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    08-Positive Displacement Compressors PDF

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    HOWELL TRAININ Program developed for APlby: Howell Training Company 5201 Langfilé Road Houston, Texas 77040-6604 Programer: Shirey Ball ‘API Author and Content Specialist: R. 8. Ridgway Content Consul is: J.G. Allen Thomas Isenberg CF Lag LE MeConnel ‘Owen 8. Roney D-A Sausbury CE Stone. PL Switzer Loren Willams ‘Wendel L. Zachary Validation provided through the cooperation of: Atlantic Richfield Company Cites Service Oi Company Houston Natural Gas Corporation * ‘Mobil Oil Company Pan American Petroleum Corporation ‘This text has boon validated by the Committee on Training Division of Refining, American Petroleum iste, 197 ‘Special Acknowiedgmant For the general encouragement and support given the PROFIT programed leaming series by the APL Executive Commitee on Training and Development: v. P. Malo, Continental Oi Co., Chalman; H.D. ‘Aggers, Thums Long Beach Co., Chairman, Committee on Vocational Training; Howard Swaim, Continental Oi Co, Chairman, AP Sub-committee on Programed Learning, and members ofthe sasooeniae PILOT i PROFIT (© Program Pressto7t ‘This program may not be reproducedin whole or in part without ‘eqpress permission of Howel Training Compary, Altranelation tights are reserved by the publisher. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS Section 1 Principles of Positive Displacement Compressors POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS Principles of Poste OspacaentCompremars The Reciprocating Compressor. =... es Rotary Compressors and Blowers. |) |) Lobed Blowers... le Sliding Vane Compressors. Screw Compressors Liquid Piston Compresiors | : Review. piiiiint Controting Compressor Output -. LL Throttling ns Control by Ciesrance Unloading ve tt Control of Spec Review and Summary | ° Corton of Recrooton Comprar: Compressor Units onstruction Details pliiiiii Compressor Valves 1) It Gylinder Bore and Liner Pistons . pil Piston Rings: 2 It Metallic Rod Packing eee Rods, Contes, end Bearings eee Lubrication : Cooling. Safety Controls Safety Valves <>? : Governors and Overspeed Trips Oil Pressure and Water Temperature Controis - pesto Startup and Shutdown restart Startup Shutdown Normal Operation B88BeR BIRBRBBS 67 87 27 92 92 ous, Batol aka, {In the petroleum industry, gas is compressed for transportation to consuming markets and for refining processes This program is about the eonsiruetion and operation of compressors. Jn Unit 2 of Compressors, you will learn the construction, principal parts, and operation of reciprocating compressors and the types of olary compressors INSTRUCTIONS. ‘This is « programed learning course. Programed lesrning gives information in a series of steps called frames. Each frame gives some information and asks ‘you to make use of it, Here is how it works, First, cover the response column at the right with a mask. Read this frame and use the information it gives to fll in the blank. ‘A micrometer is an instrument designed to measure™in thousandths of an inch. A micrometer isa good tool for measuring very Aifferences in size, ‘Move the mask down to uncover the word at the right of the frame. If you have filed the blank with thet word or a word that means the same, you are ready to go ahead to the Next frame, ‘The drawing of micrometer provides information that will hhelp you fill in the next blanks. ‘one MEASURED ‘THIMBLE SPINDLE RATCHET oe FRAME Seven major parts are shown in the drawing, but only the Vand the ——contaet the object to be measured. anvil; spindle ‘The next frame calls for a choice. Circle or underline the ap- propriate word. (Of the two parts that contact the object, only the (anvil/ spindle) moves. |A program is a series of frames that work like the ones you hhave just done: ‘Read the frame. ‘Use the information to fill in the blanks or make a cholee. ‘Move the mask down and check the response column. Go on to the next frame. [Remember to cover the response column with a mask before ‘you begin each page. Notice that the left-hand pages from here on are printed upside down. The program is designed 0 that you will go through all the right-hand pages first, and then turn the book upside down land go through the other pages. spindle SECTION 1 PRINCIPLES OF POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS 4, Pressure increases when gus is foreed to occupy a (larger / smaller) volume. 2, This is the operating principle of a postive displacement compressor. PISTON CYLINDER A positive displacement compressor fst traps a volume of in a eylinder or easing. 3. Then the gas is displaced into a smaller 4 ‘The greater the reduction in volume, the greater the ineease 5. A compresior that operates by volumetric displacement is called a compressor. 6, Most positive displacement compressors operate with relp- roeating motion, but some use rotary motion. In a rotary compressor or blower, the part that displaces the ss (rotates moves back-and-forth). 1 ms ‘volume, or space ‘pressure positive displacement rotates 7. Gasis displaced with back-and-forth or up-and-down motion ina (rotary reciprocating) comprestor. reciprocating 8. Both rotary and reciprocating compressors operate by frst ‘rapping a volume of gus and then —— the displacing, of foreing, sas into a smaller volume. or compressing THE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR 8, Inareciprocating compressor, a volume of gas is drawn into a eylinder. DISCHARGE UNE crLinner ‘suction. LINE. ‘Tho gas is trapped inside the —__. cinder 30. The gas is compressed when the —_____ forees, piston it into a smaller volume. 11, Then the compressed gas is discharged into the —__ dlocharge — Vine 1 13. Mu. 16. ‘The flow of gas through the eylinder i controlled by the cylinder valves. Gas enters the eylinder through the _ valve. Gas leaves the eylinder through the ___ valve. Cylinder valves act as check valves. ‘They permit flow in (both directions/only one direction). 5. A compresior valve opens because of pressure differences. CYLINDER 7 (ogee a NE ware SUCTION LINE. For the valve to open, the pressure of the gas in the suction line must be (higher lower) than the pressure of the gas in the eplinder. ‘When the prestures acroaé the valve are equal, the valve and prevents backflow. 8 discharge only one direction 4 5 ys Sebel tomy 7 bigher seats, or closes n. 18, 19. Suction valves open when eylinder pressure is lower than the ‘pressure ofthe gas in the suetion line. Discharge valves open when cylinder pressure is higher, or greater than the preature of the gas in the diacharge line. In a reciprocating compressor, one forward stroke and one backstroke is one revolution, If gas is discharged on only the forward stroke or only the ‘backstroke, the compressor is single acting. ‘A singleaeting compressor has —____dseharge por ‘one, oF a single revolution, Th the singleacting compressor, the forward stroke is the suction, oF intake 20, Most heavy-duty resiprocating compressors are double acting. SUCTION VALVES SUCTION LINE DISCHARGE LINE DISCHARGE GAS JACKET 1 double-acting compressor, gas is compressed on (one side/hth sides) ofthe piston. Doth sides 21, The doubleseting compresior has discharge ‘80 strokes per revelation. 22, ‘This drawing shows the piston moving away from the erank end of the eylinder. HEAD END OF CYLINDER On its forward stroke, the piston compresses gas at the (ead rank) end ofthe eylinder. bead 28, When head-end preasure is slightly greater than the pressure of the gas inthe discharge gas jacket, the head-end discharge ‘alve (opens loses) and gas is drawn into discharged from) the head end af the eylinder. 5 2A, At the beginning ofthe forward stroke, some gas a discharge ‘pressure ie trapped at the erank end of the eylinder, between ‘the piston and the erank-end head and in the valve recesses. SUCTION VALVE As the piston beging its forward stroke, this erank-end clear sce gs (expan/cotracs) and fs prssre nreames/ 25. When the pressure of this clearance gas drops below the pres sure of the gas in the suction gas jacket, the erankcend suction valve (opens/seats) and a volume of gas is (drawn Into/discharged from) the erank end of the eylinde. 26, As gas expands, its temperature decreases. At the end of the forward stroke, the clearance gas in the ‘rank end of the eylinder has about the same pressure and —___as the fresh gas being brought into that end ofthe eylinder. 27, The erankeend suction valve sats when the pressure of the ‘gas in that end ofthe evlinder begin to equal the pressure of ‘the gas in the (suction discharge) gas jacket. 28, When the pressure ofthe gas in the head end of the cylinder begin to equal the pressure of the gas in the discharge as Jacket, the headend valve eats. 29, At the end of the forward stroke, the —____ end of, ‘the eylinder is fully charged and the ‘nd of the cylinder contains only clearance gas st dlchange pressure 6 expands Alereases ‘opens ‘raven into temperature discharge crank 80, Then the piston begins its backstroke, 31 2, ‘CRANK END (On the backstroke, gus is compressed in the crank fend of the eplinder. [At the same time, afresh charge of gas is boing drawn into the end ofthe eylinder. head [Name the lettered parts ofthis compressor. A ‘A, suction gas jacket £ B. suction valve c ©. piston a D. eylinder z discharge v F, F. discharge gas jacket 88, It isa (single-acting/double-acting) compressor. ouble-acting ‘84, Trace the flow of gas through both ends of the eylinder as piston moves in dtestion shown. ROTARY COMPRESSORS AND BLOWERS 85, Compressors are often called Bowers when they are used for ‘moving large volumes of air or gas through low 2's (ratios ‘of compression). A blower is a (high-/low-) ratio compressor. low: Lobed Blowers 36, A lobed blower has two impellers. SUCTION PORT ‘Bach impeller has to or mare bes a a. 2. 4a, ‘The lobed impellers rotate inside a casing ‘They rotate in (the same direction opposite directions), opposite directions ‘The lobes of the rotating impellers displace gas from the suetion port into the — — discharge port ‘As eas is displaced into the discharge port, the pressure there SUCTION PORT DISCHARGE PORT DISCHARGE LINE Gas eaves the blower when the presure inthe discharge port {is (higher lower) than the pressure in the discharge line. higher In the lobed blower, there is «small elearance space between the lobes and the casing ‘A lobed blower (requirey/doet not require) internal lube doesnot require ‘ation. But because of the clearance space, some gas always: cen eee packwards between the lobes and the easing Teaks, oF stipe For this reason, lobed blowers (can/eannot) be used to cannot develop high discharge pressure 9 45. Name the letored parts of this blower. suction port lobe discharge port paRP pope 46, ‘Trace the flow of gas 10 ‘Sliding-Vane Compressors 47, In the sliding-vane compressor, a set of vanes is mounted in the slots of a rotor. ‘The vanes _ in and out of the rotor. 48, Centrifugal foree is the foree that moves » body outward from the center af its rotation. Centrifugal foree tends to move the vanes (in/out) while the out rotor is turning. 49. The rotor is mounted off eenter in the casing, ‘As the rotor turns, contrifugal foree moves the vanes out ‘against the wall of the casing n Battal e ghotal a Porhy 5. Gas is trapped in the porkets between each pair of sliding Because of the off-center mounting, the size of the pockets ets as the gas nears the discharge port. ‘The rotor and vanes force the gas into» continuously smaller Displacing the gas into a smaller volume —___ the pressure of the gas In some sliding-vane compressors, springs in the rotor slot baelp hold the vanes against the easing wall "The vanes make a gas-tight seal against the wall of the Internal lubriation (is/is not) needed in a slidingevane ‘compressor. [Name the lettered parts of this compressor. RpomP 2 smaller volume, or pocket discharge port suction port rotor sliding vane casing ppoE> ‘51, Trace the flow of gas. Screw Compressors 58, In this eompresor, gas is displaced by helically lobed rotors. 59. Gas enters the compressor through the suetion port ‘This suction gus is immediately sealed off by the rotation of the rotors, oF lobes, or screws 60, Bach charge of gas is trapped between the lobes and the casing. ‘The gas is displaced by the rotating —___. lobes, or serews 61, In the serew compressor, gus volume decreases asthe gas is displaced toward the diseharye port. "This reduction in volume the preasure of increases ‘he gas, (62, Inrotors that are driven by gears, there iso metal-to-metal ‘contact between rotors or between the rotors and the easing, ‘The screw compressor (requires /doos not require) internal oss not require Iubrication, 68. A screw compressor may be used when the discharge gas ‘must be absolutely free of ol, oF Tubricant u 64, Name the lettered parts ofthis compressor. Ew OI77, LZ 27, Bauas. Liquid-Piston Compressors 66, or. 68 cs Ina liqud-piston compressor, cupped blades are mounted on arotor. ROTOR ‘CUPPED BLADES ‘cASING. ‘LiquiD "The easing is partially filled with —___ Examine the shape ofthe rotor and easing. "The (rotor casing) i perfeetly round. The is elliptieal, or eng-shaped. ‘The liquid used in thie compressor is normally water, but for special applications other may be used. 16 liguld, or water rotor Viguids 70. While the compressor is not operating, the liquid settles to ‘the bottom of the easing. ROTOR STATIONARY PORTS Liauio: But as the rotor turns, centrifugal force throws the ‘out against the wall ofthe easing. Viguld ‘TL, The liquid assumes the shape ofthe (rotor easing). casing ‘72, Near the center of the rotor isa stationary port chamber ‘with four eompartments, ‘Two of the compartments lead to the suction port and two lead to the ort. discharge 7B, As the rotor turns, gas enters from the two inlets in the ‘stationary port chamber. ‘The incoming ga i trapped between the blade ring and the whining liquid Ww u. cs 16. ‘The blades displace the gas toward the discharge ports in the stationary port chamber. ‘Because ofthe shape it assumes, the liquid helps to compress ‘the gasand foree it into the outlets in the ‘The liquid piston compressor compresses (one stream/two separate streams) of gas at the same time ‘Since the piston is liquid, there (i/is no) need for internal lubrication inthis compressor. Some liquid is always carried out withthe discharge gus. ‘A separator in the discharge line is used to _ the Tiquid from the gas. ‘This compreor equies 4 mean of espng stent [Name the lettered parts ofthis compressor. pore 18 stationary port chamber ‘vo separate streams sno separate, or remove liquid, or water 80, ‘Trace the flow of gas. © Review 81, Tdentfy these rotary compressors and blowers. A. lobed blower “sS Bo BB. liquid-pston 1» 81. (cont) , sliding-vane compressor p, D. serew compressor CONTROLLING COMPRESSOR OUTPUT 182, The pérformance ofa reciprocating compressor ean be repre sented by a pressuresvolume (p+) diagram. cyLinper BRESSURE ‘CYLINDER VOLUME — "The diagram indicates the pressure in the eylinder of the compressor in relation to eylinder ———___. ‘volume 2 st 88, 89, [As the piston of a eomprostor moves back and forth in the fylinder, the volume of the cylinder (changes/remains eon= stant) changes ‘The horizontal line in a p- diagram, shown above as A to C, represents the change in volume produced by the movement, of the in th eylinder. piston A vertical line on the diagram represents in the presure exlinder. ‘This piston has dieplaced all the gas it can and is as far to- ‘ward one end of the eylinder aa it ean go. CLEARANCE SPACE ‘The pressure in the clearance space is equal to the (suetion/ discharge) pressure. discharge ‘This what the p-v diagram looks like at the start ofa stroke cyelein'a postive displacement compressor. DISCHARGE PRESSURE cuearance| | SPACE] ! lB | Lj. ‘The preasurein the eyinder and the position of the piston are shoven by point (A/B). a ‘As the piston begins to move back in the eylinde, the gas in ‘the clearance space (expands eontract). expands [As the gas espande, presaure in tho eylinder —__. Aecreases a 99. When the pressure in the cylinder drops slightly below the ‘ation line pressure, the —___ valve opens. suction 91, Curve AB on this p-v diagram shows the movement of the piston and the pressure decrease. SUCTION VALVE SUCTION ‘The opening of the suction valve is represented on the p-v diagram by point (A/B). B 12, As the piston moves further back into the cylinder, gas Sows in ‘The pressure in the eylinder (inereases/ereases/remains relatively constant) remains relatively constant 98, Here, the po diagram shows the point at which the piston has moved as far in one direetion aa it can go, "The end af the piston’s suction or intake stroke is repre: sented by point (A/B/C). c 2 95, 98, 9, 100, ‘Assoon a the piston begins to move in the opposite dtestion, the gas begins to be — ‘Compression of the gas eauses the pressure ofthe gas in the evlinder to ‘The gas pressure increases until itis slightly above (euetion/ liseharge) pressure Here, pressure in the cylinder is slightly above discharge pressure. DiscHaRce PRESSURE suction PRESSURE ‘This condition ia represented on the p-v diagram by point (a/R/C/D), ‘As the piston continues its stroke, the gas is ‘through the proper valve Daring the discharge stroke, the gas pressure in the evl (inereases/deereasesremaina relatively constant) "This pe diagram: shows (one or more complete eyels/Tess than one eycle) of ‘he compressor. 2 compressed discharge D dliseharged ‘remains relatively constant ‘one or more complete eycles 101. 102. 108. 104, 108, 108. 107. 108, Label the four lines on the p-v diagram as COMPRESSION, DISCHARGE, EXPANSION, and SUCTION. Work is foree times distance. DISTANCE Ona p- diagram, change in the horizontal (volume) position Indieates (fore distance). Change in the vertical (preture) postion indieates (foree/ dlstance), Length times width equals area. You ean ealeulate the amount of work dane in one eyele by a eciproeating eompressor by measuring the fenelosed by the lines of a p-v diagratn. ‘Tho HP required by a compressor depends on the wore done ina given time and on the compressors mechanical efficiency Mecani efeny ia thera oth HP appt the gs to the HP received from the — ‘The ratio of the actual capacity of the compressor to the volume of gas that it should theoretically handle isthe com= ‘ressors velumetrc efficiency. Volumetrie efficiency isthe rato of the compressor’ (actul/ ‘theoretical eapacity¢o its (aetual/theoretieal) capacity. ‘As volumetric efficiency decreases, the actual capacity of the compressor (inereases eres). Since slippage ineteases at higher R’s, a compressor tends to have a higher volumetri efficiency’ when it is operating through a (higher lower) R, , En distance force area, oF space driver, or prime mover stual; theoretical decreases 109. Ona p-v diagram, the distance from A to C (AC) represents ‘the full length of the pistons stroke. ‘The actual intake of gas to the compressor is indiested by distance (AC/BC), BC 110, Therato of distance BC to distance AC indicates volumetric ficiency. SNS Diagram (A/B) shows a higher volumetric efficiency. 111, Compressor (A/B) does mare wark. A 112, As volumettic efficiency decreases, the work done by a eom- pressor decreases 113, Asthecompresior doce less wort requires ___ HP, dese 14, Volumetric efficiency does not significantly affect the mechan- ‘eal or work eficieney of the compressor. ‘As volumetric efficiency decreases, ___ efficiency ‘mechanical isnot signfeantly changed 115. As Volumetric efficioney deereass: actual capacity (doereases/remains essentially the same); ecreases total HP required (docreases/remains essentially the same); decreases mechanical efiseney (decreases/remains exentially the same); and romains eaentilly the same LHP required per MSCFD of gas (decrease/remains et sentially the sam ‘remains essentially the same bat Ehotel aden, Throttling 116, ut. ns. us, 1. 122. ‘Sometimes itis necessary to change the capacity or rate of flow through the compressor. This can be done by suction line thotting. ‘Throttling is partially elosing or pinching a ‘the eompressr’s suction line. ‘Lass gas enters the compressor when a suction block valve is ince trotting reduess suetion pressure without affecting discharge pressure, it always acts to (inerease/decrease) P. ‘This increase in R tends to__the compresior’s HP. requirements ‘But throttling also reduces volumetric ficiency and so acts to "compressor eapacity, ‘This decrease in eapacity tends to ___ the HP. required for the compressor. ‘The area inside a p-v diagram indiestes HP requirements, ‘The more area there is inside the diagram, the (more /less) HP is required 26 ‘throttled, or pinched decrease, or reduee decrease 123, 125, 126, 121, 128, 129, 120, a1, ‘These pev diagrams show the performance of a compressor at three suetion pressures. PRESSURE ‘The diagram with the highest suction pressure i (1/2/8) As the compressor is throttled, suction pressure (inerenses/ ‘deerence). Dingram 2 shows that the piston trav distance before the suction valve opens. 8 (greater /smaller) ‘When the compressor is throttled, the portion of the piston stroke in which gas lows into the compressor is (greater? ‘smaller than when the compressor is unthrottled, When the compressor is throttled, (more/less) gas flows ‘through the compressor. ‘The work area enclosed by diagram 2 i (greter/les) than ‘the work area enelosd by diagram 1. [Byen though the volume of gas handled by the compressor is Jess when itis throttled, asin diagram 2, the horsepower required is. Diagram 8 shows what happens when suction pressure is further (increased decreased) Diagram 8 shows that the volume of gas thatthe comprestor handles has (increased /deereased). a decreases sreater sreater decreased 122, 123, 194, 135, 136, 1. 138, 139, Mo, 11. ua. us. AAs the suction pressure is further decreased, below the pressure shown in diagram 2, horsepower requirements "These p- diagrams show that when a compresior i throttled bby lowering suetion pressure, the volume of gas that passes ‘through the compressor (inereasesdeereases). When the compressor is first throttled, the horsepower re- quirements (ineease/ decrease). ‘As the compressor is further throttled, horsepower require- ‘ments (continue to increase reach a maximum, Further throttling of the compressor results in (an inerease/ ‘a decrease) in horsepower requirements. ‘When R is low (below about 2.0), throttling acts to énerese ‘power requirements, ‘Throttling acts to decrease power requirements when R is (above below) about 2.5. ‘Throttling usually has little ss quirements when Ris between ifleant eect on power re- and ‘The temperature of the gas leaving the compressor depends ‘on suction temperature, on the kind of ga, and on R, Since throttling always increases R, it always acts to the temperature ofthe discharge gas, ‘The maximum allowable discharge temperature from most compressors moving hydrocarbons is usally specified as 30°F. ‘Throttling should not be used it causes the gas to go above its maximum allowable a ‘Throttling may ereate a partial vacuum that could permit air from the atmosphere to enter the compressor. "There must be no air leaks in the auetion system when throttling is used because hydrocarbons ean ignite in the presence of Since it always inereass R and may inerease power require. ments, throttling is normally used as a (permanent tempor ary) method of rate control. "Throttling ia an (efcientnefclent) method of control. 28 Aocreases ‘each @ maximum a decrease above 2.0; 25 increase, o raise discharge temperature air, or oxygen temporary ineficient Control by Clearance 144, At the end of each compression stroke, some gas is lft in a ‘learance space in the cylinder. CLEARANCE : a SPACE eri ‘The clearance is mado up of the spaces in the valve recesses, plus the space that exists between the piston and cylinder fend at the (star/finish) of the stroke, us. cloarance gas expands against the ‘The energy ofthis expansion (adds to resists) the fore of the return stroke. 146, On the compreesion part of the eyele, the compressor spends ‘work on clearance gas. ‘But the expansion of the clearance gas during the retum stroke returns this work to the 29 adds to ‘compressor, or piston at, us. us, 150, 161, 182, 158, 154. 165, 166, Since most work spenton the clearance gas is returned to the ‘comprestor, the amount of elearance space ina reciprocating ‘compressor (affects / doesnot affect) inasignifieant way the ovwer required to compressa given MSCED of gas However, the volumetric ficiency ofthe compretsr is affected by the amount of clearance ‘As clearance inereases, volumetric efficieney (increaes/ decreases). As volumetrie ofisioney decronses, actual expacity(inerents/ Aocrense) ‘The capacity of reciprocating eompresior ean be controled by varying the amount of in the eylinders, ‘These p-v diagrams show the performance of @ compressor ‘with a clearance pocket, ‘CLEARANCE VOLUME CLEARANCE POCKET : TOTAL CLEARANCE VOLUME ‘Tho work done by the compressor withthe clearance pocket lose isthe area enclosed hy the (ehaded /anshaded) Dev diagram, ‘With the clesrance pocket closed, the gas in the compressor reaches suetion pressureat porn." -on the diagram, ‘The amount of gas that lows into the compressor is repre- sented by the line (CD/CE ‘When the clearance pocket is opened, the additional gas ‘expands inthe cylinder and eats the suction valve to open (Gooner /later) in the piston stroke. ‘When the clearance pocket is open, the suetion valve opens at point on the diagram, Now the volume of gas that flows into the compressor is "represented on the diagram by the line (CE/DB), 30 doesnot affect Aecreases Aecreases clearance unshaded ce later DE 151. 1658. 159, 160, 161, 18, 168, 164, 165. 166, Opening the clearance pocket has eaused the volume of gus handled by the compressor to (increase derease). ‘With tho clearance pocket closed, in order to increase the pressure of the gas to discharge preseure the piston must rove from point B to point on the diagram, ‘With tho clearance pocket open, the additional volume of gos ‘must be compressed. ‘To raise the larger volume of gas to discharge pressure, the piston must travel a (longer shorter) distance. ‘To compress the gas, the piston must move from point Eon, the p-v diagram to point ‘The shaded area of the p-v diagram represente the work done by the compressor with the clearance pocket (open cloeed) ‘To compress the gas with the elearance pocket open requires (amore/less horsepower ‘The p-v diagram shows that the addition of the clearance Docket has (increased decreased) volumetric eficlency. ‘The effect of the clearance pocket is to (inerease/decrease) compressor capacity and to horsepower ‘requirements ‘This p-v diagram shows a compressor with excessive clear- ance volume, N DISCHARGE T I \ ' | fueron} | > _ | _1 1 excessive cLeaRance VOLUME ‘As the piston moves on the suction stroke, the learanee gas ‘As the gas expands, pressure a decreased decrease ‘decrease expands Aecresses 167. 168, 169, 10. am, m, 178, 1m, 195, 118 m. v8, 119, 120. 1a, 182, ‘When the piston has traveled as far as it ean go, according to the p-v diagram, the pressure (reachos/docs not reach) suetion pressure ‘The mtion valve (opens/des nt open} Fresh gas (lows/does not flow) into the epider, (n the compression stroke, the clearance gas Pressure inthe evlindee ‘When th piston has traveled as far a itean go, the p- dae sam shows that the pressure (has/has not) reached die- ‘charge pressure, Gas (s/s not) discharged ‘This condition is called shutog. Shutof is eaused by excessive ‘When shutoff occurs, (some/no) gas enters or leaves the evlinder Cylinder capacity is zero and volumetric efficiency is % when shutaff occurs, In shutof, the compressor does (some/no) wark. ‘When shutof occurs, the eylinder ‘ean be damaged in a short time ‘Shutof (should/should not) be allowed to occur. ikely to overheat and ‘When capacity is controlled by clearance, no power is wasted. ‘The HP required per MSCFD remains the same for any used. ‘The use of clearance becomes more effective as R increases, ‘As clearance is increased, the load on the prime mover oF Aviver(inereases decreases). 1 the compressor is overloaded, the overload (ean /eaninot) bbe reduced by increasing the amount of elerance. Since clearance reduces HP by the same amount that it eduessexpacity clearance (is/is not) an efleient method of controlling reciprocating compressors 2 does not reach does not open oes not flow compressed hat not isnot ‘earance volume should not clearance Aecreases 18, 188, 186. ‘This compressor has a izd-eolume clearance pocket. ‘CLEARANCE POCKET "The clearance pocket is (slways/sometimes) in service. ‘This fixed-volume clearance pocket (ean/eannot) be ad- usted by the operator. ‘This is a hand-operated fiai-solume (HOFV) clearance pocket. CLEARANCE POCKET "The HOFY clearance pocket (may must) be used. ‘The valve makes it possible to add a fixed amount of A when needed, 3 always cannot clearance 187, On some eylinders, diferent clearance pockets may be serewed into or flanged onto the eylinders. Once installed, such pockets have a (variable/fixed) volume, fixed 188, ~The amount of clearance may be changed by changing the size of the pocket 189, ‘This compressor has a sariableclearance pocket CLEARANCE POCKET ‘The handwhoel makos it posible to __ the amount adjust, or vary of clearance as need au mh EE 190, Ifthe volume of the variable clearance pocket is adjusted Aduing operation, the adjusting rod threads are placed under fevers stress and may fll For tis reason, the variable ofthe variable clearance pocket (should / should not) be adjusted while compressor is in should not operation, 191, Compare these four clearance pockets. Pockets (A/B/C/D/) have a fixed volume. A:B:C 19% Pockets (A/B/C/D) are hand operated B,C; 198, The variable clearance pocket is (A/B/C/D). D 35 Unloading 194, Inthe normal compression eyle, both the aution valve and ‘the discharge valve are (open looed) when she compression closed stroke begins. 195. Suppose a suetion valve dise it held open during the com= pression stroke. ‘Thon sas wil fow through the open valve back into the tas jacket, suction 196. (Some gas/No gas) will be discharged from the end of the Noss cylinder that has the unloaded auction valve, 191, This suctionsvalve wnloader is operated manvally. ‘Turning the bandwheel___ the euetion-valve pushes ise of is eat. 36 198, Instead of a handwheel, an automatic unloader may use a spring-loaded diaphragm, SUCTION VALVE Depressing the diaphragm (loads/unloads) that end of the ‘unloads compressor. 199, Automatic unloaders may be controlled by suction or dis- charge pressure, ‘This unloaer is operated through a controler from a pilot atthe Tine ischarge fo 200, 21. 203, 205. 207. 210, Or, the unloader may be controled by & on the compressor suction line. ‘A pneumatic controller controls the supply of ait to the When unloaders are use, there is only a slight power los as ss is foreed back into the suction gas jacks. In general, unloading one end of a eplinder removes the requirement for that end. Unloading toth ends of the same eylinder may cause the eplinder to overheat. tis est to unload (both ends/only one end) of a double- acting compressor eylinde. If only one of the valves at one end of a multi-eylinder com- ressor is unloaded, the power las may be increased, When possible, unload (all/only some) ofthe suction valves at one end of a multieylinder compressor. Tn suction-valve unloading: ‘unload (one end/both ends) ofa single eylinder; to reduce the pressure and temperature at the packing, ‘unload the (head end /erank end); and ‘unload all /only some ) ofthe crank-end suction valves at one ond ofa multieylinder comprssor. Roughly one-half of the load on the eylinder of a reeipro- cating compressor is removed when one suetion valve is removed from the eylinder. Saction-valve removal is used for (temporary/long range) reduction of capacity, when the compremor (n/is it) ‘equipped with valve wnloaders. ‘Capacity changes in steps when it ia controlled by unloading Assume two doubleacting compressor evlinder, each equp- ped with a suetion-valve unloaer on the erank end, When one valve is unloaded, the compressor operates at 18 %/0% /100%) total eapacity. With both crank-end valves unloaded, the compressor oper- ates at capacity. Capacity is 100% when both ends of each eylinder are Unloading always (inreases/dereases) the HP required for the compressor. 38 pilot runloader ower, or HP, only one end all one end crank end all Jong range 75% loaded Aecreasen Control of Speed au. 212, 214, 216, 216, a, One way to change compressor capacity is to ‘the speed of the compressor. In most eases, the speed of an internal combustion engine under load ean be varied between 75% and 100% of its rated speed Because a reduction of driver speed reduces the amount of fuel consumed, reduction of driver spood (increases /de- creases) operating costs. ‘On engine-driven compressors, driver spoud control usually (s/s not) an efficient method of controlling eapacity or rate. ‘On many engine-driven compressors, driver speed ean be ‘regulated automatically. THROTTLE CONTROLLER COMPRESSOR ‘This controller regulates the engine's speed by controling ‘the engine's 1f the pressure in the discharge lie drops, the Uhrottleeon- ‘toller (speeds up/slows down) the engine. ‘A controller may respond to changes in pressure or it may respond to changes in flow rate ‘The controller maintain either a constant pressure or a con- nee inthe eompresior’s a change is needed, the driver speeds up or slows doven ‘until the pressure or low rate reaches the level act at the ‘change, or vary speeds up flow rate 218, 219, 2. 222. A controller controls rate by automatically adjusting the oo the driver. ‘Most leetrie mators are constant speed drivers Tt is usually uneconomical to use a variable-speed Control by varying driver speed is normally used only when the driver is an (cletrie motor engine). Most positive displacement compressors run at low to mod erate speeds, ‘Turbines are high-speed drivers. ‘When turbine i ued to power positive displacement eom- ‘pressor, the turbine's oxtpit or power shaft speed must be (in- creased/ decreased. ‘Turbine-powered compressors and some motor-and engine- powered compresiors are driven through variablespeed tranamisions. ‘When the small gear or sheave turns once, the large gear oF sheave turns (more/less) than once. 40 speed, or throttle clectrie motor engine ecreased 293, To reduce speed, the small gear is set on the turbine shaft ‘Tho large gear is set on the crankshaft or drive shat of the 224, Within dosign limits, compressor speed can be changed by the sizeof the gears or V-belt sheave. 225. Look at these V-belts, ‘COMPRESSOR DRIVER ‘There isa greater speed reduction at (A/B). 225, The compressor runs slower when a (Iarger/smaller) sheave is put on the driver shaft or when a (larger/smaller) sheave is put on the compressor shat 227. Within limits, the speed ofa belt-driven eompressor can be ‘changed by varying the size of the ——_ a ‘compressor ‘changing, or adjusting smaller sheaves 228, 230, 231, 2, 288, Torque isthe leverage applied to rotate a shaft, and is ex- pressed as distance times force (inch-pounds or foot-pounds 3 ‘The same force is applied at gears A and BR, but shaft B recelves mare torque because the leverage arm at Ti longer/ shorter) than the leverage arm at A. Shaft A has the greater (speed /toraus). Shaft B has the higher (spee/torque)- ‘As gear trains and belt drives reduce speed from the driver, the torque delivered to the eom- ‘The maximum torque required by a displacement compressor depends on the eomprestor’s construction and on operating, conditions. A driver will stall or stop if it cannot deliver the required by the compressa. For every engine speed, there i an upper limit to the torque that the engine ean deliver. With the same gear conditions, the engine ean deliver more torque when itis operating at a (higher lower) speed. ‘When a compressor is powered through a variable-speed transmission, an overtorue ean be correetad by changing the sheaves or gears to decrease compressor speed while holding the engine speed constant or to inerease driver speed while holding the compressor speed constant. ‘Tiss Une same principle us shifting gears in an automobile to (inerease reduce) torque while going uphill. Slowing the prime mover or driver does nat help to relieve aa overtorque. ‘When an engine or other prime mover is slowed, it produces {more/less) HP and the available torque is lees evenly de- livered. Reduction of engine speed (will/will not) correct an over- torque. 2 toraue higher will not REVIEW AND SUMMARY oar. 238, 239, 240, ma, 242, aa, ‘A comprescor that increases gas pressure by the displacement of gas volume scaled ‘compressor For operating through high R's, a (cotary reciprocating) ‘compressor is normally used ‘The performance ofa compressor ean be analyzed by means ofa ‘diagram. Basic ways of controlling the eapacty ofa positive displace. ‘ment compressor are ‘contol of driver — a valve in the suction line; the compressor by means of a suction valve and controlling the amount of reciprocating compressor in theeylinder ofa Reducing the speed of the prime mover or driver (will/wil not) carrest an overtoraue ‘When R is above 2.5, suction-line throttling tends to (ine crease ‘deereas) the HP required ‘This comprosser is controlled by a combination of suction valve unloaders and an HOFY clearance pocket. With the clearance pocket closed and the suction valves operating normally, the eylinder has % of its rated capacity. 4s Dositive displacement reciprocating pressure-volume speed jor RPM ‘throttling, or pinching ‘unloading unloader learanee will not decrease 10 245. mt. 248, ‘Suppose the clearance pocket reduces head-end eapacity by one-balf With the erank end loaded and the clearance pocket open, cvlinder capacity is (25%/75%). ‘The eylinder operates at 50% capacity when the head end is (oaded/unloades). Capacity can be reduced to 25% by unloading the eran end and the clearance pocket ‘This compressor has four-step control. Tecan be operated at __9,__, ——_%or 9 of te total capac ig. Suetion-valve unlosders may be usd in combination with a ‘series of clearance pockets, with manual or automatic elee- tion and operation. In a reciprocating compressor, a flexible range of contra is Possible with a combination of suetion-valve tnloading and adjustment of 5% unloaded opening Section 2 Construction of Reciprocating Compressors SECTION 2 CONSTRUCTION OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS In the reciprocating compressor, gas is compressed by the baelcand-forth motion of the piston 2 ‘The piston reciprocates inside a cylinder. ‘CRANK. END HEAD METALLIC PACKING RINGS PISTON RINGS HEAD. END 4 HEAD Liner: COOLING WATER ‘To provide for reconditioning, the eylinder may be fitted with a liner, or sleeve ‘8. The ends ofthe eyinder are sometimes equipped with remov- able heads. hese heads may contain liquid for cling Cylinders with only one removable head may have pase ‘sages that contain liquid throughout the evlinder. cooling 4. ‘The crank-end head contains a eet of metallie packing es ngs 5. The packing rings prevent gasleakage round the piston Ss rod. 4 6, This drawing shows the assembly that connects the erank- shaft to the eompresor. ‘CONNECTING. op (CRANKSHAFT ‘CROSSHEAD GUIDES CCROSSHEAD SHOES "The piston rod i fastened to the 11. ‘The crosshead connects the piston rod to the —__ 8 ‘The crosshead is equipped with babbitted shoes that permit fetoallde back-and-forcn within the 8, ‘The connecting ro is moved by the 10. As the crankshaft rotates, the connecting rod (rotates/ ‘rociprocates). 11, Rotary motion is converted to _ motion by the crankshaft, connecting rod, and erossbead, ‘COMPRESSOR UNITS 12, Multi-eylinder compressors have saveral eylinders on the same frame. Each compressor piston is powered through the same 46 ‘CRANK PIN crosshead ‘connecting rod crosshead guides crankshaft ecprocates reciprocating 18, This is © balancd-apposed compressor. Pistons ‘The cranks are arranged so that the motion of each piston i ‘balanced by the motion ofthe piston (beside/ opposite) it. |, Balaneed-opposed units are often externally driven. ‘The compressor erankshaft may be couple tothe shaft of an engine or electrio — 15. OF, the compressor may be engine- or motor-riven through a Vabelt drive, or moter- or turbine-driven through speed- reducing. 16, An integral units built with the engine and exmpresor on the ‘same frame. They share the sane erankbaf. ‘Energy is transmitted from the __ pistons to the pistons through a single, shared erankshaft. 17. In an integral unit, the compressor eylincers are usually horizontal. ENGINE CYLINDERS COMPRESSOR ‘CYLINDERS ‘The __eylinders may be vertical or at a V angle to the eylindere. ow tom te pone, tm the book vero nef 42 ‘opposite motor engine, or power ‘compressor engine, or power CONSTRUCTION DETAILS Compressor Valves 18 19. a, Heavy-duty resiprocating compressors primarily use a form of plate valve VALVE SEAT PLATE (RING) PLATE SPRING ‘The part that closes against the valve seat i a tat, metal plate ‘The plates may bein the form of one or more rings, or they may be rings connected by webs. ‘The plates are held lightly against the seat by a set of ——— springs ‘To open the valve, tho gas that is used to lift the plate must overcome the pressure of the gas behind the plate and the Tight tension of the springs ‘Any tendeney of the operating valve to slam or flutter ean often be controlled by ehanging the af the ‘tension valve springs. 4s 22, Channel valves use channel-shaped plates instead of fat plates, SPRING CHANNEL “Above each channel is abowed, steel tension spring 28, The springs push from the stop plate. VALVE SEAT STOP PLATE ‘Tho channels cover the slots in the — 9 ‘24, Poppet valves are shaped like the valves in an automobile engine. POPPET ‘These valves uso separate, round against the hols in the valve seat, to seat 25, The poppets are usually marl of bakit or other low-fretion material ‘They provide a (high/low) pressure drop and are often used when ratios of compression ate low 26, Poppet valves ean usually provide more capacity than eor- responding plato valves. ‘They are frequently used in gas trannminionine cylinders, Poppet valves are normally used wien ratios of compression are low and flow rates are (lo high). 27, Compressor valves are among the most important pars ofa reciprocating unit, ‘A.worn or damaged valve allows gus to back. 28, ‘The sudden, chilling effet of eold liquid on a hot valve can ‘break a valve plate ‘The gas entering the compressor should be kept free of 29, Dirt and other foreign deposits ean_____avvalve and prevent it from seating properly. 30. Compressor valves must be properly installed, Suction valves must open when eplinderpresture is (higher/ lower) than the pressure ofthe gas in the suction gas jacket. 50 igh leak, or stip liquid foul, or dirty, or damage a. Ea 33, En 35. ‘A suction valve is properly installed when you ean depress ‘the plate (in toward away from) the enter ofthe eylindr. A discharge valve ie properly installed when you can depross the plate (in toward sway fom) the center of the eylindr. ‘A discharge valve that is installed backwards will cause ‘high-pressure build-up and may often the cylinder. Look at this valve, CYLINDER SIDE GAS JACKET SIDE. eis installed asa (uetion/iecharge) valve. ‘Compressor valves are installed with thrubots, lockserows, or jackbolts to hold the valve assembly together. ‘Most older compressors were made so that if the muts or thrabolts worked loose, either the bolt or the aut eould fall (On many newer compressors, valve pars are designed so that they cannot fall into the eylinder. ‘But in all reiprosating compressors, valve serews or bolts should be palled down tight to prevent ‘betreen the valve and the gasket, ‘When a valve leaks, the gas returning through the valve is hotter. At the valve cover, valve leakage can often be detected by an 5 in toward away from Durst, or rupture Alischarge wreck, oF rin, or destroy ‘temperature 88, ‘The operator ean cautiously the valve toueh, or fee ‘cover to detect possible leakage. 89, A thermometer should be installed in the discharge line close ‘tm each eylinder. Other things being equal, even a slight —___ increase, o rise in temperature indicates a valve that is leaking, Cylinder Bore and Liner 40, To reduce reconditioning costs, eylinders are usually Lined. If there is excessive wearin the eylnder bore, the entire body dose not have tobe replaced. Only the worn ______ tees to be replace liner 41, A eylinder or liner usually wears at the points where the piston rings rub against it ‘Because of the weight of the piston, wear isusually greater at ‘the (Lop/bottom) of a horizontal eylinder. bottom 42, A-eylinder liner is usually cownterbored noar the ends of the ‘outerring travel. ‘The counterbores are made just ahead of the points where the end piston rings and reverse cirection. stop 48, Unles the piston rings overtravel the liner, shoulders may orm inthe liner st the points where the ring travel stops. ‘The eounterbores prevent the formation of shoulders in the line. 2 at 44. Liners are usually prosed or shrunk into place so that they will not slip and produce knocking LUBRICATOR INLET ‘The liner also must be fitted so thatthe ol holes i the liner always align with the inlets inthe eylinder wall. 45. A loose or misaligned liner ean ‘the iets 46, Blocking or plugging the inlets can prevent adequate trom reaching the piston rings. 47, Changing orreinstallinga piston,od will affect the positionot ‘tho piston with respect the counterbore and liner ‘The piston (is likely / is not likely) to require accurate reepacing when a piston rod is changed or reinstalled. Pistons 48. For lowspeed compressors (up to 390 rpm) and medium- speed compressors (330 o 600 rpm) pistonsare usually made feast ron or aluminum, a over 7 INCHES SOLID PISTON HOLLOW PISTON Upto? inches in diameter, cast ronpistons are usually made solid. Those more then 7 inches in diameter are usually 8 lubricator ‘lock, or plug, or elose lubrication, or ofl islikely hollow “9 51. Many pistons over 9 inches in diameter are made of aluminum, Both hollow and aluminum pistons are designed to increase/ reduce )the weight ofthe piston. ‘Very large pistons are often made of hollow, fabricated steet sprayed with bronze or babbitt. ‘The bronze or babbitt coating provides a (high/low. fretion| surface for the piston, In aluminum pistons, teflon rings are used for compressing ‘oxygen and other gases that must be kept free of ‘This drawing shows the construction of one typeof piston, ‘TAPERED PORTION OF ROD GROOVE PISTON ROD Lock NUT PISTON RINGS ‘Where it passes through the piston, the piston rod ‘The piaton rod extends through the piston and is drawn up tight against the shoulder by the ‘The piston rings ride in___ on the piston. ‘As the compressor reaches operating temperature, the piston ‘and red expand more than the eylinder does, Piston-to-ylinder clearance must be great enough to prevent seizure if the compressor should appre- cfably during operation. [At the same time, piston-toceylinder clearances must. be A enough to permit adequate support of the Diston rings. oe reduce lubricant, or oi tapered locke mut grooves overheat le, small ‘51. Manufacturers usually specify the amount of required between the piston and eylinder wall 58, To assemble a cold piston, make the piston end clearance sreator atthe head end of the eylinder. ‘Accold piston is usually installed with one-third ofits end ‘clearance on the (head crank ) end and two-thirds of ts end Clearance on the head erank } end, Piston Rings 59, Piston rings provide a seal that prevents or mis =" hetween the piston and the liner. 60. They also earry heat from the piston to the eylinder wal. ‘The compressor’s cooling system carries most of the away from the eylinder. 61. The rings shouldbe intaled with a cvlinder wall. ‘During operation, the pressure of the gas under them holds ‘the rings against the wall of the tension against the 62, The rng material is chosen to provide an initial rapid wear and therefore a quik seal of the ring to the wal Piston rings are made of material that wears (tore /less) rapidly than the eylinder or line. 68, Comprossor piston rings are made of bronze, eat ron, bake- Tite, talon, earhon, or ether smile materia ‘These materials eause (high/low) fretion'and wear slightly aster/slower) than the eylindr liner o bore. 64, The rings seal by a close ft against the eplinder and against sis ofthe grooves. ‘The eylinder barrel should be round and true, not tapered, and ‘of scores. Ea crank; heat ‘rlinder, oF Hiner low faster free, or elear 65, ing grooves should be very accurate and smooth on their side faces. ‘Since long operation will often wear the grooves ina slight V, the side face ofthe shouldbe checked for true roves 66, During operation, the rings mast move out against the eyline de to effect a ring-to-wall seal. ‘Metal piston rings are made either in one pice, with gp, segments, or pieces 61. The gaps in the rings allow them to —______ move out, o expand asthe compressor reaches operating temperature. 68, Heavy pistons are sometimes given rider rings or rider bands, RIDER RING ‘The segmented rng it eld lightly against the cylinder wally the = expander, o rider 56 69, As the piston passes the lubricator feed hole or holes to the cvlinder wall the rings pick up ofl LUBRICATOR INLET ‘The —____ spread the oil over piston rings ‘the length of the stroke 70. Without sufficient lubricant ofthe right quality, piston rings and oylinder walls ean wear quickly and permit excesive ae around the piston, leakage ‘TL, A eylindor that is scored or out-af-round ean also cause ex- cusive wear, leakage and consequent damage. Shoulders in the eylinder or Hiner ean — damage, or break piston rings. ‘72, Teflon rings with teflon vider bands are sometimes used to support the piston when the gxs wll nt permit the use of a anal Iubricant, or oil ‘Metallic Rod Packing 7B. Packing prevents compressed gas from — leaking along the piston rod. ‘TA, In comprescors that operate below atmosphere pressure, ‘packing prevents from being drawn into air the eyinder. a PACKING RINGS ‘The rings are arranged in pars n each . The operating pressure usually determines the number of cups that are used, ‘Thecupe ar held together for assembly by long —_. Packing rings are made in segments, CARTER SPRINGS TANGENT SEALER RING ‘The segments forming the rings are held against the piston cup sarter springs cy B. a. , Breakers, or B-rings, are eut radially and seal nearest the ressure. Sealer, or T-rings aro cut (radially /tangentially), ‘T-rings sal (against the eup/nearest the pressure). Packings that operate across a relatively low pressure difer- fence may ho packed only with pairs of tangentilly-cut, (oreaker sealer) rings. In most eases, the eu nearest the pressure holds one or more pairs of breaker (B) rings of double width. "The other eups hold pairs of breaker (B) and sesler (T) rings, arranged in pairs with the (breaker/sealer) rings nearer the pressure. Going from left to right, label these as breaker (B) or sealer (1) rings, Packing rings may be made offer, plastic, or metal. Carbon or taflon rings are used when the packing must oper- ate free of - Some older compressors use soft packing, such as asbestos, Aue, or soft lea. ‘Small. flaws in the piston rod cause less damage to —— ‘than they do to metallic rings. 59 against the cup 1, B,T,B,T, B,B,B lubricant, or oil 85. Howover, soft packing does not __ as well as metalic packing does, 86. Look at the drawing. HL INLET PISTON ROD ‘The ol orifice is designed so thatthe oil must drop on top of the ‘and eannot run down theside ofthe cap. 87. Sometimes a spring-loaded teflon quill is used. on SPRING TEFLON QUILL ‘The teflon quill helps assure that the —_____ will

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