Original Article

Proc IMechE Part A:

J Power and Energy
Numerical investigation of the flame 0(0) 1–9
! IMechE 2017

stabilization in a divergent porous Reprints and permissions:

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media burner DOI: 10.1177/0957650916685912

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Seyed Mohammad Hashemi and Seyed Abdolmehdi Hashemi

Abstract
In the present work, a numerical study on the flame stabilization in a divergent porous media burner was carried out.
The purpose of this study was to peruse the influence of different conditions on the flame status in a porous medium.
Two-dimensional axisymmetric model was used to simulate the process of premixed methane–air combustion.
Nonequilibrium condition between the solid and gas temperature was considered and heat recirculation in the
porous medium was quantified. The present numerical method was validated by comparison of solid and gas temperature
profiles against the experimental data. The results showed that the stable flame within the porous medium can
be controlled by velocity and equivalence ratio of the incoming mixture. Also, it was proved that the alteration of
divergence angle can change the flame stability limit so that the optimum divergence angle that results in the highest limit
of flame stability range was 60 . The heat transfer analysis indicated that the heat recirculation efficiency decreases with
increase in the equivalence ratio and inlet velocity.

Keywords
Divergent porous media burner, flame stabilization, heat recirculation, equivalence ratio, divergence angle, inlet velocity

Date received: 30 July 2016; accepted: 20 November 2016

Introduction
In the last decades, porous media combustion (PMC)
has attracted the attention of a number of researchers
owing to its advantages such as high radiation effi-
ciency, low pollution, high flame speed, high modula-
tion, high power density, high flammability limit, and
low noise. Compared to open flame combustion,
better and more effective heat transfer takes place
from burned gases to the incoming mixture in the
PMC. The porous matrix transfers heat from combus-
tion products to the unburned mixture via conduc-
tion, radiation, and convection. These heat transfer
processes increase the temperature of incoming
premixed gases and extend the combustion region.
Combustion zone extension causes decrease in the
flame peak temperature and pollutant emission.
Several studies have been done on the heat recircula-
tion in flames. Weinberg1 was the first to calculate
the flame excess enthalpy through theoretical method.
Due to the heat recirculation, flame stability in porous
burner is different from the free flame stability. The
balance of heat recirculation, heat generation, and
waste heat causes flame stabilization in the PMC.
The results obtained from numerous experimental
and numerical studies showed that flame stabilization
in PMC depends on various factors such as inlet
velocity, pore size, equivalence ratio, and thermophy-
sical properties of the porous medium.2–4 Flame sta-
bility criterion in PMC introduced by Babkin et al.5 is
the modified Peclet number, Pe ¼ SL dm cp g =lg where
SL is the laminar flame speed, dm is the average pore
diameter, cp , g , and lg are the specific heat capacity,
density, and thermal conductivity of the gas mixture,
respectively. The Peclet number predicts the possibil-
ity of the occurrence or nonoccurrence of combustion
inside the porous structure. If Pe 4 65, the flame
quenching occurs and in the case of Pe 4 65, the
flame propagates inside the porous matrix. Several
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kashan, Kashan,
Iran
Corresponding author:
Seyed Abdolmehdi Hashemi, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Kashan, Kashan, Iran.
Email: hashemi@kashanu.ac.ir
2 Proc IMechE Part A: J Power and Energy 0(0)

numerical and experimental studies concentrating on

the flame stabilization methods in porous burner
Physical model
proved that the process of PMC significantly enhances Two-dimensional divergent burner is constructed on
the flame stabilization limit.6–8 De Soete9 was one of Al2O3 lamella, which has a divergence angle of 40 .
the first to work on the PMC. He experimentally The height of the burner is 210 mm and the inlet and
investigated the propagation and stability of flame outlet diameters are 20 mm and 180 mm, respectively.
in a porous medium and represented a semi-empirical This burner was tested by Bakry et al.21 and is shown
model for the assessment of flame speed. Performance schematically in Figure 1. Thermophysical properties
of radiant burners was studied by Sathe et al.10 They of Al2O3 lamella is summarized in Table 1.24 The
investigated the effect of conductivity and radiative porous material was considered as an inert medium.
characteristics of porous medium on the flame stabil-
ization. Effect of porous media material and structure
on the flame status and pollutant emission in porous Numerical solution
burners was studied numerically and experimen-
Governing equations
tally.11–13 Study of heat transfer modes in PMC indi-
cated that the heat recirculation, provided by the solid For a Newtonian, laminar, steady, and two-dimen-
matrix, controlled location of stable flame inside the sional reacting flow through the porous medium, the
porous media and enhanced the local flame speed.14 combustion modeling was done by solving the gov-
Several studies showed that the equivalence ratio of erning equations including continuity, momentum,
the fuel–air mixture was an important property for energy, species, and the state equations. The govern-
the stable operating limits and the outlet temperature ing equations are as follows.
of porous burners.15–20 Bakry et al.21 experimentally Continuity equation
examined the characteristics of combustion in a diver-  
gent porous burner under different conditions of pres- *
r: g u ¼ 0 ð1Þ
sure and temperature. The results showed that the
flame temperature and NOx emission increased with
*
increasing pressure. Also, they observed that the con- where u is the vector of gas velocity.
centration of NOx decreased with the increase in Momentum equation
excess air. The amount of CO was negligible in    
their experiments. Vandadi et al.22 used a structure ** *
r: g u u ¼ rp þ r: ur u þ RP ð2Þ
to preheat the inlet air in a two-layer porous burner
and computationally investigated the heat trans-
fer modes, flame location, and temperature distri-
bution in the porous medium. They proved that
inlet air preheating can increase the thermal efficiency
of the burner. Combustion in a porous burner
with different fuels was analyzed experimentally in
order to study the effect of fuel on flame stability
range, temperature distribution, pressure drop, and
emission of pollutants of the burner. Among the
fuels examined, the hydrogen had the highest flame
stability limit.23
A parametric study on the flame stabilization in
a divergent porous medium burner (DPMB) is carried
out in the present work. The aim of this study is
to investigate the effect of diverse conditions on
flame status in a porous medium. In order to inves-
tigate the process of premixed methane–air com-
bustion, a two-dimensional axisymmetric model
is used and predicted results for temperature distri-
bution are compared with the experimental data.
Nonequilibrium condition between the solid and gas
temperatures is considered and heat recirculation
in the porous medium is simulated. The flame stability
limit, flame location, gas peak temperature, and
heat recirculation efficiency were investigated. Also,
the effect of divergence angle and equivalence ratio
on the combustion and heat transfer process was
discussed. Figure 1. Geometry of divergent porous burner.
Mohammad Hashemi and Abdolmehdi Hashemi 3

Table 1. Physical properties of the Al2O3 lamella.

Parameter Explanations Value

k1 (m2 ) Viscous resistance coefficient 2.533107

k2 (m) Inertial resistance coefficient 1.223102
f Porosity of porous medium 0.42
hv (W/(m3 :KÞÞ Volumetric heat transfer 1.5105
coefficient
" Solid emissivity 1=½1:0071 þ 6:14885  108  T2:5
s  9:5358  10
10
 T3s 
2
eff (W/(m.K)) Effective thermal conductivity of 0:34691  0:00073672  Ts þ 0:0000012052  Ts þ 0:32345  u
solid phase

where  is the porosity and RP the pressure drop  is the mean molecular weight of the mixture.
where W
within the porous medium, defined as
 
 g  * * Boundary conditions
RP ¼  þ  u  u ð3Þ
k1 k2 Inlet
where k1 and k2 are the physical parameters of the Continuity
porous matrix.25
Gas-phase energy equation is given as u ¼ uinlet ,  ¼ 0

*   Xs N Gas-phase energy
r:ðg u Cp Tg Þ ¼ r: lg rTg   !_ i hi Wi
i¼1 Tg ¼ Tg, inlet ¼ 300 K
 
 hv Tg  Ts
ð4Þ Solid-phase energy

Solid phase energy equation is given as @Ts  

ð1  Þleff ¼ " T4s  T40  hs ðTs  Tg Þ ð9Þ
  @x
r:ðleff rTs Þ þ hv Tg  Ts ¼ 0 ð5Þ
Species transport
where CP is the specific heat of the gas phase; lg is
the thermal conductivity of the gas; !_ i , hi, and Wi Yi ¼ Yi, inlet , i ¼ 1, 2, . . . Ns
are the molar production rate, molar enthalpy, and
molecular weight of the i-th species, respectively; hv is Outlet:
the volumetric coefficient of convective heat transfer Continuity
between the solid and gas phases and leff is the effect-
ive thermal conductivity of solid phase consisting of @u @v
¼ ¼0
the thermal conductivity and the radiative thermal @x @x
conductivity determined by24
Gas-phase energy
leff ¼ 0:34691  0:00073672  Ts þ 0:0000012052  T2s
þ 0:32345u @Tg
¼0
@x
ð6Þ
Solid-phase energy
Species transport equation is given as
  @Ts  
*  i þ !_ i Wi
r:ðg u Yi Þ ¼ r: g Yi V ð7Þ ð1  Þleff ¼ " T4s  T4b  hs ð1  ÞðTs  Tg Þ
@x
 i is ð10Þ
where Yi is the mass fraction of the species i, and V
the diffuse velocity of the species i.
State equation is given as Species transport


WP @Yi
g ¼ ð8Þ ¼ 0, i ¼ 1, 2, . . . Ns
RTg @x
4 Proc IMechE Part A: J Power and Energy 0(0)

At the axis

@u @Tg @Ts @Yi

¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼0
@x @x @x @x

where hs is the convection heat transfer coefficient,

and set as 500 W/m2K. T0 is the ambient temperature
set to be equal to 300 K and " is the emissivity of the
solid matrix determined by24,26

" ¼ 1= 1:0071 þ 6:14885  108  T2:5

s  9:5358  10
10
 T3s
ð11Þ

At the outlet surface of the burner, the solid

matrix radiates toward a black body with Tb equal
to 673 K.24 The nonslip and adiabatic condition is
applied to the burner wall.

Solution method
The nonlinear governing equations were solved by itera-
tive numerical approach using finite volume method.
The SIMPLE algorithm was employed for pressure–
velocity coupling with standard discretization for
pressure and second-order upwind discretization for
momentum and energy equations.27 A relative con-
vergence of 106 was specified for all equations.
In order to decrease the computational time and
cost, a one-step chemical mechanism was used for
the combustion analyses. The pre-exponential factor
of 2.1191011 , activation energy of 2.027108 , and
the temperature exponent of zero was set for the
chemical mechanism.28,29 A structured quadrilateral
approach was used for the mesh generation of the
geometry (Figure 2). All the boundaries were
meshed with a size of 0.01Do where Do is the diameter
of the outlet surface of the burner.

Validation
In order to validate the obtained results, the tempera-
ture distribution of the DPMB investigated by Bakry
et al.21 for a thermal load of 10 kW and a relative
air ratio of 1.9 (’ ¼ 0.526) was compared with the
computational results and is shown in Figure 3.
The study of mesh independency was carried out
and the solid temperature profile was obtained for
different mesh patterns (Figure 4). As can be seen,
the third pattern of grid generation has the best
result in the prediction of flame front location and
the result is the same for the finer meshes. The dis-
tribution of gas and solid temperature through the
centerline of the burner agrees well with the experi-
mental data and the amount of average error at the
experimental points is approximately 9% (Figure 3).
Figure 3 also indicates that the calculated flame front
location (the location of the maximum gas tempera-
ture) is consistent with the experimental data. As
expected, the gas temperature reaches the maximum
Figure 2. Generated mesh for solution domain.
in the flame zone. The heat of reaction is transferred
to the solid matrix through gas-to-solid convection
and the solid matrix transfers the heat to the pre-
heated zone through solid-to-solid conduction and
radiation. Therefore, the solid temperature is higher
than the gas temperature in the preheated zone.
The maximum numerical error is obtained in the pre-
diction of gas peak temperature occurred in the loca-
tion of flame front. The numerical error in the
simulation could be attributed to the thermophysical
properties of the gas and solid phases. It is obvious
that the numerical results in the prediction of solid
temperature distribution are in good agreement with
Mohammad Hashemi and Abdolmehdi Hashemi 5

Figure 3. Comparison of the numerical and empirical tem-

perature profiles for thermal load of 10 kW and relative air
ratio of 1.9.

Figure 5. Two-dimensional distribution of solid temperature

in the burner.

Figure 4. The centerline solid temperature profile for differ-

ent mesh patterns.

the experimental data. Therefore, two-dimensional

distribution of solid temperature for the burner work-
ing in thermal load of 10 kW and relative air ratio
of 1.9 is considered to demonstrate the effect of the
structure of burner and nonuniformity flow on the
temperature distribution (Figure 5). Convection heat
transfer rate, hv(Tg  Ts), along the centerline of the
burner for a relative air ratio of 1.9 (’ ¼ 0.526) and a
thermal load of 10 kW is depicted in Figure 6. The
solid temperature starts to be greater than the gas
temperature at the entrance of the preheated zone Figure 6. Local convection heat transfer rate for relative air
and gas temperature reaches the solid temperature ratio of 1.9 and thermal load of 10 kW along the centerline.
at the end of the preheated zone (Figure 6).
for a range of inlet velocities from 0.6 to 1 m/s.
Displacement of the flame inside the porous medium
Results and discussion with inlet velocity is shown in Figure 7. As can be
seen, the flame front location moves to the down-
Effect of inlet velocity on the flame front location
stream of burner with the increase in the inlet gas
Flame location has an important role in the porous velocity. This result was presented by Takeno and
burner performance. Flash back and blow-off are two Sato.30 For inlet velocity of 0.6 m/s the flame is in
extremes of the flame in porous medium, which the upstream of porous medium, while for higher
should be avoided. An investigation on the effect of velocities flame front is approximately in the middle
inlet velocity on the location of stable flame was car- of the medium and for inlet velocity of 1 m/s the
ried out at a relative air ratio of 1.9 (’ ¼ 0.526) flame stabilizes in the downstream of the burner.
6 Proc IMechE Part A: J Power and Energy 0(0)
Figure 7. Effect of inlet velocity on the flame front location.
Figure 8. Effect of equivalence ratio on the maximum tem-
perature of flame.
The numerical results showed that for velocities
higher than 1 m/s, the flame propagated out of the
burner. Generally, it was proved that the flame front
location can be adjusted by the inlet velocity.
Effect of equivalence ratio on the flame peak
temperature
The equivalence ratio, defined as the fuel-to-oxidizer
ratio divided by the stoichiometric fuel-to-oxidizer
ratio, is the reciprocal of the relative air ratio. The
influence of equivalence ratio on the flame peak tem-
perature was studied at a thermal load of 10 kW for a
range of equivalence ratios from 0.5 to 0.8 and the
obtained results are depicted in Figure 8. The results
prove that the peak temperature increases with the
increase in the equivalence ratio where the relation
between the peak temperature and equivalence ratio
is approximately linear (Figure 8). This trend was
reported by several researchers.31,32 Accordingly, the
peak temperature of the gas occurring in the flame
zone, can be controlled by the equivalence ratio of
the mixture due to their relationship.
Effect of divergence angle on the flame stabilization
Acting as a diffuser, the structure of the divergent
burner decreases the mixture velocity gradually and
improves the stable operating range. In order to study
the influence of the divergence angle alteration on the
flame stabilization of the porous burner, seven vertical
divergent burners with different divergence angles
were studied. The inlet diameter and length of burners
are constant and they are set to 20 mm and 210 mm,
respectively. The only geometrical distinction between
these models is the amount of the divergence
angle which was set to 20 , 30 , 40 , 50 , 60 , 70 ,
and 80 . As previously mentioned, with the increase
in the inlet gas velocity, the flame zone moves within
the porous medium to the outlet surface. Thus,
the maximum velocity of inlet gas, holding the flame
within the porous matrix, was used to investigate the
flame stabilization. At each inlet condition consisting
of equivalence ratio and inlet velocity, the maximum
stable velocity (Vmax) was identified as the upper sta-
bility limit for each burner. For inlet velocities higher
than Vmax, the flame moves out of the burner. The
effect of the divergence angle on the upper stability
limit of the burners for a range of equivalence ratios is
illustrated in Figure 9. The results suggest that by
increasing the equivalence ratio, the upper stability
limit increases. This trend is consistent with the
result of Sathe et al.10 who represented the maximum
stable velocity for a single-section porous burner.
Figure 9 demonstrates that for divergence angles
from 20 to 60 , the upper stability limit increases
Mohammad Hashemi and Abdolmehdi Hashemi
Figure 9. Effect of divergence angle on the upper stability limit of DPMB.
Figure 10. Heat recirculation efficiency as a function of inlet velocity for a range of equivalence ratios.
with the increase in the divergence angle. The opti-
mum divergence angle is 60 , while for angles higher
than 60 , the amount of the maximum stable velocity
decreases slightly. This result can be utilized in the
process of the burner design.
Evaluation of heat recirculation in the DPMB
By convective heat transfer, the heat of reaction is
transferred from gas to the solid phase in PMC.
Solid matrix consequently heats the preheated zone
through solid-to-solid radiation and conduction.
This heat recirculation process exhibits desirable
properties of the burner such as the flame stabilization
enhancement and effective mixing of the reactants.
In order to evaluate the amount of heat transferred
to the gas in the preheated zone, the heat recirculation
7
efficiency was utilized which is defined as
Heat recirculation efficiency
solid  to  gas convection rate in preheat zone
¼
thermal load
ð12Þ
The thermal load of the burner is directly related to
the inlet velocity. The variation of heat recirculation
efficiency for a range of equivalence ratio and inlet
velocities, keeping the stable flame inside the porous
burner, was investigated and the results are shown in
Figure 10. The predicted results show that the heat
recirculation efficiency decreases with the increase in
the equivalence ratio and inlet velocity. This trend was
reported by Barra et al.14 The percentage of
8 Proc IMechE Part A: J Power and Energy 0(0)
recirculated heat at equivalence ratio of 0.5 is 21% to
24%, while the amount of the heat recirculation is 8%
to 12% for equivalence ratio of 0.8. Accordingly, high
heat recirculation causes stability of high-velocity
flames at low equivalence ratios.
Conclusion
Focusing on the flame stabilization, premixed methane–
air combustion in a divergent porous burner was
numerically studied. Two-dimensional model was
used to investigate the combustion process and the
numerical results were in good agreement with
the experimental data. It was proved that the stable
flame was affected by the equivalence ratio and
velocity of the incoming mixture. At a constant
equivalence ratio, the flame front location moved to
the downstream of burner on increasing the inlet vel-
ocity of the unburned mixture. Therefore, the location
of flame zone inside the porous medium can be con-
trolled by the inlet gas velocity. The investigation
of the equivalence ratio on the combustion process
indicated a nearly linear relationship between the
flame peak temperature and equivalence ratio. The
results showed that the peak temperature increased
with the increase in the equivalence ratio. The modi-
fication of divergence angle effectively improved the
flame stability limit. Corresponding to the highest
stable operating range of the burner, the optimum
divergence angle was 60 . The influence of the inlet
velocity and equivalence ratio on the heat recirculation
efficiency was also studied. The obtained results sug-
gested that the high-velocity flames at low equivalence
ratios can be stable inside the porous medium due to
high heat recirculation mechanism. Furthermore, with
increase in the equivalence ratio, decrease in the heat
recirculation efficiency was observed while the upper
flame stability limit increased with the increase in the
equivalence ratio.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial
support for the research, authorship, and/or publication
of this article: This study was supported by the University
of Kashan (Grant No. 65477).
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