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3D cone-beam CT reconstruction for circular trajectories

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Phys. Med. Biol. 45 (2000) 329–347. Printed in the UK PII: S0031-9155(00)05487-7

3D cone-beam CT reconstruction for circular trajectories

M Grass, Th Köhler and R Proksa

Philips Research Laboratories, Division Technical Systems, Röntgenstrasse 24-26,
D-22335 Hamburg, Germany

Received 25 June 1999, in final form 27 October 1999

Abstract. 3D reconstruction from 2D projections obtained along a single circular source

trajectory is most commonly done using an algorithm due to Feldkamp, Davis and Kress. In this
paper we propose an alternative approach based on a cone-beam to parallel-beam rebinning step, a
corresponding rebinning step into a rectangular virtual detector plane and a filtered backprojection.
This approach yields an improved image quality reflected by a decreased low-intensity drop which
is well known for 3D reconstruction from projection data obtained along circular trajectories. At
the same time the computational complexity is lower than in Feldkamp’s original approach.
Based on this idea, a hybrid 3D cone-beam reconstruction method is formulated that enlarges
the reconstruction volume in its dimension along the rotation axis of the cone-beam CT system.
This enlargement is achieved by applying different reconstruction conditions for each voxel. An
optimal ratio between the reconstructible and irradiated volume of the scanned object is achieved.

1. Introduction

Cone-beam computer tomography (CT) has evolved as a topic of rapidly growing interest
during the last years (see, for example, Grangeat et al (1996, 1997), PMB (1998) and Carlsson
(1999) and references therein). The development of two-dimensional CT detectors has a large
impact on the complete spectrum of applications of x-ray CT. This is especially valid for areas
like non-destructive testing and medical imaging.
For cone-beam CT scanning systems, volume reconstruction algorithms have been
developed and applied in various studies in order to show their full potential for future
applications. As for standard medical CT systems with one-dimensional detectors, for a cone-
beam CT scanner two different scanning modes are of particular interest as a consequence of
the unchanged basic system geometry: the circular and helical mode. These are of special
interest for typical applications such as medical imaging and non-destructive testing. While
the problem of cone-beam reconstruction for helical source–detector trajectories is a topic of
ongoing discussions (see, for example, Grangeat et al (1996, 1997), PMB (1998), Carlsson
(1999), Silver (1998), Tam et al (1998), Taguchi and Aradate (1998), Noo et al (1999) and
Kudo et al (1998) and references therein), the method developed by Feldkamp, Davis and
Kress (FDK) (Feldkamp et al 1984) seems to be the most favourable reconstruction technique
for circular trajectories.
The approximate reconstruction method which has been developed as a straightforward
adaptation of the 2D filtered backprojection to a cone-beam geometry has several advantages.
Apart from its easy implementation, it is exact in the central plane containing the circular
source trajectory and it is exact for objects being homogeneous in the direction parallel to
the rotation axis. Since its publication it has been most widely used for 3D cone-beam
0031-9155/00/020329+19$30.00 © 2000 IOP Publishing Ltd 329
330 M Grass et al

reconstruction. The non-exactness of the FDK approach is a consequence of the missing

data problem. The 3D Radon transform cannot be determined completely when projection
data are acquired along a circular source–detector trajectory (see, for example, Tuy (1983) and
Smith (1985)). Nevertheless, circular trajectories can be used in future cone-beam CT systems
since the artefacts due to missing data in Radon space are small for small cone-angles. Apart
from this, the FDK method is a good approximate reconstruction method since it has been
shown that the potentially exact 3D reconstruction method as described by Defrise and Clack
(1994) which is based on Grangeat’s (1991) fundamental relation and Natterer’s (1986) Radon
inversion formula breaks down to Feldkamp’s original approach when a circular trajectory is
assumed.
In this contribution we will describe a modified FDK approach for 3D reconstruction
from cone-beam projection data obtained along circular trajectories. In analogy to 2D
filtered backprojection reconstruction techniques, the cone-beam data acquired along a circular
source–detector trajectory can be rearranged into sets of fans of rays which are parallel to each
other and orthogonal to the plane of rotation. Each of these fans is then illuminating one
column of the 2D detector array perpendicular to the direction of the projection of the source
trajectory onto the detector plane. A subsequent rebinning yields projection data in a virtual
rectangular detector plane. These rebinning steps result in a projection geometry with a tent-
like shape. Consequently, the filtered backprojection type reconstruction algorithm applied to
the rearranged projection data is called the tent Feldkamp (T-FDK) approach in the following.
The resulting method is computationally more efficient than Feldkamp’s original approach and
yields an improved image quality. It will be shown that filtering along lines parallel to the
projection of the source path onto the rectangular virtual detector plane is advantageous to the
filtering along curved lines as done in former approaches (Turbell 1999).
In addition, based on the T-FDK method, a hybrid 3D reconstruction technique (HT-FDK)
has been developed. This novel approach is an extension of the 180◦ reconstruction condition
from the 2D to the 3D case. The application of this condition automatically yields an optimal
utilization of projection data on a virtual rectangular detector plane resulting from the T-FDK
approach. This combination is most attractive due to the resulting cylindrical reconstruction
volume. It yields an optimized ratio between the reconstructible and irradiated object volume.
This paper is organized as follows: in the following section the rebinning of cone-beam
projection data to a virtual rectangular detector plane and the T-FDK reconstruction method
is introduced. In section 3 first results of this method are compared with Feldkamp’s original
approach. The hybrid 3D cone-beam reconstruction technique is presented in section 4 and
the corresponding reconstruction results are discussed in sections. Finally, section 6 contains
a short summary.

2. The T-FDK method

In analogy to 2D filtered backprojection, the cone-beam data acquired along a circular

source–detector trajectory can be rebinned into a parallel-beam geometry. For a given 2D
detector, the cone-beam produced by the source illuminating a focus-centred detector can be
described as follows. Let SE be the vector from the centre of rotation of the scanning system
to the source and D E the vector from the centre of rotation to the centre of the detector. This
detector is a so-called focus-centred detector. It is placed on the surface of a cylinder with the
focal-spot lying on the symmetry axis of this cylinder (see figure 1(a)). For a scanning system
 3D cone-beam CT reconstruction for circular trajectories 331

Figure 1. (a) Schematic view of a cone-beam CT system with a two-dimensional focus-centred

detector moving along a circular source–detector trajectory. (b) Geometry of the cone-beam
projection data after cone-beam to parallel-beam rebinning. (c) Shape of the resulting irradiated
detector plane projected into the centre of rotation. (d) Final virtual rectangular detector plane in
the centre of rotation.

moving along a circular trajectory the position of source and detector results in:
! !
cos α − cos α
SE = S sin α E = D − sin α .
D (1)
0 0
The set of 2D projection data pf (α, β, γ ) on a focus-centred detector measured along a
circular source–detector trajectory is parametrized by the angular source position on the
circular trajectory α ∈ [0, 2π], the fan-angle β ∈ [−βmax , +βmax ] and the cone-angle
γ ∈ [−γmax , +γmax ]. A schematic view of the original data acquisition geometry is given
in figure 1(a). The rebinning of the cone-beam projection data to parallel-beam geometry is
performed as described below.
Let φ be a projection angle of the system on the circular source–detector trajectory from
which a parallel-beam projection has to be calculated. Then, from the available cone-beam
projections, the data are transformed as
pf (α, β, γ ) → pp (φ, β, γ ) (2)
332 M Grass et al

Figure 2. Schematic view of the rebinning of the projection data from the convex shaped area after
fan-beam to parallel beam rebinning to the virtual rectangular detector plane.

with φ fulfilling the relation φ = α + β. This fan-beam to parallel-beam rebinning is well

known from conventional single-row detector CT (Herman 1980). It is straightforwardly
extended to cone-beam geometry by simply treating each detector column (in the direction
perpendicular to the plane of rotation) in the same manner. It consists of two separate
rebinning steps. The first one is applied to ensure the condition φ = α + β. The second
one is applied to yield an equidistant sampling in the resulting parallel projections in the
row direction. It therefore corrects the non-equidistant sampling in the rebinned parallel
projections resulting from equidistant sampling in the row direction on the original focus-
centred detector. The overall number of projections and the pixel width in the row direction
in the centre of the focus-centred detector are preserved. The rebinning steps are performed
subsequently using a sixth-order Lagrange interpolation scheme (Elden and Wittmeyer-Koch
1990).
Consequently, this cone-beam to parallel-beam rebinning results in a new set of projections
with an extended source positioned along the original circular source path (see figure 1(b)).
Each of these source positions generate a fan-beam in the direction orthogonal to the plane
defined by the circular source path and illuminates a single detector column. The fans
are parallel to each other with an opening angle of 2γmax , the cone-angle. Consequently,
the resulting projection data p p (φ, β, γ ) can be described by the system projection angle
φ ∈ [0, 2π], the angular distance of the fan from the central line β ∈ [−βmax , +βmax ] and the
cone-angle γ ∈ [−γmax , +γmax ].
After having performed the cone-beam to parallel-beam rebinning the resulting new set
of projections can be visualized in a plane containing the centre of rotation. Within this plane
the line integrals are located in a convex shaped area as a consequence of the varying distances
from the source to this plane (see figure 1(c)).
In order to obtain the projection data in a virtual rectangular detector plane to be used in
3D cone-beam reconstruction a resampling to Cartesian coordinates in the column direction is
applied. A schematic view of this rebinning step is given in figure 2. The projection data on
the resulting virtual rectangular detector are parametrized in the following by pvr (φ, d xy , d z ),
with (cos φ, sin φ, 0) being the vector normal to the rectangular plane. φ still describes the
projection angle of a scanning system with an extended source. d xy and d z are the two Cartesian
coordinates within the new rectangular detector plane, where d z (d xy ) marks the direction in
the detector plane being orthogonal (parallel) to the plane-of-rotation:
p p (φ, β, γ ) → pvr (φ, d xy , d z ). (3)
 3D cone-beam CT reconstruction for circular trajectories 333
xy xy
The two Cartesian coordinates have a range of d xy ∈ [−dmax , +dmax ] and d z ∈
z z
[−dmax , +dmax ].
The maximum values are calculated as follows:
xy
dmax = S sin (βmax ) (4)
and
z
dmax = S tan (γmax ) cos (βmax ). (5)
This rectangular plane, which is the largest that completely fits into the convex shaped area, is
shown in figure 1(d). The data contained in the outer area do not need to be measured in the
original focus-centred detector plane if the proposed method is used. Therefore, the use of a
suitable collimator reduces the dose applied to the patient or object.
The rebinning steps described above lead to data on a virtual rectangular detector plane
on an equidistant Cartesian grid. All interpolation steps are carried out using a sixth-order
Lagrange interpolation scheme (Elden and Wittmeyer-Koch 1990). The resulting shape of the
volume area between the extended source and the virtual rectangular detector plane is obviously
tent-like and thus gives the origin for the name of the reconstruction technique applied to these
data: the tent Feldkamp–Davis–Kress method (T-FDK).
As a result a simplified 3D filtered backprojection method can be applied to the rebinned
data that lacks the distance weighting (magnification) factor ( Ss )2 which is well known from
the original FDK approach. While S is the length of the vector SE from the source to the centre
of rotation, s describes the length of the vector from the source to a voxel under consideration
projected onto SE within the original method. Consequently, the resulting new backprojection
method has a reduced computational complexity and can be expressed in the following manner:
Z 2π
1
x) =
f (E [(pvr (φ, d xy , d z ) · w T (d xy , d z )) ∗ h(d xy )] dφ. (6)
2π 0
The one-dimensional band limited ramp filter h(d xy ) (Magnusson-Seger 1993) is applied
along the lines parallel to the plane-of-rotation in the virtual detector plane (d xy direction).
The two-dimensional cosine type weighting function results as
 
ls
w (d , d ) = cos (θ(d , d )) =
T xy z xy z
(7)
lp
and compensates for the different ray length through the volume. The height of the extended
source
p position over the central line of the virtual rectangular detector is described by
ls = S 2 − d xy 2 since the extended source is positioned on the circular trajectory with radius S.
The length of the
q ray from the extended source position to the pixel under consideration is then
given by lp = ls2 + d z 2 . A schematic view of the geometry can be found in figure 3.
It is a consequence of the cone-beam to parallel-beam rebinning in combination with the
rectangular detector shape which leads to a varying distance from the extended source to the
detector and determines the modified cosine weighting function in this way. As a final step,
the filtered data are backprojected from the virtual detector plane along the rays towards the
extended source into the volume of interest.
It should be mentioned that the reconstruction method described in this section can be
understood on the one hand as an extension of the fan-beam to parallel-beam rebinning
technique from one- to two-dimensional detectors. On the other hand, it can be interpreted as an
application of Danielsson’s π -line approach for helical cone-beam reconstruction (Danielsson
et al 1999) to the case of pitch equal to zero while keeping a finite detector size in the direction
of the patient axis. The rectangular projection data window directly results from rebinning a
centre of rotation centred detector in Danielsson’s helical cone-beam CT method (Danielsson
334 M Grass et al

Figure 3. Schematic view of the projection geometry for a virtual rectangular detector plane and
the corresponding extended source. The geometric relations necessary for the calculation of the
cosine type weighting factor can be derived.

et al 1999). This also holds true for a circular trajectory. Non-rectangular virtual detector
planes are a consequence of the rebinning of 2D detectors which are not placed on the cylinder
defined by the source trajectory and the rotation axis of the system. The restriction of projection
data to a rectangular virtual detector and the corresponding filtering along lines parallel to the
central plane containing the source path finally leads to improved image quality, as illustrated
in section 3.

3. Reconstruction results of the T-FDK method

In this section cone-beam reconstruction results for circular source–detector trajectories are
presented. Results of Feldkamp’s original method are compared with the T-FDK reconstruction
method described above.
Here we present reconstruction results from a simulation study using the 3D Shepp–Logan
phantom as well as a disc phantom of the Defrise type (see Jacobson (1996) for a detailed
description). The projection data have been obtained by analytical forward projection using
mathematical phantoms. For each circular trajectory np = 720 projections have been simulated
using the distances S = 500 mm and D = 500 mm for the system geometry. Line integrals
for 512 by 512 detector elements have been calculated. A cone-angle of γmax = 15◦ and
a fan-angle βmax = 15◦ have been chosen for the focus-centred detector. The mathematical
phantoms have always been completely in the cone-beam of x-rays. All results presented in this
contribution have been reconstructed using a band-limited ramp filter, without an apodization
window (Magnusson-Seger 1993).
Based on these input data the FDK method and the T-FDK method were applied for the
reconstruction. For an easy comparison, an overview of the different steps the algorithms
consist of is given in table 1. As can be seen from this table, the FDK method directly utilizes
the focus-centred projections p f (α, β, γ ). The cosine weighting w(β, γ ) function applied
here directly results from the scanning geometry shown in figure 1(a). The modification of the
filter is a consequence of the focus-centred detector shape. The backprojection in the focus-
centred geometry requires the distance weighting factor (Feldkamp et al 1984). In contrast,
Table 1. Overview of the algorithmic steps necessary for the original FDK method, for the P-FDK method filtering the data along curved lines (see Turbell 1999), for the T-FDK and the
HT-FDK approach presented in this contribution. All methods are described for focus-centred projections on input.

Step FDK P-FDK (Turbell 1999) T-FDK HT-FDK

0 pf (α, β, γ ) pf (α, β, γ ) pf (α, β, γ ) pf (α, β, γ )

1 p f (α, β, γ ) → pp (φ, β, γ ) pf (α, β, γ ) → p p (φ, β, γ ) pf (α, β, γ ) → pp (φ, β, γ )

2 p p (φ, β, γ ) → pvr (φ, d xy , d z ) p p (φ, β, γ ) → pvr (φ, d xy , d z )

3 g0 = pf (α, β, γ ) g0 = pp (φ, β, γ ) g0 = pvr (φ, d xy , d z ) g0 = pvr (φ, d xy , d z )

4 g1 = g0 (α, β, γ ) · w(β, γ ) g1 = g0 (φ, β, γ ) · wP (β, γ ) g1 = g0 (φ, d xy , d z ) · w T (d xy , d z ) g1 = g0 (φ, d xy , d z ) · w T (d xy , d z )

 
h(β)
5 g2 = g1 (α, β, γ ) ∗ g2 = g1 (φ, β, γ ) ∗ h(β) g2 = g1 (φ, d xy , d z ) ∗ h(d xy ) g2 = g1 (φ, d xy , d z ) ∗ h(d xy )
sinc2 (β)
Z 2π  2 Z 2π Z 2π Z φ l (E
x)
1 S 1 1 1
6 f (E
x) = g2 (α, β, γ ) dα f (E
x) = g2 (φ, β, γ ) dφ f (E
x) = g2 (φ, d xy , d z ) dφ f (E
x) = a(φ, xE)g2 (φ, d xy , d z ) dφ
2π 0 s 2π 0 2π 0 2π x)
φ f (E
3D cone-beam CT reconstruction for circular trajectories
335
336 M Grass et al

Figure 4. Comparison of reconstruction results versus the discretization of a 3D Shepp–

Logan phantom. The first row of images shows different planes of the discretized volume of
the mathematical description of the phantom. The second (third) row shows results achieved
using the FDK (T-FDK) method. In the first three columns the central planes of the 3D
(reconstruction/discretization) volume are presented (column 1,y–z-plane; column 2, z–x-plane;
column 3, x–y-plane). The fourth column contains an x–y-plane being parallel to the central plane
of rotation with a cone-angle of 3.3◦ in the centre. The window width is 100 HU centred around
0 HU while the total signal in the image varies from [−1000: 1000] HU.

in the T-FDK method two rebinning steps are applied first. The remaining algorithm consists
of a multiplication with a modified cosine weighting function as appropriate for the geometry
shown in figure 1(d) and a filter for parallel projections. The backprojection performed in the
tent geometry lacks the distance weighting factor.
First reconstruction results are shown in figure 4, where the three central orthogonal
planes of a reconstructed volume containing the 3D Shepp–Logan phantom are presented
(2563 voxels). Additionally, a slice of the volume parallel to the plane containing the source
path is shown. The distance of this slice from the central plane corresponds to a cone-angle
of 3.3◦ in the centre of the slice. The signal in the image ranges from −1000 HU to 1000 HU
in all images shown (HU = Hounsfield units). The signal in the central area of the phantom
ranges from 0 HU to 40 HU. The window width of 100 HU is centred around 0 HU. The
reconstruction results are compared with a discrete version of the mathematical phantom.
From these images it can be seen that the results for the central plane of rotation are almost
perfect and the quality remains almost unchanged in the parallel plane. The images containing
the rotation axis of the system clearly show the so-called low-intensity drop with increasing
cone-angle as a consequence of missing data in Radon space. For the T-FDK approach this
low-intensity drop is significantly reduced in comparison to the original FDK method. The
 3D cone-beam CT reconstruction for circular trajectories 337
Column scan y-z-plane Column scan y-z-plane

1000 FDK FDK

T-FDK T-FDK
Discrete 40 Discrete

500
Absorption coefficient [Hounsfield]

Absorption coefficient [Hounsfield]

20

0 0

-20
-500

-40
-1000

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
Pixel number Pixel number

Column scan z-x-plane Column scan z-x-plane

1000 FDK FDK

T-FDK T-FDK
Discrete 40 Discrete

500
Absorption coefficient [Hounsfield]

Absorption coefficient [Hounsfield]

20

0 0

-20
-500

-40
-1000

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
Pixel number Pixel number

Column scan x-y-plane Column scan x-y-plane

200
1000 FDK FDK
T-FDK T-FDK
Discrete Discrete
150

100
500
Absorption coefficient [Hounsfield]

Absorption coefficient [Hounsfield]

50

0 0

-50

-500
-100

-150

-1000
-200
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
Pixel number Pixel number

Figure 5. Comparison of axial profile plots through the reconstructed 3D image function in
comparison to the discretization of the Shepp–Logan phantom. The first (second) [third] row shows
the central line of the y–z-plane (z–x-plane) [x–y-plane] of the reconstructed object function in
comparison to the discretized mathematical phantom itself. In the left column the overall object
function along this line is given, while the right column shows a magnification of the same data.
The line scans shown are equivalent to a central column scan through the images shown in the first
three columns of figure 4.

same results can be derived from the corresponding axial profile plots presented in figure 5.
These profiles plots correspond to lines along the central columns of the images shown in
columns one to three of figure 4.
Reconstruction results for the Defrise disc phantom are presented in figure 6 in which the
three orthogonal planes of this phantom are compared. The signal of the object is 0 HU and the
window width used in the images is 2000 HU centred around 0 HU. The reconstruction results
of the FDK and the T-FDK method are compared to a discrete version of the mathematical
338 M Grass et al

Figure 6. Comparison of reconstruction results versus the discretization of a Defrise disc phantom.
The first row of images shows different planes of the discretized volume of the mathematical
description of the phantom. The second (third) row shows results achieved using the FDK (T-FDK)
method. In the columns the central planes of the 3D (reconstruction/discretization) volume are
presented (column 1, y–z-plane; column 2, z–x-plane; column 3, x–y-plane). The window width
is 2000 HU centred around 0 HU while the total signal in the object varies from [−1000: 0] HU.

phantom. The decrease of the low-intensity drop when using the T-FDK method cannot be
directly extracted from these images since the object function shows strong variations. Once
again the axial profile scans corresponding to the images can be found in figure 7. The result
of the original FDK method yields a ragged line along the rotation axis of the system. The
overall behaviour of the result of the T-FDK method is smoother in comparison to the original
method and the overall decrease of the object function along the rotation axis of the system is
smaller. Small peaks at the edges of the reconstructed discs in the results of the T-FDK method
represent the influence of the height interpolation. The overall effect of decreasing the low-
intensity drop by means of the T-FDK method is smaller than in the case of the Shepp–Logan
phantom, but still visible.
The reduction of the low-intensity drop is a consequence of the filter direction in the virtual
rectangular detector plane used in the T-FDK algorithm. This is visualized in the reconstructed
images shown in figure 8. Here, results of the T-FDK method are compared with reconstruction
results from projections that have been filtered after the cone-beam to parallel-beam rebinning
in the convex shaped plane resulting in figure 1(c). Therefore, the filter direction has not been
parallel to the central plane as it is in the T-FDK approach. These results are in accordance with
those of Turbell (1999) where the curved lines have also been used as the filtering direction.
This method has been called the parallel Feldkamp method (P-FDK) in this work and the
results also show the low-intensity drop to be as strong as in the original FDK method. An
overview of the algorithmic steps of a P-FDK method is also given in table 1. From this
table it can be derived that only a fan-beam to parallel-beam rebinning step has been applied
 3D cone-beam CT reconstruction for circular trajectories 339
Column scan y-z-plane Column scan y-z-plane
400 200
FDK FDK
T-FDK T-FDK
Discrete Discrete
200 150

100
0
Absorption coefficient [Hounsfield]

Absorption coefficient [Hounsfield]

50
-200

0
-400

-50
-600

-100
-800

-150
-1000

-200
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
Pixel number Pixel number

Column scan z-x-plane Column scan z-x-plane

200
FDK FDK
400 T-FDK T-FDK
Discrete Discrete
150

200
100
Absorption coefficient [Hounsfield]

Absorption coefficient [Hounsfield]

0

50

-200

-400

-50
-600
-100

-800

-150

-1000
-200
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
Pixel number Pixel number

Column scan x-y-plane Column scan x-y-plane

200
FDK FDK
400 T-FDK T-FDK
Discrete Discrete
150

200
100
Absorption coefficient [Hounsfield]

Absorption coefficient [Hounsfield]

0
50

-200

-400

-50

-600
-100

-800

-150
-1000

-200
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
Pixel number Pixel number

Figure 7. Comparison of axial profile plots through the reconstructed 3D image function in
comparison to the discretization of the Defrise disc phantom. The first (second) [third] row shows
the central line of the y–z-plane (z–x-plane) [x–y-plane] of the reconstructed object function in
comparison to the discretized mathematical phantom itself. In the left column the overall object
function along this line is given, while the right column shows a magnification of the same data.
The line scans shown are equivalent to a central column scan through the images shown in the first
three columns of figure 6.

to the focus-centred cone-beam projection data. Therefore, the projection data remain in the
geometry shown in figure 1(c). The cosine weighting wP (β, γ ) and filtering is performed
appropriate to this geometry (Turbell 1999). Finally, the correct filtering direction determines
the resulting image quality as can be derived from figure 8.
To summarize, the introduced T-FDK method is advantageous in terms of the low-intensity
drop in contrast to the original FDK method. It also yields this image quality improvement
in comparison to reconstruction approaches filtering along curved lines in the convex shaped
plane in the centre of rotation after the cone-beam to parallel-beam rebinning (P-FDK) (Turbell
340 M Grass et al

Figure 8. Comparison of reconstruction results of a 3D Shepp–Logan phantom. Different planes

of the reconstruction volume are shown at the same geometrical positions as described in figure 4.
In this figure results of the T-FDK method (upper row) are compared with a P-FDK method
performing the filtering after the cone-beam to parallel-beam rebinning along curved lines on the
rebinned detector. The window width is 100 HU centred around 0 HU while the total signal varies
from [−1000: 1000] HU within each image.

1999). In comparison to the original FDK method, the computational complexity of the T-FDK
approach is reduced due to the absence of the distance weighting factor. An application of a
fast backprojection based Feldkamp method is possible (Turbell 1999). The improved image
quality results from the parallel filtering direction in the virtual rectangular detector plane.

4. Hybrid T-FDK reconstruction

The original FDK approach assumes that the object is always within the cone. This is in many
applications not the case. The problem of projection data truncated in the axial direction is cru-
cial for cone-beam reconstruction for circular source–detector trajectories. Non-planar orbits
are currently discussed as a solution to this problem in the framework of exact cone-beam re-
construction methods (see Kudo and Saito (1995) and Noo et al (1998) and references therein).
In this publication we suggest a 3D cone-beam reconstruction algorithm that explicitly
treats the case of objects extending the cone in the direction of the rotation axis. This method
is approximate in the sense of Feldkamp’s method, since it is still restricted to projection data
acquired along a single circular trajectory.
A schematic view of the cone-beam scanning geometry is presented in figure 9(a), where
three different regions of the reconstruction cylinder are defined separately. As can be seen from
this schematic view, all projection data obtained along the circular source–detector trajectory
contribute to the central area. All voxels contained in this area are in the cone for all source
positions. The shape of this area consists of a central cylinder with two conical regions at
both ends. For all voxels inside this region, a reconstruction algorithm can be applied using
the condition φ F = 360◦ , as is done in the original FDK approach. This condition for exact
reconstruction is an extension from the 2D to the 3D case while neglecting the cone-angle.
From this point of view voxels discussed so far fulfil the condition φ F and can be reconstructed
using all projection data.
 3D cone-beam CT reconstruction for circular trajectories 341

Figure 9. Schematic view of the reconstruction volume of a cone-beam scanning system (a) z–y-
plane containing the axis of rotation of the scanning system and (b) of the angular range of a voxel
in the outer part of the reconstruction volume which is projected onto the two-dimensional detector
for 180◦ . (c) Schematic view of the two opposed rays towards the same voxel in the plane defined
by the z-axis and the line connecting the first and the last source position.

Voxels in the outer parts of the volume (see figure 9(a)) are in the cone for a limited
number of projections only. If these voxels have seen the source for an angular range of
at least φ H = 180◦ they can still be reconstructed by using an extension of the 2D 180◦
reconstruction to 3D as the FDK algorithm is an extension of the 2D 360◦ reconstruction.
342 M Grass et al

Figure 10. 3D view of the volume irradiated by x-rays when using a cone-beam CT system for
projection acquisition along a circular source–detector trajectory. In the left panel a top view of
a cone-beam scanning system with a virtual rectangular detector plane is shown, which has been
projected onto the original focus-centred detector. In the central panel the complete irradiated
volume is presented. A separation of this irradiated volume into the non-reconstructible regions
at both ends of the volume (upper and lower inverse conical area) and the hybrid reconstructible
central cylinder in the centre is shown. This central cylinder can be subdivided in the 360◦ area
(central double conical region) and the 180◦ area (remaining part).

Using this extension, the rays from the first and the last source position taken into account
for the reconstruction of a voxel in the outer parts of the reconstruction volume are diametrically
opposed when they are projected onto the plane containing the source path. This can be seen
from figure 9(b). Unfortunately, in the direction perpendicular to this plane these rays are not
diametrically opposed, as is shown in figure 9(c). As already mentioned, this is a consequence
of the scanning trajectory that will not allow for complete data capture.
In terms of Danielsson’s π-line sufficiency condition (Danielsson et al 1999) the two
indicated rays should be truly diametrically opposed. Of course this cannot be achieved in
the circular source trajectory geometry. Consequently, this effect leads to artefacts in the
reconstructed images which become more important with increasing cone-angle. It is the
circular acquisition geometry itself which leaves us with the missing data problem that cannot
be solved.
With the above described additional reconstruction condition in mind, the reconstruction
volume resulting from 2D projection data obtained along a circular source–detector trajectory
can be significantly enlarged. In detail, the total volume irradiated during the motion of a
cone-beam scanner along a circular source path can be subdivided into three different regions
which are shown in the 3D views in figure 10. With acquired projection data on a rectangular
virtual detector plane as described in section 2, two inverse conical non-reconstructible regions
at both ends of the irradiated volume remain. The central double conical region is not affected
by the truncated projection problem at all and can be reconstructed using the condition φ F .
The remaining area of the central cylinder can be reconstructed by applying the condition φ H .
For an object which is homogeneous in the z-direction, exact reconstruction is possible within
the complete central cylinder when using the HT-FDK method.
A slice through the reconstruction volume containing the rotation axis of the system is
shown in figure 11. For each voxel contained in this slice the number of cone-beam projections
this voxel has been projected onto during a complete rotation of the scanning system is shown
in grey-level coding. This is done for a focus-centred detector and for a virtual rectangular
detector plane rebinned from the focus-centred projections. The voxels being projected onto
the detector plane for φ F = 360◦ and φ H > 180◦ are also shown as binary images. From these
results it can be directly seen that the extension of the 180◦ condition from 2D to 3D leads to a
 3D cone-beam CT reconstruction for circular trajectories 343

Figure 11. One slice through the reconstruction volume of a cone-beam CT scanner containing the
rotation axis of the system. In the upper row of images the number of cone-beam projections onto
which a voxel is projected during a circular motion of the scanning system is shown in grey-level
coding for this slice. A binary representation of these data for all voxel in this slice fulfilling φ F
(at least φ H ) is shown in the central (lower) row of images. The left column contains these results
for a FDK approach using a focus-centred detector. Results for the T-FDK method using the same
projection data after rebinning are shown on the right.

significantly enlarged reconstruction volume. This is valid for the FDK method itself and also
for the T-FDK method. Moreover, this volume is of cylindrical shape if data from a virtual
rectangular detector plane are used as in the T-FDK method.
The height of a cylindrical volume zF in the direction of the rotation axis fulfilling the
condition φ F results in
S−R
zF = d z (8)
S+D
for a system with a focus-centred detector of height d z . R marks the radius of the cylindrical
volume that has to be reconstructed. The height of the volume fulfilling the condition φ H is
S cos (βmax )
zH = d z (9)
S+D
with βmax = arcsin( RS ) being the maximum fan-angle needed to cover the cylindrical
reconstruction volume of radius R. The increase in the height of the cylindrical reconstruction
344 M Grass et al

volume can be easily calculated from these relations. For example, for a cone-beam scanning
system with S = 600 mm and D = 400 mm, an object fitting into a cylindrical reconstruction
volume of radius R = 250 mm and with a detector height of dz = 30 mm the cylindrical
volume is increased from zF = 10.5 mm to zH = 16.4 mm by using a hybrid reconstruction
approach.
The algorithmic steps necessary to perform an HT-FDK type reconstruction from
projection data acquired along a circular source detector trajectory are presented in table 1.
This algorithm differs from the T-FDK method described in the last step. The voxel position-
dependent decision about which reconstruction condition should be applied is expressed by the
angular integral limits φ f,l (E
x ). φ f (φ l ) describes the projection angle at which the voxel at the
position xE enters (leaves) the cone of x-rays. In the following, the two different reconstruction
conditions can be realized by using a voxel position and projection angle-dependent angular
weighting function a(φ, xE). Different examples of how these quantities behave in the case of
different voxel positions within the irradiated volume are presented in table 2. Whenever a
voxel in the reconstruction volume has been illuminated by the source over an angular range
of φ with φ H 6 φ < φ F the reconstruction must not be limited to the condition φ H . By
employing a suitable angular weighting function, all available projections can be taken into
account for the reconstruction. Hence, the signal-to-noise ratio of the reconstructed images
is optimized in the case of noisy input data. Two different examples for angular weighting
functions are given in table 2. More sophisticated angular weighting schemes than described
in table 2 are easily imaginable. However, φ H remains the minimum condition necessary for
reconstructing a voxel. The idea that the HT-FDK algorithm is based on is that voxels located
at different positions inside a 3D reconstruction volume can be reconstructed using the same set
of cone-beam projections but different reconstruction conditions and using position-dependent
angular weighting functions.

5. HT-FDK reconstruction results

In the following, the hybrid reconstruction method using the condition φ H and φ F is applied to
enlarge the reconstruction volume. In order to simulate the truncated projection problem
projection data have been simulated for a focus-centred detector with 1024(80) detector
elements in the d xy (d z ) direction. The system geometry is described by S = 600 mm and
D = 400 mm and 1024 by 80 detector element. βmax = 29.3◦ is the fan-angle and γmax = 2.3◦
the cone-angle of the system. The number of projections simulated per rotation is chosen to be
np = 1440. The phantom size remains unchanged. Some results of this method are presented
in figure 12. In this figure reconstruction results of the HT-FDK method are compared with
the T-FDK approach for a scanning system as described above. Several slices of a volume
reconstruction of the 3D Shepp–Logan phantom parallel to the central plane containing the
source trajectory are shown.
In the upper row of figure 12 results of the initial version of the T-FDK method are shown
for a number of slices with increasing distance to the central plane. The condition φ F restricts
the reconstructible volume to a conical region with decreasing diameter as a consequence of the
increasing distance from the source trajectory. This effect is clearly visible in the reconstruction
results.
Slices reconstructed at the same positions using the HT-FDK reconstruction method are
shown in the second row. While the central areas of these slices have been reconstructed
using the condition φ F , the remaining parts of each slice have been reconstructed using the
condition φ H . The enlargement of the reconstructible volume by using a combination of
different reconstruction conditions is obvious from the results shown in this figure. The window
Table 2. Different examples for the realization of the HT-FDK method for different voxel positions in the irradiated volume. The
description given here neglects the wrap-around problem for circular trajectories. A geometrical description of the different voxel
positions can be found in figure 9(a). For a voxel position in the outer regions of the reconstruction volume two different types of angular
weighting functions are presented. More sophisticated angular weighting functions are easily imaginable. The quantity np describes the
number of projections per rotation.

Voxel position Reconstruction Angular range Angular weighting function

xE condition φ r (E
x ) = φ f (E x)
x ) − φ l (E a(φ, xE)
1.0
Central part φ F = 360◦ φ r = 360◦
np
    
 2.0 φr φr
− 90◦ 6φ< + 90◦
Outer part φ H = 180◦ 180◦ 6 φ r < 360◦ a(φ, xE) = np 2.0 2.0

0.0 else

 1.0

 φf 6 φ < φl
 np

Outer part φ H = 180◦ 180◦ 6 φ r < 360◦ a(φ, xE) = and φ f 6 (φ + 180◦ ) < φ l



 2.0
 else
np
Remaining part Not reconstructible φr < 180◦ a(φ, xE) = 0.0
3D cone-beam CT reconstruction for circular trajectories
345
346 M Grass et al

Figure 12. Comparison of T-FDK (upper row) and HT-FDK (lower row) reconstruction results
for a 3D Shepp–Logan phantom. Different planes of the reconstruction volume are shown with
distances increasing from the central plane of rotation. While the reconstruction volume reaches
the conical ends for the T-FDK method, as can be clearly seen from the upper row, the HT-FDK
method still yields the complete slice of the reconstructible volume as a consequence of the φ H
condition. The window width is 100 HU centred around 0 HU while the total signal of the object
varies from [−1000: 1000] HU for all images shown.

width of the presented images is 100 HU while the total signal range of the phantom varies
from [−1000: 1000] HU in each slice. The overall image quality is not distinguishable for the
different areas in the enlarged volume, except for a difference in the signal-to-noise ratio.
This reconstruction method gives one the opportunity to enlarge the reconstruction volume
compared with standard approaches used for 3D reconstruction from circular trajectories. The
reconstruction volume enlargement is possible without an enlargement of the physical detector
size. Within the framework of the T-FDK reconstruction technique the hybrid reconstruction
approach is very easy to implement. A pre-determination of the radius of the cylindrical
volume which completely contains the object can be used for an optimization of the dimension
of the cylindrical reconstruction volume in the direction of the rotation axis. The smallest
fan-angle βmax completely covering the object within the plane of rotation finally determines
the dimension of the reconstructible volume along the rotation axis (see equation (9)). The
application of an angular weighted hybrid reconstruction method is computationally more
complex, but leads to an image quality enhancement.

6. Summary and conclusions

The Feldkamp-type 3D cone-beam reconstruction from tent-like shaped sets of line integrals
which can be rebinned from projection data obtained along circular source–detector trajectories
is a computationally efficient scheme. No distance weighting factors have to be calculated.
Compared with Feldkamp’s original approach (FDK) and compared with recently introduced
parallel rebinned reconstruction methods (P-FDK) the image quality is improved. The decrease
of the low-intensity drop with increasing cone-angle when using the T-FDK method is a
consequence of the filtering direction parallel to the projection of the source–detector trajectory
onto the virtual rectangular detector plane. As a consequence of the decreased low-intensity
 3D cone-beam CT reconstruction for circular trajectories 347

drop it is possible to apply cone-beam reconstruction for circular trajectories to projection data
from two-dimensional CT detectors of larger size in the direction of the rotation axis.
The idea that voxels located at different positions inside the reconstruction volume can be
reconstructed from one cone-beam projection data set by using the reconstruction condition
appropriate for the position leads to a hybrid T-FDK approach. The method is based on the
extension of the 2D 180◦ reconstruction condition to the 3D case. A significant enlargement
of the reconstruction volume results.
A fast and efficient scheme for 3D cone-beam reconstruction from projection data obtained
along circular source–detector trajectories results, which provides excellent image quality
within a cylindrical volume. The overall ratio between the reconstructible and the irradiated
object volume is optimized.

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