The domestication of animal and vegetal species took place in the Near East before 8000 BC.

This
process allowed for the creation of the first Neolithic societies, whose economy was primarily based on
food production rather than on gathering and hunting. This lifestyle rapidly spread to Anatolia and the
Southern Balkans, from where it began to spread northward after 6100 BC (Müller 2015).

Marinova and Krauß (2014) used flotation techniques on a total of 27 soil samples from Early Neolithic
levels of Orlovets, Koprivets, Samovodene and Dzhulyunitsa, and the Late Neolithic levels of Koprivets
and Samovodene. They found that the dominant crop species was hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare),
followed by einkorn (Triticum monococcum) and emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum). Hopf (1988) also
found that these three species, and especially barley, were the most common among the imprints left
on adobe construction material at the Late Neolithic site of Polyanitsa-Platoto. Imprints of wheat and
barley were also present on burnt adobe at the Starcevo-Cris site of Şimnicu de Jos, and wheat imprints
were found at Verbicioara, a site from the Dudesti period (Cârciumaru 1996: 58). Macroremains of these
three crops were also found in the Gumelnița sites of Hârșova-tell (Monah 2000), Radovanu, Ipotești,
Lișcoteanca, Teiu, Căscioarele-Ostrovel, Izvoarele, Gumelnița, Vlădiceasca, Vărăști-Grădiștea Ulmilor
(Cârciumaru 1996), Vitănești, Lăceni (Bogaard 2001), Pietrele (Toderaș et al. 2009), Sultana-Malu Rosu
(Golea et al. 2014), and Taraschina (Danu et al. 2019). At Vărăști-Grădiștea Ulmilor, barley constitutes
around 70% of the macroremains of the Boian-Vidra phase, while emmer wheat accounts for 25%;
during the Gumelnița phase, the assemblage exclusively consists of barley (Cârciumaru 1996: 83).
Among these three cereals, barley is largely dominant, contrary to the sites of southern Bulgarian were
wheats are more frequent (Marinova and Krauß 2014). Naked barley constitutes the majority of the
14000 seeds found at the B1 level of Gumelnița (Cârciumaru 1996: 91), and at the Copper age site of
Hotnica (Marinova and Popova 2008). For the same period, Provadia–Solnitsata is an exception, as
einkorn is the dominant species (Hristova et al. 2019).

Flax seeds and small amounts of legumes such as lentils (Lens culinaris), peas (Pisum sativum), and
grass-pea (Lathyrus saticus / cicera) were also found in Early Neolithic Bulgarian sites. In addition, bitter
vetch (Vicia ervilia) was also found in the Late Neolithic Layer of Samovodene (Marinova and Krauß
2014), and was the dominant species at the Copper Age sites of Căscioarele-Ostrovel (Cârciumaru 1996:
70) and Hotnica (Marinova and Popova 2008). Even though it was one of the species initially
domesticated in the Near-East and can be found in southern Bulgaria, Chick pea (Cicer arietinum) is
absent from the Lower Danube until the Copper Age, where small quantities can be found in Hotnica
(Marinova and Popova 2008).

A selection of wild plants were also gathered: cornelian cherries or cornels (Cornus mas), plums, hazels
(Corylus avellana), elderberries (Sambucus sp.) and raspberries / blackberries (Rubus sp.), bladder
cherries (Physalis alkekengi), grapes (Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestis), and henbanes (Hyoscyamus sp.) were
found in Early Neolithic Bulgarian sites. Water chestnuts (Trapa natans) and club-rushes (Schoenoplectus
cf. lacustris) were also found at Dzhulyunitsa (Marinova and Krauß 2014).
Şimnicu de Jos

Verbicioara, Dudesti, wheat

Vădastra barley wheat and panicum?

Bolintineanu: einkorn Buckwheat (Fagopyrum) millet (Panicum miliaceum)

Giulesti: fava bean (Vicia Faba)

Boian Spantov: Radovanu: einkorn and emmer wheat

Caosciarele around 650 seeds covered in ash were found in a dwelling of the the gulmenita A2 level.
97.5% of them bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia), 1.8% of hairy vetch (Vicia hirsuta), and 0.7% of knotgrass
(Polygonum aviculare). In this same structure, there were a few seeds of wild pea (Pisum elatius), wheat
and barley.

At the same site were found grape pips and fat-hen (Chenopodium album) and stoneseed
(Lithospermum)

(Cârciumaru 1996: 70).

At circea, charred remains were found in ritual pits. Peas and wheat. Dudesti period.

(Cârciumaru 1996: 70).

At Morteni-Magura, Gulmenita period, large quantity of charred millet seeds. But attribution to the
period is unsure. (Cârciumaru 1996: 91).

At Morteni-Magura, Gulmenita period, large quantity of charred millet seeds. But attribution to the
period is unsure. (Cârciumaru 1996: 91).

Grădiştea Ulmilor charred seeds, Vidra phase: more than 70% barley, and 25% emmer wheat. Gulmenita
phase: only barley seeds.

(Cârciumaru 1996: 83).

Ulmeni-Valea lui Soare. In a Gulmenita A1 vase, large quantity of seeds. Lithospermum

purpurocaeruleum, the purple gromwell

Sultana-Malu Roșu Gumelnița, mai precis, L5 este încadrabilă în faza A2, iar locuința L2 în faza B1
Remains collected directly, found in vases, and through flotation

More than 60% were fat hen. 10% stoneseed. Also hazels, barley, wheat. Grape pips.

Astfel, pentru exemplificare, amintim că specii de cereale (Triticum

monococcum, Triticum dicoccum și Hordeum vulgare) au fost atestate la Hârșova-tell (F. Monah

2000), Radovanu, Ipotești, Lișcoteanca, Teiu, Căscioarele-Ostrovel (M. Cârciumaru 1996), Vitănești,

Lăceni (A. Bogaard 2001), Pietrele (M. Toderaș et alii 2009), Izvoarele, Vlădiceasca și Vărăști-

Grădiștea Ulmilor (M. Cârciumaru et alii 2005). Alte specii descoperite în situri din perioada

gumelnițeană, de pe teritoriul României sunt: Chenopodium album (spanac sălbatic) – la Morteni,

Geangoiești, Gumelnița, Căscioarele-Ostrovel (M. Cârciumaru 1996), Lăceni, Vitănești (A. Bogaard

2001), Pietrele (M. Toderaș et alii 2009) și Hârșova-tell (F. Monah 2000); Fallopia convolvulus (hrișcă

urcătoare) – în siturile de la Morteni (M. Cârciumaru 1996) și Vitănești (A. Bogaard 2001); Polygonum

aviculare (troscot) – la Căscioarele-Ostrovel (M. Cârciumaru 1996); Polygonum lapathifolium (iarba

roșie) – la Pietrele (M. Toderaș et alii 2009); Vitis vinifera (viță-de-vie) – la Hârșova-tell (F. Monah

2000), Vitănești (A. Bogaard 2001) și probabil Căscioarele-Ostrovel (M. Cârciumaru 1996); Pisum

sativum (mazăre) – în siturile Ipotești, Radovanu (M. Cârciumaru 1996), Vitănești (A. Bogaard 2001) și

Hârșova-tell (F. Monah 2000); Lens sp. – la Hârșova-tell (F. Monah 2000); Sambucus nigra (soc) – în

siturile de la Mălăieștii de Jos (A. Frînculeasa 2009) și Radovanu; Solanum nigra – la Vitănești (A.

Bogaard 2001); Lithospermum sp. – la Căscioarele-Ostrovel (M. Cârciumaru 1996).

Golea et al. 2014

Taraschina

47 and 17 samples were collected from sequences 10 and 12 respectively

for phytolith analysis

This phytolith

signal gives evidence for cereal processing on the site, or in the immediate

vicinity.

The consumption of cereals is also attested in Taraschina by carbonized

seeds and fruits. Most of these are cereal grains, especially

hulled six-row barley (Hordeum vulgare). Emmer (Triticum dicoccum) is

also represented, but rarely. Additional economic plants possibly include

Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas) and sloe (Prunus spinosa type),

Moreover, the

identification of sickle elements tends to show that the cereal harvesting

was probably done by people living in Taraschina.

The occurrence of frequent

bilobate phytoliths in the lower part of the sequence is interesting

because it could reflect wild grasses from the Arundinoideae or Panicoideae

groups (e.g. wild Setaria or Phragmites australis), or the hypothetic

presence of domesticated millet. Some seeds of broomcorn

Danu et al. 2019

Provadia–Solnitsata

Based on the archaeobotanical investigations, einkorn (Triticum monococcum) and emmer (Triticum
dicoccum) are the cereals of greatest importance. In the Middle Chalcolithic storage contexts dominated
by einkorn, 14 % of the glume bases belong to the “new wheat type” as defined by Jones et al. (2000)
resembling Triticum timopheevi Zhuk., a cereal crop recognised already at several sites in Bulgaria
(Marinova 2011; Marinova, Valamoti 2014; Kreuz, Marinova 2017). Barley (Hordeum vulgare) was also
common for the site. Apart from cereals, pulses took an important part of the crops at the site. Most
abundant were grass pea (Lathyrus sativus/cicera) and bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia), and to a lesser extend
lentil (Lens culinaris). Gathered plants such as Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas), elder (Sambucus sp.), rasp

berry (Rubus idaeus), wild grape (Vitis vinifera) were also found at the site (Marinova 2008).

Hristova et al. 2019

Macroremains retrieved throug sieving of soil

An exciting discovery is the presence of

acorn (Quercus robur subsp. penduculiflora), which may be the result of oak wood used in

domestic hearts, but also as fodder. Likewise, the 28 fragments of plum nustones are an

important finding due to the scarcity of this plant species of macroremains in Gumelnița

culture. Bitter vetch has already been discovered in Gumelnița culture at Căscioarele‐Ostrovel
in a large quantity

cereals, barley is prevalent with 4.32% (fig.

15.b). Other cereal species encountered are: einkorn grains (2.4%) and einkorn spikelet

fragment (0.4%), emmer grains (1.9%) and emmer chaffs (3.3%) and rye grains (1.44%).

Likewise, seeds of legumes were found, such as pea (0.96%), lentil (1.44% ‐ fig. 15.d) and bitter

vetch (0.4% ‐ fig. 15.c)

phytolith analysis suggests cereals were processed on site

Lazăr et al. 2017