GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

Chapter 10 A DNA Nucleotide: Guanine

From DNA to Protein Figure 10.2 Comparing nucleotides of DNA and RNA.

10.1 Ricin, RIP

• A tiny amount of ricin, a natural protein found in
castor-oil seeds, can kill an adult human – there is no
antidote
• Ricin is a ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP)
- Inactivates the organelles which assemble amino
acids into proteins
• Other RIPs include Shiga toxin, made by Shigella A. The DNA nucleotide guanine (G), or deoxyguanosine
dysenteriae bacteria, and Shiga-like toxin made by E. triphosphate, one of the four nucleotides in DNA.
coli bacteria The other nucleotides—adenine, uracil, and
cytosine—differ only in their component bases
RIPs and Their Sources (blue). Three of the four bases in RNA nucleotides
are identical to the bases in DNA nucleotides.

B. The RNA nucleotide guanine (G), or guanosine

triphosphate. The only difference between the DNA
and RNA versions of guanine (or adenine, or
cytosine) is that RNA has a hydroxyl group (shown in
Figure 10.1 Lethal lineup: a few toxic ribosome-inactivating
red) at the 2′carbon of the sugar.
proteins (RIPs) and their sources. One of the two chains of a
toxic RIP (brown) helps the molecule cross a cell’s plasma
membrane; the other (gold) is an enzyme that inactivates
ribosomes.

10.2 DNA, RNA, and Gene Expression

• Transcription converts information in a gene to RNA
- DNA → transcription → mRNA
• Translation converts information in an mRNA to
protein
- mRNA → translation → protein

DNA to RNA
• Each DNA strand consists of a chain of the four
nucleotides: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G),
and cytosine (C)
• The sequence of the bases in the strand is the Figure 10.3 Comparing the structure and function of DNA and
genetic code RNA.
• All of a cell’s RNA and protein products are encoded DNA – double helix, Thymine, Deoxyribose sugar
by DNA sequences called genes (Gene – trait) RNA – single helix, Uracil, Ribose sugar
• DNA is transcribed to RNA Nucleotide - backbone
• Enzymes synthesize a complementary
strand of RNA from the DNA template Types and Functions of RNA
• DNA versus RNA • Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Most RNA is single-stranded - Contains the information transcribed from DNA
• RNA uses ribose instead of deoxyribose as • Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
its sugar - Main component of ribosomes, which build
• RNA uses uracil instead of thymine polypeptide chains
 • Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- Delivers amino acids to ribosomes
RNA to Protein
• mRNA is translated to protein
- rRNA and tRNA translate the sequence of base
triplets in mRNA into a sequence of amino acids
• Translation
- Information carried by mRNA is decoded into a
sequence of amino acids
- Results in a polypeptide chain that folds into a
protein
- Only exons present in cytoplasm
Gene Expression
• The DNA sequence (genes) contains all the
information needed to make the molecules of life
• Gene expression is a multistep process
- Includes transcription and then translation
- Genetic information from the genes is converted
into a structural or functional part of a cell or
organism
*Genes need to have proteins in order to function
10.3 Transcription: DNA to RNA
• RNA polymerase assembles RNA by linking RNA
nucleotides into a chain, in the order dictated by the
base sequence of a gene
- A new RNA strand is complementary in
sequence to the DNA strand from which it was
transcribed
• DNA replication and transcription both synthesize
new molecules by base-pairing
- Uracil (U) pairs with adenine (A)
- RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to transcript
Transcription – Base-Pairing
The Process of Transcription
• RNA polymerase and regulatory proteins attach to a
promoter (a specific binding site in DNA close to the
start of a gene)
• RNA polymerase
- Moves over the gene in a 5' to 3' direction
- Unwinds the DNA helix
- Reads the base sequence
- Joins free RNA nucleotides into a
complementary strand of mRNA
Discussed by Ma’am Zarine:
- mRNA enters the nucleus
- RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA before
unzipping phase
- DNA helicase unzips the two strands
- Topoisomerase unwinds the strands
- mRNA can now base-pair
Figure 10.4 Animated Transcription. By this process, a strand
of RNA is assembled from nucleotides according to a
template: a gene region in DNA. Figure It Out: After the
guanine, what is the next nucleotide that will be added to this
growing strand of RNA?
A. RNA polymerase binds to a promoter in the DNA.
The binding positions the polymerase near a gene. In
most cases, the base sequence of the gene occurs on
only one of the two DNA strands. Only the DNA
strand complementary to the gene sequence will be
translated into RNA.
B. The polymerase begins to move along the DNA and
unwind it. As it does, it links RNA nucleotides into a
strand of RNA in the order specified by the base
sequence of the DNA. The DNA winds up again after
the polymerase passes. The structure of the
“opened” DNA at the transcription site is called a
transcription bubble, after its appearance.
C. Zooming in on the gene region, we can see that RNA
polymerase covalently bonds successive nucleotides
into an RNA strand. The base sequence of the new
RNA strand is complementary to the base sequence
of its DNA template strand, so it is an RNA copy of
the gene
Transcription – A New Strand of RNA
A. The enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a promoter in
the DNA. The binding positions the polymerase near
a gene. Only the DNA strand complementary to the
gene sequence will be translated into RNA.

. -
B. RNA polymerase begins to move along the gene and
unwind the DNA. As it does, it links RNA nucleotides
in the order specified by the sequence of the
complementary (noncoding) DNA strand. The DNA
winds up again after the polymerase passes.
C. Zooming in on the site of transcription, we see that
RNA polymerase covalently bonds successive
nucleotides into a new strand of RNA. The new RNA
is complementary in sequence to the template DNA
strand, so it is an RNA copy of the gene.
Post-Transcriptional Modifications
• RNA is modified before it leaves the nucleus as
mature mRNA
• This is to summarize the DNA sequence
• Introns
- Nucleotide sequences that are removed from
new RNA strands
• Exons
- Sequences that stay in RNA
o Result: summary of DNA sequence
10.4 RNA and the Genetic Code
• mRNA carries the information for building proteins
to ribosomes and tRNA for translation
• Protein building information is carried in codons
Sequence of three mRNA nucleotides
- Codes for a specific amino acid
- Order of codons in mRNA dictates the order of
amino acids in the polypeptide chain
The Genetic Code
• There are 64 codons (summary) possible in making
up the genetic code
- *(3 nucleotides for 1 code and 1 amino acid)
• 20 kinds of amino acids found in proteins
- Some amino acids coded by more than one
codon
- Some codons signal the start or end of genes
o AUG (methionine) is the start codon
o UAA, UAG, and UGA are stop codons
-
A Codon Table

Alternative Splicing
• Allows one gene to encode multiple proteins
- Some exons removed from RNA
- Other exons spliced together in various
combination
• After splicing, final transcripts are finished
- Modified guanine ‘cap’ at the 5' end
- Poly-A tail at the 3' end

Post-Transcriptional Modifications

Figure 10.7 The genetic code

A. Codon table. each codon in mRNA is a set of three
nucleotide bases. The left column lists a codon’s first
base, the top row lists the second, and the right
Figure 10.6 Post-transcriptional modification of RNA. introns
column lists the third. Sixty-one of the triplets
are removed and exons spliced together. Messenger RNAs
encode amino acids; one of those, AUG, both codes
also get a poly-A tail and modified guanine “cap.”
for methionine and serves as a signal to start
translation. Three codons are signals that stop
translation.
The 20 Amino Acids Specified by the Genetic Code Figure 10.9 Ribosome structure. Each intact ribosome
consists of a large and a small subunit. The structural protein
components of the two subunits are shown in green; the
catalytic rRNA components, in brown.

tRNA Structure – Tryptophan

Figure 10.10 tRNA Structure

A. Icon and model of the tRNA that carries the amino
acid tryptophan. Each tRNA’s anticodon is
Figure 10.7 The genetic code
complementary to an mRNA codon. Each also carries
B. Names and abbreviations of the 20 naturally
the amino acid specified by that codon.
occurring amino acids specified by the genetic code
*Inside Ribosomal unit is the tRNA, which helps create
(A).
anticodon
From DNA through RNA to Protein
10.5 Translation: RNA to Protein
• Translation converts genetic information from mRNA
into a new polypeptide chain
- Amino acid order is determined by codon order
- Occurs in the cytoplasm
- Occurs in three stages
o Initiation – start codon
o Elongation – produce polypeptide chain
o Termination – stop codon

Overview of Translation in a Eukaryotic Cell

Figure 10.8 Example of the correspondence between DNA,

RNA, and protein. A gene region in a strand of chromosomal
DNA is transcribed into an mRNA, and the codons of the
mRNA specify a chain of amino acids—a protein.

All Types of RNA Work Together

• tRNAs deliver amino acids to ribosomes
- Contains an anticodon complementary to an
mRNA codon
- Contains a binding site for the amino acid coded
by the codon
• rRNA and proteins make up ribosomes
- Link amino acids into polypeptide chains Figure 10.11 Overview of translation in a eukaryotic cell.
- Two rRNA subunits and proteins make up each RNAs are transcribed in the nucleus, then transported into
ribosome the cytoplasm through nuclear pores. Translation begins
when ribosomal subunits and tRNA converge on an mRNA in
rRNA – Ribosome Structure cytoplasm.

Initiation
• Initiation complex forms
- A small ribosomal subunit binds to mRNA
- The anticodon of initiator tRNA base pairs with
the start (AUG) codon of mRNA
o Everything starts at AUG (Met)
 - A large ribosomal subunit joins the small
ribosomal subunit
Elongation
• The ribosome assembles a polypeptide chain as it
moves along the mRNA
- Initiator tRNA carries methionine, the first
amino acid of the chain
- The ribosome joins each amino acid to the
polypeptide chain with a peptide bond
Termination
• When the ribosome encounters a stop codon,
polypeptide synthesis ends
- Release factors bind to the ribosome
- Enzymes detach the mRNA and polypeptide
chain from the ribosome
 Nucleotides after the stop codon will be discarded
o If there is an AUG codon after the stop
code, it will be discarded and go back to
Transcription phase
Figure 10.12 Animated Translation. Translation begins when
ribosomal subunits and an initiator tRNA converge on an
mRNA. Then, tRNAs deliver amino acids in the order dictated
by successive codons in the mRNA. The ribosome links the
amino acids together as it moves along the mRNA, so a
polypeptide forms and elongates. Translation ends when the
ribosome reaches a stop codon.
10.6 Mutated Genes and Their Protein Products
• If the nucleotide sequence of a gene changes, it may
result in an altered gene product, with harmful
effects
• Mutations
- Small-scale changes in the nucleotide sequence
of a cell’s DNA that alter the genetic code
- Relative uncommon events in normal cells
- Mutations can also be for evolution
Mutations and Proteins
• A mutation that changes a UCU (ser) codon to UCC
(ser) is “silent”
- It has no effect on the gene’s product because
both codons specify the same amino acid
o Wrong base-pair but same amino acid
 Happens in Translation
(maybe)
• Other mutations can have severe consequences for
the organism
- May change an amino acid in a protein
- Can result in a premature stop codon that
shortens a protein
Common Mutations
• Base-pair-substitution
- May result in a premature stop codon or a
different amino acid in a protein product
- Example: sickle-cell anemia
• Deletion or insertion
- Can cause the reading frame of mRNA codons to
shift, changing the genetic message
- Example: thalassemia (low-level presence of
blood; 4 amino acids are incorrect)
*Example: Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Regulator Protein thalassemia, a genetic disorder in which a person
(CFTR Protein) is responsible for thinning the lining of has an abnormally low amount of hemoglobin.
epithelial cells/tissues
- Mutation occurs when it deletes #F508

*Physical Mutation
 Occurs during Meiosis I
 There is a defect in the gametes
E. An insertion of one nucleotide causes the reading
* Hereditary – if there is history of abnormalities from the frame for the rest of the mRNA to shift. The protein
side of one parent translated from this mRNA is too short and does not
* Mutation – if both genes are healthy but the offspring has assemble correctly into hemoglobin molecules. As in
abnormalities D, the outcome is beta thalassemia.

Examples of Mutations
Figure 10.13 Examples of mutations

A. Hemoglobin, an oxygen-binding protein in red blood

cells. This protein consists of four polypeptides: two
alpha globins (blue) and two beta globins (green).
Each globin has a pocket that cradles a heme (red).
Oxygen molecules bind to the iron atom at the
center of each heme.

B. Part of the DNA (blue), mRNA (brown), and amino

acid sequence of human beta globin. Numbers
indicate nucleotide position in the mRNA.

C. A base-pair substitution replaces a thymine with an

adenine. When the altered mRNA is translated,
valine replaces glutamic acid as the sixth amino acid.
Hemoglobin with this form of beta globin is called
HbS, or sickle hemoglobin.

D. A base-pair deletion shifts the reading frame for the

rest of the mRNA, so a completely different protein
product forms. The mutation shown results in a
defective beta globin. The outcome is beta