Timber

 classification of tree
 structure of tree
 defects in timber
 preservation and seasoning of timber
 timber products
 TIMBER
 Wood used for structural/construction purpose
 Standing timber- living tree yielding good timber
 Rough timber-after felling and separating branches
 Logs-barks are removed and cut in to pieces of
suitable length
Based on mode of growth
 Exogenous
 Endogenous
1. EXOGENOUS
Increase in bulk by growing outwards
Annual rings are formed
Coniferous
Deciduous
Soft wood
hardwood
2. ENDOGENOUS

grow inwards in a longitudinal fibrous mass

Eg: bamboo, palm and cane.
STRUCTURE OF EXOGENUS TREE
 PITH OR MEDULLA.
 Innermost central portion or core of the tree
 consists of cellular tissues-nourishes the plant in young age
 dies up and decays as plant gets older
 sap converts to woody fibres

 ANNUAL RINGS.
 The rings of woody fibre arranged in concentric circle around the pith
 It is known as annual rings because one such ring is added every year.
 HEART WOOD.
 Innermost rings surrounding the pith constitute the heart wood.
 This wood is darker in colour, stronger, more compact and durable.
 No active participation in growth process

 SAP WOOD. Or ALBURNUM

 Outer annual rings of the tree constitute the sap wood which
transmits the sap from roots to branches.
 Compared with heart wood, sap wood is lighter in colour, weaker
and more liable to decay.
 Recent growth
 CAMBIUM LAYER.
 Outermost one ring between the bark and sap wood which is not yet
converted into wood is known as the cambium layer.
 In due course, cambium layer changes to sapwood.
 If the cambium layer is exposed by removing the bark, the cells cease to
be active and results in death of tree.

 MEDULLARY RAYS.
 These are thin horizontal veins radiating from the pith towards the bark.
 They carry sap from outside to the inner parts of tree and nourish it.
 They keep the annual rings tightly gripped together.
 In some trees they might be found broken or may not even be clearly
visible.
 BARK.
 INNER BARK
Inner skin or layer covering cambium layer
 OUTER BARK
It is outermost protective covering of cells and
woody fibres on a tree.
In course of time older layer split and scale off.
 COMMON STRUCTURE OF TREE

 Trunk- the trunk supports crown and transports water

and nutrients from roots to leaves and from leaves to
roots
 Crown-consits of leaves and branches
 Root-implant trees in soil, absorb moisture and
minerals
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
Due to natural forces
Due to conversion
Due to attack by fungi
Due to attack by insects
Due to erroneous seasoning
DEFECTS DUE TO NATURAL FORCES

 1. Knots  6. Wind cracks

 2. Shakes  7. Burls
 3. Rind galls  8. Dead wood
 4. Upsets  9. Foxiness
 5. Twisted fibres  10. Stain
1. KNOTS
 Knots are the stumps of broken branches of the tree
during the growth of the tree.
 Grains are distorted in this portion.
 These are dark and hard pieces.
 live knot and dead knot.
 In the live knot, fibres are firmly held by the
surrounding wood, whereas fibres are not held firmly
in a dead knot.
2. SHAKES

 Shakes are cracks in timber due to

excessive heat, wind or frost during the growth
of the tree, which separate the fibre of wood
 Depending upon their shapes and
positions, shakes are classified as cup shakes,
heart shakes, ring shakes, star shake
Cup shakes
Rupture of tissue in a circular direction
Partially separates on annular ring from other
Due to non uniform growth or excessive bending in
cyclonic weather
Covers only a portion
Heart shakes
Occur in centre of cross section of trees
Extend from pith to sapwood in direction of
medullary rays
Occurs due to shrinkage of interior part of tree which
approaches maturity
Divides cross section to 2-4 parts
Ring shakes
Covers the entire ring
Star shakes
Extend from bark towards sapwood
Wider outside, narrower inside
Due to extreme heat or severe frost
Radial shakes
Fine irregular numerous
Occuers due to seasoning in sun
3. RIND GALL
Due to imperfect cutting of branches during the
growth of tree, the tree may be wounded. To heal the
wounds. curved swelling takes place. This defective
portion is called rind gall
4. UPSETS
 It is injury due to crushing or compression
during the growth of the tree.
 It is also known as rupture.
5. TWISTED FIBRE:
 Heavy winds cause young trees to get
permanently twisted.
 It can be used as a pole, since twisted fibres
add to the strength of a pole.
6. WIND CRACKS:
 These are tracks on the exterior surface due to
excessive shrinkage.
7. BURLS or EXCRESCENCE
 If a tree receives a shock when it is young the growth
is completely upset and irregular projections appear
this types of defect is known as burl.
8. Dead wood:
 A standing aged tree contains dead wood.
 This portion is light in weight and reddish in colour.
9. Foxiness:
This defect is indicated by red or yellow tinge in wood.
It is due to poor ventilation during storage or due to
growth of tree in a marshy soil
10. Shocks
 received by tree during its growth
Defects due to seasoning
 Bow  Honey combing
 Case hardening  Radial shakes
 Check  Split
 Collapse  Twist
 Cup  warp
 Bow- curvature formed in the direction of length
 Case hardening-exposed surface dries rapidly and shrinks
 Check-crack which seperates fibers of wood
 Collapse-uneven shrinkage results flattening during drying
 Honey combing-Due to stress ,radial and circular cracks develop
in interior portion
 Radial shakes- radial cracks
 Split- check extends from one end to another
 Twist- when timber is spirally distorted
 Warp- piece of timber has twisted out of shape
Defects due to fungi
 Blue stain
 Brown stain
 Dry rot
 Heart rot
 Sap strain
 Wet rot
 White rot
DEFECTS DUE TO CONVERSION
Chip mark
Torn grain
Diagonal grain
wane
 SEASONING OF WOOD
 Newly felled tree contains 50% or more of its own
dry weight as water
 Process of drying timber or removing moisture or
sap, present in freshly felled timber under more or
less controlled conditions
 Wood is a hygroscopic material
OBJECT OF SEASONING
1. increase the durability by protecting it from
fungi, insects and other causes related to
moisture content
2. impart hardness, stiffness, strength and
resistance to electric shocks
3. maintain shape and size
4. make it workable
5. make it fit to receive painting;
6. make it suitable for gluing;
7. reduce the tendency of cracking and warping;
8. decrease weight and save transportation cost
9. allow to burn easily, if used as fuel
METHODS OF SEASONING

 (a) Natural seasoning

 (b) Artificial seasoning
 NATURAL SEASONING -AIR SEASONING:

 In a shed with a platform of height 300 mm timber is

stacked.
 Care is taken to see that air can circulate around each
timber balk.
 Moisture content decreases over a period of time.
 Well seasoned timber contains only 15 percent moisture.
 This process is slow but it is the best method of seasoning
(b) Artificial Seasoning
 The various methods of artificial seasoning are:
(i) Boiling
(ii) Kiln seasoning
(iii) Chemical seasoning
(iv) Electrical seasoning
(v) Water seasoning
(i) Boiling:
 In this method timber is immersed in water and then
water is boiled for 3-4 hours.
 Instead of boiling hot steam may be passed over the
timber.
 Then it is dried slowly.
 This process of seasoning is fast but costly.
 It reduces the strength of timber to some extent.
(ii) Kiln seasoning:
 airtight chamber.
 In this timber to be seasoned is placed and hot air is
pumped in.
 After moisture content is brought down, the temperature
is reduced and the chamber is allowed to cool.
 The kiln used may be progressive type also.
(iii) Chemical seasoning:
 It is also known as salt seasoning.
 In this method, the timber is dipped in a solution of
sodium chloride or sodium nitrate.
 The surface salt draws out inner moisture.
 This preliminary treatment by chemicals ensures
uniform seasoning across the section.
 It is then taken out and seasoned in the ordinary way.
(iv) Electrical seasoning:
 In this method, high frequency alternating current is passed
through the timber.
 Heat is introduced internally and the timber starts drying.
 As the moisture content reduces resistance to electricity
increase.
 The measure of resistance may be used to stop seasoning at
appropriate level.
 This method is fast and uniform.
 Many plywood companies adopt this method. It is a costly
technique.
(v)Water seasoning
 In this method logs are placed in a river with thicker ends
pointing upstream.
 A number of logs are tied together and the group is
anchored to a standing tree or to rock to see that it is not
carried away by the river.
 The sap contained in the timber is washed out over a
period of 2-4 weeks.
 The timber is then stacked in a dry place.
 Compared to air seasoning this method takes less times.
Market forms of timber
Batten
 Breadth and thickness do not exceed 50mm
Baulk
 Roughly squared timber piece
 Removes bark and sapwood
Plank
 timber piece with parallel sides
 Thickness<50mm
 Width>50mm
Board
 It is aplank
 Thickness<50mm
 Width >150mm
Deal
 Piece of softwood with parallel sides
 Thickness=50-100mm
 Width<230mm
Pole or spar
 Long log of wood
 Dia<200mm
Scantling
 Breadth and thickness exceeds50mm but length less than
200mm
INDUSTRIAL TIMBERS
 Veneers
 Plywood's
 Fibreboards
 Impreg timbers
 Compreg timbers
 Block board and lamin board
 Glulam
 Flushdoor shutters
 Particle board or chip board
Veneers
 Thin sheets or slice of wood of superior quality
 Thickness= 0.4-6mm
 Obtained by cutting using rottary cutter
 Edges are joined to form decorative sheets
 Wood used-Mahagony, oak,rosewood, teak
 Process of preperation of veneer- veneering
PLYWOODS
 Ply- thin layers
 Thickness-6-25mm
 Veneers placed one above the other, with direction of grains of
each layer at right angles to each other
 Pressure applied on gluing - 0.7-1.40 N/mm2
 Ordinary grade, used as packing material.
 Exterior grade, made of good quality wood and bonded with
waterproof glue.
 Marine grade, in which core and exterior are of superior quality.
The thicknesses of plywood boards
• 3 ply – 3, 4, 5, 6 mm
• 5 ply – 5, 6, 8, 9 mm
• 7 ply – 9, 12, 15, 16 mm
• 9 ply – 12, 15, 16, 19 mm
• 11 ply – 19, 22, 25 mm
• More than 11 ply – as per order
Impreg timbers
 Timber which is fully or partially covered with resin
 Phenol formaldihyde
 Cured at a temperature of 150⁰c-160⁰c

Compreg timbers
 Curing –under pressure
Fibre board/ pressed wood/ reconstructed wood
 Wooden chips and vegetable fibres are placed in
boiling water till fibres separate.
 These fibres are blended with resin and steam under
pressure. After releasing pressure, fibres are allowed
to flow out and cleaned.
 Then fibres are spread in the form of sheets and
pressed under controlled heat and pressure. Thus
fibre boards are manufactured.
 Particle boards/ chip board
 These boards are manufactured from chips of wood, rice husk
and bagasses obtained after crushing sugar cane.
 First moisture content in these material is reduced to 15
percent by drying. Then gluing material like formaldehyde is
sprayed and spread in three layers along with a resin mix.
 The outer layers consist of fine particles and richer resin
content. the mat is pressed with hydraulic presses. Particle
boards are heavier. They have reasonable strength. They are
used as partitions and for making furniture.
Block boards/lamin boards/ batten boards
 The core of these boards consists of strips of wood of
width 25-80 mm, glued together.
 Veneers are glued on either side of the above mat.
Thickness of the veneer used is 0.5-1.5 mm while
total thickness is 18 mm and above.
 These boards are used for making bodies of buses,
railway coaches, partitions and furniture.
Hard board:
 Hard board is made from wood and wood waste,
which is pulped and mixed with paraffin wax and
formaldehyde.
 Face surface smooth, back surface is rough
 Width-1.2m
 Length-1.2-5.5m
Timbers with ___________ annular rings are generally the
strongest.
a) Narrow
b) Wide
c) Distinct
d) Indistinct
How much time does natural seasoning takes for timber to be
properly seasoned?
a) 1-4 years
b) 6-12 months
c) 5-10 months
d) 5-7 years
Which of the below is a natural defect occurring in timber?
a) Twist
b) Split
c) Shakes
d) Bow
What causes dry rot in timber?
a) Bacteria
b) Beetle
c) White ants
d) Fungus
A crack which separates wood fibres is called:
a) Warp
b) Check
c) Collapse
d) Split
Plywood is identified by
(a) volume
(b) weight
(c) area
(d) thickness