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ANGLE MODULATION
• First introduced in 1931 as an alternative to
amplitude modulation
ANGLE MODULATION • It was suggested that an angle-modulated wave
TRANSMISSION was less susceptible to noise than AM and could
improve the performance of radio
communications
ECE141
• Major E.H. Armstrong developed the first
Principles of Communications successful FM radio system in 1936
• July 1939, first regularly scheduled broadcasting
of FM signals began in Alphine, New Jersey

ANGLE MODULATION ANGLE MODULATION

• It results whenever the phase angle of a
sinusoidal wave is varied with respect to time
Where: m(t) – angle-modulated wave
Vc – peak carrier amplitude (volts)
ωc – carrier radian frequency
θ(t) – instantaneous phase deviation (radians)
• Direct Frequency Modulation (FM)
– Varying the frequency of a constant-amplitude
carrier directly proportional to the amplitude of
the modulating signal at a rate equal to the
frequency of the modulating signal
• Direct Phase Modulation (PM)
– Varying the phase of a constant-amplitude carrier
directly proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency
of the modulating signal

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ANGLE MODULATION ANGLE MODULATION

• The magnitude and the direction of frequency
shift (Δf) is proportional to the amplitude and
polarity of the modulating signal (Vm) and the
rate at which the frequency changes are
occurring is equal to the frequency of the
modulating signal (fm)

Angle-modulated wave in frequency domain

ANGLE MODULATION ANGLE MODULATION

• The phase of the carrier is changing proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal (Vm(t))
• The relative angular displacement of the carrier phase in
radians in respect to the reference phase is called phase
deviation (ΔΘ)
• The change in the carrier’s phase produces a corresponding
change in frequency Angle-modulated wave in
the time-domain
• The relative displacement of the carrier frequency in Phase changing with time
respect to its unmodulated value is called frequency
deviation (Δf)
• The magnitude of the frequency and phase deviation is
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal
(Vm) and tha rate at which the changes are occurring is
equal to the modulating signal frequency (fm)

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ANGLE MODULATION ANGLE MODULATION

• Instantaneous Phase Deviation
– The instantaneous change in phase of the carrier
at a given instant of time and indicates how much
the phase of the carrier is changing with respect
Angle-modulated wave in to the reference phase
the time-domain
Frequency changing with
time

ANGLE MODULATION ANGLE MODULATION

• Instantaneous Phase • Instantaneous Frequency Deviation
– The precise phase of the carrier at a given instant – The instantaneous change in the frequency of the
of time carrier
– Defined as the first time derivative of the
instantaneous phase deviation

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ANGLE MODULATION
• Instantaneous Frequency
– The instantaneous change in the frequency of the
carrier
– Defined as the first time derivative of the
instantaneous phase deviation
DEVIATION SENSITIVITY
• K and K1 are the output-versus-input transfer
functions for the modulators, which give
relationship between what output parameter
changes in respect to specified changes in the
input signal
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ANGLE MODULATION
• Phase Modulation
– Angle modulation in which instantaneous phase
deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal voltage and the instantaneous
frequency deviation is proportional to the slope or
first derivative of the modulating signal
• Frequency Modulation
– Angle modulation in which instantaneous frequency
deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal and the instantaneous phase
deviation is proportional to the integral of the
modulating signal voltage
DEVIATION SENSITIVITY
• Phase Modulator
• Frequency Modulator
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Equations for Phase- and Frequency-

FM AND PM WAVEFORMS
Modulated Carriers

FM

PM

PHASE DEVIATION AND MODULATION

FM AND PM WAVEFORMS
INDEX
• With FM, the maximum frequency deviation • For PM, the modulation index is proportional
occurs during the maximum positive and to the amplitude of the modulating signal
negative peaks of the modulating signal independent of its frequency
• With PM, the maximum frequency deviation
occurs during the zero crossings of the
modulating signal
• For both frequency and phase modulation,
the rate at which the frequency changes Where: m – modulation index and peak phase deviation
K – deviation sensitivity (radians per volt)
occurs equal to the modulating signal Vm – peak modulating signal amplitude (volts)
frequency

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PHASE DEVIATION AND MODULATION FREQUENCY DEVIATION AND

INDEX
• For FM, the modulation index is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal and inversely proportional
to the frequency of the modulating signal
Where: m – modulation index
K1 – deviation sensitivity
Vm – peak modulating signal amplitude (volts)
ωm – radian frequency
PERCENT MODULATION
• Frequency Deviation
– The change in frequency that occurs in the carrier
when it is acted on by a modulating signal
frequency
– Typically given as a peak frequency shift
– The peak-to-peak frequency deviation is
sometimes called carrier swing

FREQUENCY DEVIATION AND

PERCENT MODULATION
• With PM, both the modulation index and the
peak phase deviation are directly proportional
to the amplitude of the modulating signal and
unaffected by its frequency
• With FM, both the modulation index and the
frequency deviations are directly proportional
to the amplitude of the modulating signal and
the modulation index is inversely proportional
to its frequency

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FREQUENCY DEVIATION AND

Example
PERCENT MODULATION
• Determine the peak frequency deviation and • Percent Modulation
modulation index for an FM modulator with a – With angle modulation, it is the ratio of the
deviation sensitivity K1 = 5 kHz/V and a frequency deviation actually produced to the
modulating signal v(t) = 2cos(2π2000t) maximum frequency deviation allowed by law
stated in percent form
• Determine the peak phase deviation for a PM
modulator with a deviation sensitivity K = 2.5
rad/V and a modulating signal v(t) =
2cos(2000t)

PHASE AND FREQUENCY PHASE AND FREQUENCY

MODULATORS AND DEMODULATORS MODULATORS AND DEMODULATORS
• Phase Modulator • PM modulator
– A circuit in which the carrier is varied in such a way that its
instantaneous phase is proportional to the modulating – Differentiator followed by FM modulator
signal
– The unmodulated carrier is a single-frequency sinusoid and • PM demodulator
is commonly called rest frequency – FM demodulator followed by an integrator
• Frequency Modulator
– A circuit in which the carrier is varied in such a way that its • FM modulator
instantaneous phase is proportional to the integral of the
modulating frequency – Integrator followed by a PM modulator
– If the modulating signal is differentiated prior to being • FM demodulator
applied to modulator, the instantaneous phase deviation is
proportional to the integral of v(t) – PM demodulator followed by a differentiator

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FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF ANGLE- FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF ANGLE-

MODULATED WAVE MODULATED WAVE
• With angle modulation, the frequency
components of the modulated wave are much
more complexly related to the frequency
components of the modulating signal than
with amplitude modulation
• In a frequency and phase modulator, a single-
frequency modulating signal produces an Where: ! – factorial
infinite number of pairs of side frequencies n – J or number of the side
frequency
and has an infinite bandwidth m – modulation index

FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF

ANGLE-MODULATED WAVE ANGLE-MODULATED WAVE

Bessel Functions of the First Kind, Jn(m)

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Example
• For an FM modulator with a modulation index
m = 1, a modulating signal v(t) =
Vmsin(2π1000t), and an unmodulated carrier
vc(t) = 10sin(2π500kt), determine
– Number of sets of significant side frequencies
– Their amplitudes
– Draw the spectrum showing their relative
amplitudes
BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENTS
• The actual bandwidth required to pass all the
significant sidebands for an angle-modulated
wave is equal to two times the product of the
highest modulating signal frequency and the
number of significant sidebands determined
from the table of Bessel function
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BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENTS
• 1922, J. Carson mathematically proved that for a
given modulating signal frequency, a frequency-
modulated wave cannot be accommodated in a
narrower bandwidth than an amplitude
modulated wave
• With angle modulation, multiple sets of
sidebands are produced and the bandwidth can
be wider than that of an AM wave with the same
modulating signal
• Angle-modulated waveforms are classified as low,
medium and high index
BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENTS
• Carson’s Rule
– Approximates the bandwidth necessary to
transmit an angle-modulated wave as twice the
sum of the peak frequency deviation and the
highest modulating signal frequency
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Example DEVIATION RATIO

• For an FM modulator with a peak frequency • The worst-case modulation index
deviation of 10 kHz, a modulating signal • The maximum peak frequency deviation
frequency of 10 kHz, Vc = 10 V and a 500-kHz
carrier, determine divided by the maximum modulating signal
– Actual minimum bandwidth from Bessel function
frequency
table • The worst-case modulation produces the
– Approximate minimum bandwidth using Carson’s widest output frequency spectrum
rule
– Plot output frequency spectrum for Bessel
approximation

Example COMMERCIAL BROADCAST-BAND FM

• Determine the deviation ratio and bandwidth
for worst-case modulation index for an FM
broadcast-band transmitter with a maximum
frequency deviation of 75 kHz and a maximum
modulating signal frequency of 15 kHz
• Determine the deviation ratio and maximum
bandwidth for an equal modulation index with
only half the peak frequency deviation and
modulating signal frequency

Frequency spectrums for FM and PM

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AVERAGE POWER
• The total power in an angle-modulated wave is
equal to the power of the unmodulated carrier
• The power that was originally in the
unmodulated carrier is redistributed among the
carrier and its sidebands
• The average power of an angle-modulated wave
is independent of the modulating signal, the
modulation index and the frequency deviation
Example
• Determine the unmodulated carrier power for
the FM modulator and conditions given in the
previous example (assume load resistance of
50 ohms)
• Determine the total power in the angle-
modulated wave
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AVERAGE POWER
• Instantaneous power of an angle-modulated
signal
NOISE AND ANGLE MODULATION
• When thermal noise with a constant spectral density is
added to an FM signal, it produces an unwanted
deviation of the center frequency
• The magnitude of this unwanted frequency deviation
depends on the relative amplitude of the noise with
respect to the carrier
• When this unwanted carrier deviation is demodulated,
it becomes noise if it has frequency components that
fall within the information-frequency spectrum
• The spectral shape of the demodulated noise depends
on whether FM or PM demodulator is used
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NOISE AND ANGLE MODULATION NOISE AND ANGLE MODULATION

• PHASE MODULATION DUE TO AN • PHASE MODULATION DUE TO AN
INTERFERING SIGNAL INTERFERING SIGNAL
– Assuming that Vc > Vn, the peak phase deviation
due to an interfering single-frequency sinusoid
occurs when the signal and noise voltage are
quadrature and is approximated for small angles
as

NOISE AND ANGLE MODULATION NOISE AND ANGLE MODULATION

• FREQUENCY MODULATION DUE TO AN • FREQUENCY MODULATION DUE TO AN
INTERFERING SIGNAL INTERFERING SIGNAL
– The instantaneous frequency deviation is the first time – The peak frequency deviation is
derivative of the instantaneous phase deviation
– When the carrier component is much larger than the
interfering noise voltage, the instantaneous deviation is
approximately

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NOISE AND ANGLE MODULATION
• FREQUENCY MODULATION DUE TO AN
INTERFERING SIGNAL
– The signal-to-noise ratio at the output of an FM
demodulator due to unwanted frequency deviation from
an interfering sinusoids is the ratio of the peak frequency
deviation due to information signal to the peak frequency
deviation due to interfering signal
PREEMPHASIS AND DEEMPHASIS
• Noise at higher modulating signal frequencies is
inherently greater in amplitude than noise at
lower frequencies
• This includes both single-frequency interference
and thermal noise
• For information signals with a uniform signal
level, a nonuniform signal-to-noise ratio is
produced and the higher modulating signal
frequencies have a lower signal-to-noise ratio
than the lower frequencies
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Example
• For an angle-modulated carrier 6cos(2π110
MHz t) with 75-kHz frequency deviation due
to the information signal and a single-
frequency interfering signal 0.3cos(2π109.985
MHz t), determine
– Frequency of the demodulated interference signal
– Peak phase and frequency deviations due to
interfering signal
– Voltage signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the
demodulator
PREEMPHASIS AND DEEMPHASIS
FM signal-to-noise without Preemphasis
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PREEMPHASIS AND DEEMPHASIS PREEMPHASIS AND DEEMPHASIS

• Deemphasis network restores the original
amplitude-versus-frequency characteristics to
information signals
• Preemphasis network allows the high-
frequency modulating signals to modulate the
carrier at a higher level and cause more
frequency deviation than their original
amplitudes would have produced
FM signal-to-noise with Preemphasis

PREEMPHASIS AND DEEMPHASIS PREEMPHASIS AND DEEMPHASIS

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FREQUENCY AND PHASE
MODULATORS
• The primary difference between frequency and
phase modulators lies in whether the frequency
or the phase of the carrier is directly changed by
the modulating signal and which property is
indirectly changed
• When the frequency of the carrier oscillator is
modulated by the information signal, direct FM
results
• When the phase of the carrier signal is
modulated by the information signal, direct PM
results
FREQUENCY AND PHASE
MODULATORS
• The primary advantage of direct PM is that the
carrier oscillator is isolated from the actual
modulator circuit and can be extremely stable
source such as crystal oscillators
• The disadvantage of direct PM is that crystal
oscillators are inherently stable and it is more
difficult for them to achieve high phase
deviations and modulation indices
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FREQUENCY AND PHASE
MODULATORS
• The primary disadvantage of direct FM is that
relatively unstable LC oscillators must be used
to produce the carrier frequency which
prohibits using crystal oscillators
• The advantage of direct FM is that relatively
high-frequency deviations and modulation
indices are easily obtained because the
oscillators are inherently unstable
FREQUENCY AND PHASE
MODULATORS
• DIRECT FM MODULATORS
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FREQUENCY AND PHASE FREQUENCY AND PHASE

MODULATORS MODULATORS
• DIRECT FM • DIRECT PM MODULATORS
MODULATORS
– Varactor
Diode
Modulators

FREQUENCY-UP CONVERSION FREQUENCY-UP CONVERSION

• Heterodyne Method
• Multiplication Method

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DIRECT FM TRANSMITTERS DIRECT FM TRANSMITTERS

• Crossby Direct FM Transmitter
• Direct FM transmitters produces an output
waveform in which frequency deviation is directly
proportional to the modulating signal
• The carrier oscillator must be deviated directly
• For medium- and high-index FM systems, the
oscillator cannot be a crystal because the
frequency at which a crystal oscillates cannot be
significantly varied
• The stability of the oscillators in direct FM
transmitters often cannot meet FCC specifications

• Armstrong Indirect FM
INDIRECT FM TRANSMITTERS Transmitter
• Indirect FM transmitter produce an output
waveform in which the phase deviation is
directly proportional to the modulating signal
• The carrier oscillator is not directly deviated
and can be a crystal
• The stability of the oscillator in indirect FM
transmitters can meet FCC specification
without using AFC circuit

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FM vs PM
• With PM, the modulation index is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
signal and independent of its frequency
• With FM, the modulation index is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
signal and inversely proportional to its frequency
• Considering FM as a form of phase modulation,
the larger the frequency deviation, the larger the
phase deviation
ANGLE MODULATION vs
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
• ADVANTAGES OF ANGLE MODULATION
– Noise immunity
• Most noise results in unwanted amplitude variations in
the modulated wave
• FM and PM receivers include limiters that remove most
of the AM noise from the received signal before the
final demodulation process occurs
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FM vs PM
• With PM, the modulation index is proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal whereas with FM, the
modulation index is also inversely proportional to the
modulating-signal frequency
• If FM transmission are received on a PM receiver, the bass
frequencies would have considerably more phase deviation
than a PM modulator would have given them
• Because the output voltage from a PM demodulator is
proportional to the phase deviation, the signal appears
excessively bass-boosted
• PM demodulated by an FM receiver produces an
information signal in which the higher-frequency
modulating signals are boosted
ANGLE MODULATION vs
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
• ADVANTAGES OF ANGLE MODULATION
– Noise performance and signal-to-noise
improvement
• FM and PM demodulators can actually reduce the noise
level and improve the signal-to-noise ratio during
demodulation process
• With AM, once the noise has contaminated the signal,
it cannot be removed
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ANGLE MODULATION vs
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
• ADVANTAGES OF ANGLE MODULATION
– Capture Effect
• With FM and PM, a phenomenon called as the capture
effect allows a receiver to differentiate between two
signals received with the same frequency
• With AM, if two or more signals are received with the
same frequencies, both will be demodulated and
produce audio signals
ANGLE MODULATION vs
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
• DISADVANTAGES OF ANGLE MODULATION
– Bandwidth
• High-quality angle modulation produces many side
frequencies thus necessitating a much wider BW than is
necessary for AM transmission
• For high-quality transmission, FM and PM require much
more BW than AM
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ANGLE MODULATION vs
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
• ADVANTAGES OF ANGLE MODULATION
– Power utilization and efficiency
• With AM transmission, most of the transmitted power
is contained in the carrier while information is
contained in the much lower-power sidebands
• With angle modulation, the total power remains
constant regardless if modulation is present
ANGLE MODULATION vs
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
• DISADVANTAGES OF ANGLE MODULATION
– Circuit complexity and cost
• PM and FM modulators, demodulators, transmitters
and receivers are more complex to design and build
than their AM counterparts
• More complex meant more expensive
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