 25 W the runway that operates in the UHF band with a frequency range of
Location 1000 feet beyond the approach end of the 328.6-MHz to 335.4-MHz
runway
• The glide-slope receiving circuits are the tune automatically
No. of channels 40; where each is paired with one of the 40
whenever a localizer frequency is tuned or selected.
Glideslope channel
Spacing between adjacent channel 50 kHz • Two antenna patterns are produced: one above the normal 2.5°
ascent angle to the runway’s surface at an audio modulated tone of
Left-Hand Pattern Amplitude Modulated by 90 Hz
90-Hz and one below the normal 2.5° ascent angle to the runway’s
Right-Hand Pattern Amplitude Modulated by 150 Hz surface at an audio modulated tone of 150-Hz.
Accuracy ± 0.1°
Lateral Threshold ± 35° from the centerline of the runway

MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
• INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS) • INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)
• Glide-Slope Basic Operation • Glide-Slope
• If the antenna is located above the 2.5° glide-path, the 90-Hz audio
signal modulates the glide slope carrier forcing the glide-slope
pointer to deflect downward and turn-on the yellow visual indicator
lamp, indicating that the airplane is above the glide-path and the plot
must maneuver the airplane below to obtain the desired glide-path.
• While if the airplane is located below the 2.5° glide-path, the 150-Hz
audio signal modulates the glide-slope carrier forcing the glide-slope
to deflect upward and turn-on the blue visual indicator lamp,
indicating that the airplane is below the glide-path and the pilot must
maneuver the airplane above to obtain the desired glide-path.

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MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS: MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

GLIDE-SLOPE SUMMARY SYSTEMS
PARAMETER DESCRIPTION • INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)
Guidance Information Vertical • Marker Beacons
Operating Frequency 328.6 to 335.4 MHz band
• The marker beacons system gives information about the distance to
RF Power 7W runway
Location Approach end of the runway and up to 500 ft
to the slide • Three marker beacon are strategically positioned at fixed distance
from the runway having the same carrier frequency of 75 MHz
No. of channels 40; where each is paired with one of the 40
Localizer channel • If the airplane is 7.2 km away from the runway center line, the pilot
Spacing between adjacent channel 50 kHz will hear a Morse-coded sound of 2 dashes/second and the blue light
indicator will turn on.
Pattern above the Glideslope Amplitude Modulated by 90 Hz
Pattern below the Glideslope Amplitude Modulated by 150 Hz
Accuracy ± 0.1°
Vertical Threshold ± 3° above the horizontal

MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
• INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS) • INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)
• Marker Beacons • Marker Beacons
• If the airplane is 1.05 km away from the runway center line, the pilot
will hear an alternating Morse-coded sound of dots and dashes and
the amber light indicator will turn on.
• And finally, if the airplane is 75 m away from the runway center line,
the pilot will hear a continuous dots and the white light indicator will
turn on, an indication that the airplane is very near the runway
threshold.

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MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS: MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS:

MARKER BEACON SUMMARY INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

VISUAL AURAL
MODULATING TYPICAL
MARKER (LIGHT) (SOUND)
FREQUENCY LOCATION
INDICATOR INDICATOR
Outer 400 Hz 7200 m Blue (Purple) 2 dashes/sec
Alternating dots
Middle 1300 Hz 1050 m Amber (Orange)
and dashes
Inner 3000 Hz 75 m White Continuous dots

MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS: MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

ICAO CATEGORIES FOR MINIMUM APPROACH CEILING AND FORWARD
VISIBILITY SYSTEMS
• MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM (MLS)
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION • The MLS is the ICAO-approved replacement for the current ILS
I 200 ft ceiling and ½ mile visibility
• The system is based on time-reference scanning beams, reference to
II 100 ft ceiling and ½ mile visibility the runway, which enables airborne unit to determine precise azimuth
III-A 50 ft ceiling and 700 ft visibility and elevation angle.
III-B 35 ft ceiling and 150 ft visibility
PARAMETER DESCRIPTION
III-C 0 ceiling and 0 visibility
Operating Frequency 5000 to 5250 MHz
60° either side of the runway
Azimuth (lateral) scan
centerline
Elevation (vertical) scan 0° to 30°
Scanning Rate 50 μs/degree
No. of Channels 200

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MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS: MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM SYSTEMS
• AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL RADAR BEACON SYSTEM (ATCRBS)
• In 1958 IFF (Identification Friend or Foe) became an ICAO standard known as
SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar) or ATCRBS
PARAMETER DESCRIPTION
Guidance Information IFF, Range, Bearing, and Altitude
information
Operating Frequency 1030 to 1090 MHz
Ground Interrogator 1030 MHz
Airborne Transponder 1090 MHz
Spacing between adjacent channels 1 MHz
Power Output 500 W
Available Pulse Code 4096
Interrogator Pulse 400 pulses pair/sec
Reply Pulse 14 pulses lasting 21 μsec

MAJOR ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS:

ATCRBS HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION SYSTEM
• DECCA
• This system has been developed in the United Kingdom
starting 1939
• It is a continuous-wave hyperbolic system operating in the
70 to 130 kHz
• Position information is obtained by measuring the relative
phase differences of the received signals
• A typical chain comprises four stations, 1 Master and 3
Slaves stations

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HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION SYSTEM:

DECCA HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION SYSTEM
• OMEGA
• The Omega system (8-station only) is a worldwide VLF
navigation system used for marine and enroute air
navigation
• The system 8 CW transmitting stations sequentially transmit
long, but precisely timed pulses at four frequencies: 10.2
kHz, 11.3 kHz, 13.5 kHz and 11.05 kHz
• Position information is obtained by measuring the relative
phase difference of the received signals
• A typical chain comprises two stations, 1 Master and 1 Slave
station

HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION SYSTEM SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM

• LONG RANGE AID TO NAVIGATION SYSTEM (LORAN-C) • TRANSIT
• Loran-C is a long-range hyperbolic radio navigation system • Satellite navigation system consisting of four or more
that possesses an inherent high degree of accuracy at satellites in approximately 600 nmi polar orbit
ranges of 800 to 1000 nautical miles
• Position information is obtained by measuring the relative
time differences of the received signals
• A typical chain comprises three stations, 1 Master and 2
Slaves stations

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SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM

• NAVIGATION SYSTEM USING • NAVIGATION SYSTEM USING TIME AND RANGING/GLOBAL
TIME AND RANGING/GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (NAVSTAR/GPS)
POSITIONING SYSTEM
(NAVSTAR/GPS) • GPS Services
• Space-based radio • STANDARD POSITIONING SERVICES (SPS)
navigation system consisting
of 24 satellites and ground • The SPS is a positioning and timing service that is
support available to all GPS users on a continuous worldwide
• Provides users with accurate basis with no direct charge.
information about their
position and velocity as well • SPS provides a horizontal position that is accurate to
as the time anywhere in the about 100 meters.
world and in all weather
conditions

SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM

• NAVIGATION SYSTEM USING TIME AND RANGING/GLOBAL • NAVIGATION SYSTEM USING TIME AND RANGING/GLOBAL
POSITIONING SYSTEM (NAVSTAR/GPS) POSITIONING SYSTEM (NAVSTAR/GPS)
• GPS Services • GPS Services
• PRIMARY POSITIONING SERVICE (PPS) ACCURACY SPS PPS
• The PPS is a highly accurate military positioning, Horizontal 100 m 22 m
velocity and timing service that is available on a Vertical 156 m 27.7 m
continuous worldwide basis to users authorized by 3-D 185 m 35.4 m
the DoD Time transfer 340 ns 200 ns

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SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM

• NAVIGATION SYSTEM USING TIME AND RANGING/GLOBAL
POSITIONING SYSTEM (NAVSTAR/GPS) unit
• GLOBAL ORBITING NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM
(GLONASS)
• GLONASS Services
• Civil Services
• The specified positioning accuracies are 100-m in the
horizontal plane and 150-m in the vertical plane
• Civil velocity accuracy is specified at 0.15 m/s
• The time dissemination capability is within 5 ms of
UTC

SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM

• GLOBAL ORBITING • Comparison between GPS and GLONASS
NAVIGATION SATELLITE
PARAMETER NAVSTAR/GPS GLONASS
SYSTEM (GLONASS)
Planned Constellation 21 + 3 21 + 3
• GLONASS Services Number of Orbit 6 3

• Military Services Orbital Altitude 10,898 nmi 10,313 nmi

Orbital Period 12 hrs 11 hrs 15 min
• Military services Orbital Inclination 55 degrees 64.8 degrees
yields accuracies Access Method CDMA FDMA
comparable to the C/A Code 1,023 bits 511 bits
GPS PPS C/A Code BW 2 MHz 1 MHz
Bit Rate 50 bps 50 bps

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