= !" # $ × !

! %

& ' ⊕ ' (

) ⋅ *
+)+
× → × → "
! ⊕ λ ! λ⋅
, - ⊕ ⋅! . + + !
-
• ⊕! %
• ∈ λ µ∈
λ + µ! ⋅ = λ ⋅ ⊕ µ ⋅
λ⋅ ⊕ ! = λ⋅ ⊕λ⋅
λ × µ! ⋅ = λ ⋅ µ ⋅ !
⋅ =

(
+ ×! ! + ⋅! + ×! + "
0 / + ×! + "

1! 2

& ⊕ ⋅! + "
! ∀ ∈ 3⋅ = 3 ⊕ ⊕! !

∀ ∈ 3 ⋅ = 3 + 3! ⋅ = 3 ⋅ ⊕ 3 ⋅ "
3⋅ = 3
! ∀λ ∈ λ ⋅ 3 = 3

λ ⋅3 = λ ⋅ 3 ⊕ 3 ! = λ ⋅3 ⊕ λ ⋅3
λ ⋅3 = 3 "
4! ∀ ∈ ∀λ ∈ λ ⋅ = 3 ⇔ λ = 3 =3

5 ⇐ ! !"
& - λ⋅ =3 - λ ≠ 3"
# -' =3 "
, λ− - λ ≠ 3 !"
 λ− ⋅ λ ⋅ ! = λ− × λ ! ⋅ = ⋅ = '
λ− ⋅ λ ⋅ ! = λ− ⋅ 3 = 3 ' "
=3
6! ∀ ∈ ∀λ ∈ −λ ! ⋅ = − λ ⋅ ! = λ ⋅ − !

(λ ⋅ ) ⊕ ( −λ ! ⋅ ) = λ + −λ !! ⋅ = 3 " −λ ! ⋅ = − λ ⋅ !
(λ ⋅ ) ⊕ λ ⋅ − !! = λ ⋅ ⊕ − ! = λ ⋅3 = 3 " λ⋅ − !=− λ⋅ !"
7! ∀ ∈ ∀ ∈ " = ⋅
' ⊕! 8) ( !

≥3 6! ≤3"
%
$ ⊕ " ⋅ −λ −λ ! ⋅ − λ⋅ !
λ⋅ − !"

9
+ + ⋅!
"

! (

& ∈ :
, × × """ × ! ⊕ ( ⋅ )
%
""" ! ∈
""" !∈
λ∈
""" ! ⊕ """ ! = + + """ + !
λ⋅ """ ! = λ λ """λ ! "
⊕ ⋅! + "

;) ⊕! %
5 ⊕ 3 3 """3! - "

& ∈ " = """ ! = """ ! = """ ! <

""" """ """ ∈

⊕ ⊕ != """ ! ⊕ """ ! ⊕ """ !!

= """ = + + ! + + ! """ + + !!
= + !+ + !+ """ + !+ !
= """ = ⊕ !⊕
 & ∈ = """ ! = """ ! "
⊕ = """ ! ⊕ """ !
= + + """ + !
= + + """ + !
= ⊕
( ' ⊕ "
& ∈ = """ ! "
*= − − """ − ! ⊕"

& ∈ λ µ∈ = """ ! = """ ! "

,
λ + µ! ⋅ = λ + µ! ⋅ """ !
= λ + µ! λ + µ ! """ λ + µ ! !
= λ + µ λ + µ """λ + µ !
= λ λ """λ ! ⊕ µ µ """µ !
=λ⋅ """ ! ⊕ µ ⋅ """ !
=λ⋅ ⊕µ⋅

λ⋅ ⊕ !=λ⋅ + + """ + !
= λ + !λ + ! """λ + !!
= λ +λ
λ + λ """λ + λ !
= λ λ """λ ! ⊕ λ λ """λ !
= λ⋅ ⊕λ⋅

λµ ! ⋅ = λµ ! λµ ! """ λµ ! !
= λ µ ! λ µ ! """λ µ !!
= λ ⋅ µ µ """µ !
=λ⋅ µ⋅ !

⋅ = """ !
= """ ! =

=
& ( + × '
+ *∈ *∈ λ∈
!+ * *! = + * + *!
λ⋅ != λ⋅ λ⋅ !
× × """ × < + "

4
!9

> + ⋅! + "
%
& """ ! % % ' "
? % """ ! . ∈[ ]
@ λ⋅ +λ ⋅ + """ + λ ⋅ * +)+ λ⋅ < λ
=

"
%
& ∈ "
& =3 ) "
& ≠3 ) λ⋅ λ∈ "

5 AB )C '- "
%%
+ ;) % ( D
+ &@ - & )
& =3 ) = 3⋅
& ≠3 ' λ⋅ <λ ∈ "
λ=3 =3 )
& λ≠3 =λ −
) "
+ E "

% -
& ∈ ", '-
⇔ =3 ∃λ ∈ =λ⋅ !
⇔∃ α β !∈ F{(3 3 )}α ⋅ + β ⋅ =3 !

! % G ' % "
# - ! !" & !"
& =3 α β! = 3!
& ≠3( =λ⋅ " λ∈ -
α β! = λ − ! α⋅ +β⋅ =3
# - ! !" & !"
& α β ! ∈ F {(3 3 )} - α⋅ +β⋅ =3 "
& β ≠3 = β ⋅
−α

& β =3 α⋅ =3 ", α ≠3 α β ! ≠ (3 3 ) " =3 "

+ ⋅! ; + "

6
 ! %

& "
, - + ! -
• 3 "
• $ ∀ ∈ + ∈
• ⋅ ∀ ∈ ∀λ ∈ λ ⋅ ∈ "

& + $
⋅ ( ) + ⋅! +
+ ;) +! % - +
+! 3 ∈ $ ∀ ∈ − = − !⋅ ∈ "
+ % - - % D

(
• + "H + I
+ {3 }
+ ∈ F {3 } {λ ⋅ λ∈ } + "
+ "
> '@ ' + (
' "
• & + - -
{3 } ( + "
& ∈ F {3 } {λ ⋅ λ ∈ } +
"
• 5 + 4
(
+ {3 4 }
+ ∈ 4
F {3 } {λ ⋅
4 λ∈ }"
+ ∈ 4
F {3 } 4 {λ ⋅ +µ⋅ λ µ∈ }
!
4
+
• + !
={ ∈ ! ! = 3} < %( "
= ' % @ ⋅ + ∈ "
, B 0 / 0 / < ∈ !
3
! ! """
5' % D

1! > +

E
E + + "

7
 & !∈ % + "
& = ={ ∈ ∀ ∈ ∈ }
∈

3 ∈ ∀ ∈ 3 ∈
$
& ∈ " ∀ ∈ ∈ ∈ ∀ ∈ + ∈ " + ∈
⋅
& ∈ λ∈ " ∀ ∈ ∈ ∀ ∈ λ⋅ ∈ λ⋅ ∈ "

! % -

& ⊂ "
3 ∈ 3!
⇔ ∀ ∈ + ∈ !
∀λ ∈ ∀ ∈ λ ⋅ ∈ !
3 ∈ 3!
⇔
∀α β ∈ ∀ ∈ α⋅ +β⋅ ∈ 4!
3 ∈ 3!
⇔
∀λ ∈ ∀ ∈ +λ⋅ ∈ 4 !
3 ∈ 3!
⇔
4!

4! ∀ ∈ :∀ """ ! ∈ ∀ λ λ """λ ! ∈ λ⋅ ∈
=

! ! 4! "
4! 4 ! "
4! 4! "
4! 4! "
4 ! 3! ! !
& 4 ! 3! - 4 ! =3 ! 4 !
λ= !"
'< - "
3! 3 ! A ≠ ∅ C"

!& +
%
& ⊂ "5 + 9 !
+ "

J
 L %
5' ε + '
-' ' +
∈ε
- ε ' ε"

• 9 ∅! = {3 }
• & ∈ F {3 } 9 { }! = {λ ⋅ λ∈ } 9 !"
• + 9 != "
• & + ⊂ 9 !⊂
%% ∈ε 9 !=
∈ε
{ }!
• & ⊂ 9 !⊂9 !
⊂ ⊂9 !"
⊂9 !" 9 !⊂9 ! ' !"

& + %
& """ "
9 { """ }! M 9 """ ! +
% """ ! A C

9 """ ! ' * +)+

{λ +λ + """ + λ λ λ """λ ! ∈ }
N """ ! = λ { +λ + """ + λ λ λ """λ ! ∈ }"
""" ! 3 $ ⋅

λ + λ* = λ + λ* ! λ⋅ λ = λλ ! !
= = = = =

""" ! + '
+
" 9 """ ! = """ ! "

9
• & + % % !
= """ ! - % "
• & % % -
@ % "
(
@ % % [ 3 """3! 3 3 """ 3! """ 3 3 """ !]
0 / ' @ % " %% -' %
% """ ! 8 = ( !!
∈[ ]
∀ ∈ 0 / ≤ - % ("

K
 """ ! ∈
• ∈[ ] ≠
9 """ """ """ !=9 """ """ """ !
• ∈[ ] ∈ F {3}
9 """ """ !=9 """ """ !
• ∈[ ] λ∈
9 """ +λ """ !=9 """ """ !
4 !
& ∈9 """ +λ """ !
* * * *

= λ * = λ +λ +λ !
= ≠

= µ
=

λ ≠
µ =
λ + λλ =
5' "
, 9 ( !
9 0 4 6! 6 J 3 ! 6 O !/ = 9 0 4 6! 3 − − − 6 ! 3 J − ! /
−6 4−

=9 0 4 6! 3 4 − ! 3 3 −J − J!/
=9 0 4 6! 3 4 − ! 3 3 4 !/
=9 0 3 −6! 3 3 −O! 3 3 4 !/
=9 0 3 3 6! 3 3 −O! 3 3 4 !/
=9 0 3 3 6! 3 3 −O! 3 3 4 !/
={ 3 3 6! + 3 3 +O! + 33 4 ! ∈ }
={ 6 −O + 4 ! ∈ }
'-
!∈ 6

!∈9 0 4 6! 6 J 3 ! 6 O !/ ⇔ = 6 − O + 4

& ≤ ≤ 9 """ !⊂9 """ !"

∈ ∈9 """ !⇔9 """ !=9 """ !

+ ⋅! + "
 %
& ( + "
5
+ ={ + ∈ ∈ }= { ∈ ∃ !∈ × = + }
%

+ + ' B 9 ∪ !"
%%
;) + + 3 +⋅
( % + !
+ ' +3 <3 ∈ ! "
> ∪ "
% + ∪ +
$
+ ∈ ∈ "

(
+ = !
& ' % @ ≤4 ' %
3"
+ = !" %%
? ;) " '
& ∈ !" 5) ' 3
∀ ∈ != 3+ + + ε !
! !

= − = ! 3"
'< ' ' "
+ 6
=9 3 3!! = { ! ∈ 6 − = − = 3}
={ ! ∈ }= 9 3 3! 3 3 !!
+ =9 3 3! 3 3! 3 3 !! "

& %
& ( + "
, - + - + '
- % + ∈ ∈ "
-' P ;) '( % ! '
%
5 ⇔∀ ! ∈ × ∀ * *! ∈ ×
+ = *+ * = * = *!
(
5 ( "

, '-
!5 ( % !
! ∀ !∈ × + =3 =3 =3 !
4! ∩ = {3 }
! ∀ !∈ × ∀ * *! ∈ × + = *+ * = * = *! !

O
+ , ;
)- ! ! ' * *! = 3 3 ! !
+ # - ! 4! " & !
& ∈ ∩
, + − !=3 ", ∈ − ∈ ∈ ⋅!
' ! =3 − = 3 ! '< ' "
+ # - 4! !" & 4!"
& !∈ × * *! ∈ × " & - + = *+ * "
− * = *− − *∈ *− ∈ − *∈ ∩ *− ∈ ∩ "
− *= 3 *− = 3 * +)+ = * = *"
'< - "

N
& ⊕ "

%
& ( + "
, - -
+ =
∩ = {3 }
- = ⊕ "
( +
' - + < ∈ ∈ "

+ "

! %

& ϕ → "
, - ϕ . + + -
∀ *∈ ϕ + * ! = ϕ ! + ϕ * !
∀ ∈ ∀λ ∈ ϕ λ ⋅ ! = λ ⋅ ϕ !

&ϕ ϕ
+! +! "
9
• 5' !
• ? '
! M !"
• ? ' % " !
: " 5' % ' "

3
 -
& ϕ → "
!ϕ ∈ ! ⇔ ∀ α β!∈ ∀ *! ∈ ϕ α " +β " * ! = α "ϕ ! + β "ϕ * ! !
⇔ ∀λ ∈ ∀ *! ∈ ϕ + λ" * ! = ϕ ! + λ "ϕ * ! 4!
%%
! ! 4! "
# - 4! !"
, - 4! λ= " ∀ *! ∈ ϕ + *! = ϕ ! +ϕ *!
*! = 3 3 ! ϕ 3 ! = 3 "
∀λ ∈ ∀ ∈ ϕ 3 + λ ⋅ ! = ϕ 3 ! + λ ⋅ ϕ ! = 3 + λ ⋅ ϕ ! = λ ⋅ ϕ !

(
• 5' "
• 5' "
• 5 (
% ⋅ < ∈
o ;) % ⋅
∀λ ∈ ∀ *∈ + λ" * ! = + λ " * ! = + λ" *! = ! + λ" *!
o > ∈ !"
∈ != " != " !
= ! ∀ ∈ != " "
• 5' !→ ! "
*
• 5' ! !→ % ! !
!
! ! ' !
• 5' ψ !→
π!
"∈ ! ψ + "! = + "! π ! = π ! + " π ! =ψ ! +ψ " !
∈ ! λ∈ ψ λ" ! = λ " ! π ! = λ" π ! = λ"ψ !"
• 5' → ' "
!
# ) %( → %( !

, - → "
!

1! N @

& ϕ∈ !"
5 @ ϕ ' @
Q ϕ = { ∈ ϕ ! = 3 }"
∀ *∈ ϕ ! = ϕ * ! ⇔ − *∈ Q ϕ "
ϕ ; ⇔ Q ϕ = {3 } "
 %%
+& ϕ ;
& ∈Q ϕ " ϕ ! = 3 =ϕ 3 !" =3 "
'< ' ' "
+& - Q ϕ = {3 } "
& ϕ ! = ϕ *! − *∈ Q ϕ − *= 3 " = *"
ϕ ; "

Q ϕ + "

;) Q ϕ ⊂ 3 ∈Q ϕ "
& *∈ λ ∈ " ,
ϕ + λ" * ! = ϕ ! + λ"ϕ * ! = 3 + λ "3 = 3

5' ϕ > ϕ =ϕ ! = {ϕ ! ∈ }= { ∈ ∃ ∈ ϕ != }"

ϕ ; > ϕ= "

> ϕ + "

;) > ϕ ⊂ 3 ∈> ϕ ϕ 3 !=3 "

> ϕ $ ⋅
& *∈ > ϕ λ ∈ "
> ( *∈ - = ϕ ! *= ϕ *! "
+ λ" * = ϕ ! + λ "ϕ * ! = ϕ + λ" * ! " + λ" *∈ > ϕ "

!> - ' +

& ϕ∈ !"
5' ϕ ' + +
"
5' - ϕ ' + +
"

ϕ ! + ' > ϕ!
ϕ − {3 }! + ' Q ϕ!
,
!
!& '
!&

& ϕψ∈ ! λ∈ "

, %
ϕ +ψ → λ"ϕ →
ϕ !+ψ ! λ "ϕ !
ϕ +ψ λ"ϕ ∈ !"
, ! + ⋅! ! + ⋅! +
B + ! + ⋅! !"

;) % - ! + ⋅! + D
! ! 3 $ ⋅
& ϕψ∈ ! λ∈ "
, *∈ µ∈
ϕ + ψ ! + µ " * ! = ϕ + µ " * ! + ψ + µ" * !
= ϕ ! + µ "ϕ * ! + ψ ! + µ "ψ *!
= ϕ + ψ ! ! + µ" ϕ + ψ ! * !
λ"ϕ ! + µ " * ! = λ "ϕ + µ " * !
= λ " ϕ ! + µ "ϕ * !!
= λ " ϕ !! + λ " µ "ϕ * !!
= λ"ϕ ! ! + µ " λ"ϕ ! * !!
ϕ +ψ λ"ϕ ∈ ! ! +
! + ⋅! + "

5 - % (
"

& ϕ∈ ! ψ∈ !" ψ ϕ %
"
*∈ µ∈
ψ ϕ! + µ" * ! = ψ ϕ+ µ " * !!
= ψ ϕ ! + µ "ϕ * !!
= ψ ϕ !! + µ "ψ ϕ * !!
= ψ ϕ ! ! + µ" ψ ϕ ! * !

ϕ ϕ *∈ ! ψ ψ *∈ ! λ∈
ψ ϕ + ϕ * ! = ψ ϕ +ψ ϕ * !
ψ +ψ * ! ϕ = ψ ϕ +ψ * ϕ !

4
ψ λ "ϕ ! = λ " ψ ϕ ! 4!
λ"ψ ! ϕ = λ " ψ ϕ ! 6!

;) % "
∈
• 0ψ ϕ + ϕ * !/ ! = ψ 0 ϕ + ϕ * ! !/ = ψ 0ϕ ! + ϕ * !/
= ψ ϕ !! + ψ ϕ * !! = ψ ϕ ! ! + ψ ϕ * ! !
= 0ψ ϕ + ψ ϕ * / !
' < !"
• 0 ψ + ψ * ! ϕ / ! = ψ + ψ * ! ϕ !! = ψ ϕ !! + ψ * ϕ !!
= ψ ϕ ! ! + ψ * ϕ ! ! = 0ψ ϕ + ψ * ϕ / !
'< ! ' D!
• 0ψ λ "ϕ !/ ! = ψ 0 λ"ϕ ! !/ = ψ 0λ"ϕ !/ = λ"ψ ϕ !! = λ " ψ ϕ ! !
= 0λ" ψ ϕ !/ !
' < 4!
• 0 λ"ψ ! ϕ / ! = λ"ψ ! ϕ !! = λ" ψ ϕ !! = λ" ψ ϕ ! !
= 0λ" ψ ϕ !/ !
' < 6! ' !

-
% ! !+ !

! +! % ! + ⋅! + !"
! !- $ -
! !"
% @ ) > "
' ' % "
(
→ " → "
! ! ! − 3!
∈ !
& *∈ λ∈ = ! *= * *! "
+ λ" * ! = ! + λ" * * !! = + λ" * + λ" * !
= + λ" * + λ" * ! = ! + λ" * * !
= ! + λ" *!
"∈ !
& *∈ λ∈ = ! *= * *! "
" + λ" * ! = " ! + λ" * * !! = " + λ " * + λ" * !
= + λ" *− + λ " * ! 3! = − 3! + λ" *− * 3!
=" ! + λ "" * !
,
" → " →
! − − ! ! 3 3!
- "

6
4! > !

& ϕ∈ !" & ϕ ; ϕ− ∈ !" , -

ϕ "
( -' (
' ' "

& *∈ λ∈ "
, - ϕ− + λ " * ! = ϕ − ! + λ"ϕ − *! * +)+ -
+ λ" * ϕ− ! + λ"ϕ − * ! ϕ -
ϕϕ −
! + λ"ϕ −
* !! = ϕ ϕ −
!! + λ"ϕ ϕ −
* !! = + λ" *
9
R ; "
R "
R ; % "
5' !"
! ! !
!" ' ' ! + !"
' % "
(
& → " →
! + − ! ! !
" ; "
−
" ; = > = !

" ! + − ! " != 3 !
" ≠ "
" ! − + ! " ! = 3!

6!

& % !"
& 3∈ "
' φ → "
!" 3
%%
& ∈ λ∈ "
φ + λ" ! = + λ" !" 3 = !" 3 + λ" !" 3 = φ ! + λ"φ !

(
5' → 4

!
= ! *= * * *! ∈ 4 λ ∈
+ λ" * ! = + λ" * + λ" * + λ " * !! = + λ" * = ! + λ" *!
4
A ; - C

7
 B →
4
4
4
→ "
! !
+ > ! - #∈ 4
→
! " + " +#"
= + +# 4"
+ 6! - #∈ 4
→
! " + " +#" 3!
= " 3! 4
→
!" 3!
B 4
→
! 3 *" + *" +#*" !
'< 4
→ "
! " + " +#" *" + *" +#*" !
4
, - @ "
, ) !

; + "

!S !
%
? @ → <α ∈ "
α"

α∈ ' → α
α
α"
" α =3 ; ' .α

1! ; !

%
& ( + "5 ;
' → < ' - = +
∈ ∈ " % ' +
- ∈ ∈ !
, % = ⊕ → "
= +

5' @ ' "

& *∈ λ∈ " = + *= * + * "

∈ ∈ ∈ ∈

+ λ" * = + λ " * + + λ" * + λ " * ! = + λ" * = ! + λ" *! "

∈ ∈

J
 N @
& ∈ = + ", -
∈ ∈

∈Q ⇔ !=3 ⇔ =3 ⇔ ∈
>
, ;) - > ⊂ "> ⊂>
' ' ( + B "
%
& → ", - ; -' ( ( +
- ; "
9
; "
∈ ! ; "

E
& ∈ !"
; ⇔ = "

& ; < ⊕ =
=
& ∈ " = + != "
∈ ∈
!= !! = != = !"
' = "
& ∈ ! - = "
=> =Q "
;) ( + "# -'
"
& ∈ " !∈
= !+ − !
∈

− !! = !− !! = 3 − !∈
;
) + = "
# - ∩ = {3 }
& ∈ ∩ "
∈ " = * ! < *∈ "
∈ !=3 * !! = 3 " = *! = 3 "
= *! = 3 '< ' '
"
⊕ =
# - ; "
& ∈ "
= !+ − !! " !
∈ ∈

% +
∈ ∈

K
 2 -
& ;
={ ∈ != }
=
=Q −> !
%% != ⇔ = ⇔ =3⇔ ∈
−> ! !=3

%
& ; "
5 ; ) ; $ "
+$ => "

= !+$ !

5 ; {3 } ' "
5 ; {3 } ' "

! &@ !
%
& ( + "5 @
) ' = ⊕ → "
= + −
 & @ - )
• ∈ !"
%% - - = −$ = −> < ;
$ ; ) !
• ; B "
=> > = ; ! Q = {3 }
; !
• ={ ∈ != }= Q −> !
={ ∈ ! = − }= Q +> !
E
& ∈ !"
@ ⇔ =>
⇔ !
⇔ ' ≤ !!

;
) "
⇐ - => "
=Q −> ! =Q +> !"
( + @ (
' "
∩ = {3 } ∈ ∩ != !=−
" =3 =3 ≠3!
' = + = + !! + − !! "
∈ ∈

, + !∈ + !! = !+ !! = !+ = + !

− !∈ − !! = !− !! = !− = − + !!
% @ ) " %%
& = + = + !! = − !! "
∈ ∈
− = !"

! " #
; + "

! %

& = """ ! % "

T ⇔ - 3
%
%% "

⇔ ∀ λ λ """λ ! ∈ λ =3 ∀ ∈[ ]λ =3
=

O
 9
• """ ! ⇔ """ ! ' "
%

• 5 - """ ! @ λ =3 < λ
=
' "
• - """ ! % -
"
(
+ % "
+ ' % "
5 % ! ⇔ ≠3
+ ' %
! "

1!

• & % 3
& =3 " =3
≠3

• & % ( (
& = ≠ ! − =3
• & +% ' % "
• & = """ ! ∀σ ∈ σ ! σ ! """ σ ! ! "
• & """ ! """ ! ∈9 """ ! "
%%
> ( λ λ """λ µ -
λ + λ + """λ + µ" = 3 "
µ≠3 ' λ

≤ ≤ " = µ− λ
=

• """ ! '
"

$ " #
%
& """ ! % "
""" ! ⇔ """ ! % "
%

⇔ ' -
≤ ≤ % " 5 '
=

""" ! "

3
 - """ ! "
& ∈ "
""" ! ( """ ! ∈ - = "
=

& -' = * "

=

− * ! =3 " """ ! ∀ ∈[ ] − * =3
=

∀ ∈[ ] = * "
' < '( ' ' "
⇐ & - ' - D
;) """ ! "

λ =3 ∀ ∈[ ]λ =3 (
=

%% 3 ) λ 3" "
= =
(
4 4
0 3 3! 3 3! 3 3 !/ ' - "
0− ! − ! − !/ " 5 '
4 + + +
! "

0 π ! %6 ! 3 3! / 4

& = #! ∈ 4 "
, -' ( - 4
- = " + " + "
5'- - @
+ %" + =
!! π +6 =
+ =#

+ %" + =
− 6#
, !! ⇔ =
π −6
− 6#
=#−
π −6
!! - "