What are bumpy array

A Numpy array is simply a grid that contain values of the same homogeneous type.

1d array

A one dimensional array is named group of contiguous set of element having same data type.

2d array

A two dimensional array in which each element is itself a 1d array.

Example :

Import numpy as np

List =[ 1,2,3,4]

a1 = np. Array ( list )

Print (a1 )

Output:

[1,2,3,4]

Numpy refers to the dimensions of its array as axes . The axes of an ndarray also describe the order of
indexes in multi dimensional ndarrays.

 Axis =0 , is the first axis and runs along the rows.

 Axis=1 , is the second axis and runs along the column.

 Every new dimension added gets the next axis number ( as you can see in above given three
dimensional ndarray ndarray 3)

 Axes are always numbered 0 onwards for nd arrays.

The data type and item size are related. The item size is as per the data type ex. For data type int16 , the
item size is 2 bytes ( equal to 16 bits).

Shape

The shape of an array is a tuple of integers giving the size 9f the array along each dimension.

Data type

Another important term associated with nd arrays is the data type , also called dtype which tells about
the type of data stored in the nearest. Recall that ndarray or numpy array store homogenous element
all element having same data type.

Syntax:

<Ndarray name>. Shale

< Ndarray name > . Item size

< Ndarray name >. Dtype

Example :

In: a = np. Array ([1,2,3,4])

In: a2 = np. Array ([2,4,6] , [ 1,3,5] ] )

In: type (a1) , type (a2)

Out: ( numpy . Ndarray , numpy. Ndarray )

In: a. Shape

Out: (4,)

In : a2.shape

Out:(2,3)

In: a2. Item size

Out : 4

In : a1. Dtype

Out : dtype ( ‘int32’)

Creating nd array using fromiter ()

To create ndarray from sequence of all types ( numeric sequence , or string sequence or dictionaries
etc.) , You can use fromiter () function.

Syntax:

Numpy.fromiter(<iterable sequence name >, < target data type>, [<count>])

Example :

In:. Addict = { 1:”A” , 2: “B” , 3: “ C “ , 4:”D”,5:”E”}

In : ar5 = np. Fromiter ( addict ,dtype=np.int32)

The above statement will create an ndarray from the keys of dictionaries addict having numPy data
type inter. You can check it yourself by using attributes dtype and item size with the nd array name are

Also , now you can either access individual element of nd array are using indexes or display it fully , just
the way you normally do.

In : ar5.dtype,ar5.item size

Out: (style(‘int32’),4)

In [2]: print(ar5[0],ar5[3])
Out: 1 4

In [3]: print (ar5)

Out: [1,2,3,4,5]

Example 2

In [1]: as = “ this is my home “

In[2] : ar6 = np. Fromiter(as,style=”U2”)

In[3] : print(ar6)

[ ‘t’ ‘h’ ‘I’ ‘s’ ‘I’ ‘s’ ‘m’ ‘y’ ‘h’ ‘o’ ‘m’ ‘ e']

Creating ndarray with a numerical range using arrange ( )

The arrange function is similar to Python range function but it return am adarray in place of Python list
returned by range of python. In other word , the arrange creates numpy array with evenly spaced values
within a specific numerical range.

Example :

Arr5=np. Arrange(7)

Print (arr5)

Output: array ([0,1,2,3,4,5,6])

Creating array with a numerical range using line space( )

Syntax:

<array name >=numpy. Line space (<start>,<stop>,<number of values to be generated>)

Example :

A1= np. Line space (2.5,5,6)

Print (a1)

Out: array ([2.5,3.,3.5,4.,4.5,5.])

Array slicing

Array slicing refers to the process of extracting a subset of element from an existing array and
returning the result as another array , possibly in a different dimension from the original.

1D array slicing

Array = np. Array ([2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16])

Array [3:7]

Out:. ([ 8,10,12,14])
Array [:5]

Out: [2,4,6,8,10])

2D array slices

In: Array

Out: array ([ [ 2,4,6,8,10],

[12,14,16,18,20],

[22,24,25,28,30],

[32,34,36,38,40] ])

In: array [:3,:3]

Out:. Array ([ [ 8,10],

[18,20],

[28,30] ] )

Joining 2D array using hstack( ) and vstack()

The above example showed you the joining of 1d arrays. You can also use hstack() and vstack()

In the same ways to join two or more 2d arrays.

Example :

Array = np. Array ([ [ 0,1,2],

[3,4,5] ] )

Array 2 = np. Array ([[10,11,12],

[13,14,15] ] )

Array 3 = np. Vstack ( ( array, array 2) )

Array 3

Out: array ( [ [ 0,1,2],

[3,4,5],

[10,11,12],

[13,14,15] ] )

Array 4 = np. Hstack((array, array 2))

Array 4

Out :. Array ([[0,1,2,10,11,12],

 [3,4,5,13,14,15]])

Chapter 2 Python pandas

Series

A series is a pandas data structure that represent a one dimensional array like object containing an
array of data of any numpy data type and an associated array of data labels, called it’s index.

Data frame

A data frame is a two dimensional labelled array likes, pandas data structure that stores an ordered
collection column that can store data of different types.

Function min () and max ()

The min() and max() function find out the minimum or maximum value respectively from a given set of
data frame in our case.

The syntax for using min () and max() is:

<Data frame >.Min( axis= none, skipna =none, numeric only = none)

<Data frame>.Max( axis= none, skipna =none, numeric only = none)

Parameter:

Axis. (0 or 1) by default , minimum or maximum is calculated along axis 0 that is index (0) , column (1).

Skipan. (True or false ) exclude NA/null values when computing the result.

Numeric only. (True or false) include only float , int , boolean column, if none will attempt to use
everything then is only numeric data.

Example :

In : sal_df.min(). In : sal_df.max()

Out:. Out:

2016. 34500.0. 2016. 56000.0

2017. 44900.0. 2017. 59000.0

2018. 51000.0. 2018. 58500.0

2019. 61000.0. 2019. 61000.0

Dtype: float 64. Dtype: float 64

In :. Sal_df.max(skipna=true , numeric only = true)

Out:
2016. 56000.0

2017. 59000.0

2018. 58500.0

2019. 61000.0

Dtype : float 64

Function count () and sum ()

The function count() count the nom -NA entries for each row and column. The values none ,NaN ,NaT
etc. Are considered as NA in pandas .

Syntax:

<Data frame >.Count (axis=0, numeric only =false)

Example :

In : sal_df. Count ()

Out:

2016. 4

2017. 4

2018. 4

2019. 1

Dtype: integer 64

The function sum() returns the sum of the values for the requested axis. The syntax for sum() is:

<data frame >. Sum (axis=none , skip na= none , numeric only =none , min count =0)

Example :

In : sal_df. Count ()

Out:

2016. 186500.0

2017. 207000.0

2018. 221000.0

2019. 61000.0

Dtype ‘ float64
What are quantiles?

Quantile are points in distribution that relate to the rank order of values in that distribution.

The quantile of a value is the fraction of observation less than or equal to the value . The quantiles of the
median is 0.5 , by definition . The 0.25 quantiles ( also known as the 25 percent ; percentiles are just
quantiles multiplied by 100) and the 0.75 are known as quartiles and the difference between them I.
Inter quartile range.

The quantiles() function

<Data frame > . quantile ( q=0.5, axis=0 , numeric only = true)

Example :

In: Sal_df. Quantiles (q=[0.25,0.5,0.75,1.0]

Out:

2016. 2017. 2018. 2019

0.24. 43875.0. 45800.0. 53625.0. 61000.0

0.50. 48000.0. 51550.0. 55750.0. 61000.0

0.75. 50750.0. 57500.0. 57375.0. 61000.0

1.00. 56000.0. 59000.0. 58500.0. 61000.0

The var() function

The var() function computer variance and returns unbiased variance over requested axis.

The syntax for using var function.

<data frame >. Var ( axis=none, skipna=none , numeric only = none,)

Example :

In : sal_df.var ()

Out:

2016. 8.022917e+07

2017. 5.299000e+07

2018. 1.075000e+07

2019. NaN

Dtype : float 64
Creating histogram

You have read about histogram in the frequency diagrams ( statistics under economics ) in class xi .
For a continues dataset , you can create histogram using Python pandas hist () function.

There are many ways to create histograms in Python in this section , we shall talk about hist() of pandas
and in a later chapter , we shall create histogram using pyplot library histogram method.

A histogram is a plot that lets you discover , and show , the underlying frequency distribution ( shape ) of
a set of continues data . Consider the following histogram that has been computed using the following
dataset containing ages of 20 people .

To create histogram form a data frame , you can use hist () function of data frame , which draws one
histogram of the data frame column . This functions calls pyplot library hist() , on each series in the data
frame resulting in one histogram per column.

Syntax:

Data Frame.hist ( column=none, by none , grid = true, bins= 10)

Parameters:

Column. String or sequence ; if passed , will be used to limit data to a subset of column.

By. Object , optional ; if passed , then used to form histogram for separate groups.

Grid boolean, default true; whether to show axis grid lines.

Bins. Integer or sequence , default 10; number of histogram bins to be used , if an integer is given,
bina+1 bin edges are calculated and returns if bins is sequence , gives bin edges , including left edge of
first bin and right edge of last bin. In this case , bins is returned unmodified.

The apply() and apply map() function

● apply( ) is a series function, so it applies the given function to one row or one column of the dataframe
( as single row/ column of a dataframe is equivalent to a series ).

● apply map ( ) is an element function ,so it applies the given function to each individual element ,
separately – without taking into account other elements.

Syntax:

Apply( ) : <dataframe>.Apply (<funcname> ,axis=0 )

Apply map ( ): <data frame >.Apply map (<funcname>)

Parameters
Funcname() : the function to be applied on the series inside the data frame I.e, on rows and columns . It
should be a function that work with series and similar object.

Axis: 0 or 1 default ; axis along with the function is applied .

Axis 0 is applied on each column and

Axis 1 is applied on each row .

Example: apply( )

In [48]: sal_df .Apply (np.mean)

Out [48]:

2016 46625.0

2017. 51750.0

2018. 55250.0

2019. 61000.0

Dtype :. Float 64

Example: apply map ( )

In 47: sal.df .Apply map (np.mean)

Out 47:

2016. 2017. 2018. 2019

Qtr1. 34500.0. 44900.0. 54500.0. 61000.0

Qtr2. 56000.0. 46100.0. 51000.0. NaN

Qtr3. 47000.0. 57000.0. 57000.0. NaN

Qtr4. 49000.0. 59000.0. 58500.0. NaN

For apply ( ) , by default , the axis is 0 , the function is applied on individual column. To apply the function
row wise , you may write :

< Dataframe> .Apply ( <func> ,axis =1)

Example :

In [58] : sal_df apply (np.mean, axis =1)

Out [58] :

Qtr1. 48725.000000

Qtr2. 51033.333333
Qtr3. 53666.666667

Qtr4. 55500.000000

Dtype : float 64

Function group by ( )

The group by( ) function rearrange data into groups based on some criteria and stores the rearranged fat
in a new group by object . You can apply aggregate function on the group by object using agg ( ) .

Syntax:

<Data frame >.Group by ( by= none , axis =0)

By. Label , or list of label to be used for grouping

Axis. {0 or Index , 1 or column } , default 0 ; slit among row (0) or column (1).

Grouping on multiple columns

If you want to created groups on multiple column , all you need to do is to pass a sequence to group by (
) that contain the names of first group column, followed by second group column , followed by the third
and so on.

Aggregation via group by ( )

Often in data science you need to have summary statics in the same table . You can achieve this using
agg( ) method on the group by object crested using group by ( ) method.

The agg( ) method aggregates the data od the data frame using one or more operation over the
specified axis. The syntax for using agg( ) is :

<Data frame >.agg ( function , axis =0 )

Parameters

Func. Function ,str , list or dictionary

Axis. ( 0 or index , 1 or column } , default 0 ;.If 0 or index : apply function to each column . If 1 or
column : apply function to each row.

The transform ( ) function

The transform ( ) function transforms the aggregates data by repeating the summary result for each row
of the group and makes the result have the same shape as original data. Have a look on example below
to understand it.

Re indexing and altering labels

When you create a data frame object , it gets its row number ( or the index ) and column labels
automatically . But sometimes we are not satisfied with the row and column labels of a data frame . For
this, pandas offers you a major functionality. You may change the row index and column labels as and
when you require.

Row and column refers to labels of axis 1 I.e column labels . There are many similar methods provided by
pandas library that help you change rearrange , rename index’s or column labels . Thus , you should read
following lines carefully to know the difference between the working of these methods .

1. method that simply renames the index and/ or column labels in a datafram

2. Reindex ( ) a method that can specify the new order of existing indexes and column label anr
also create new indexes column labels.

3. Reindex_like ( ) A method for creating indexes / column – labels based on other dataframe
object.

The rename ( ) method

The rename () function renames the existing indexes column labels in a data frame . The old and new
index column labels are to be provided in the form of dictionary where keys are the old indexes row
labels and the values are the new names for the same e,g

{ ‘Qtr1’’ : 1 ‘Qtr2’:2, ….}

Syntax:

<Data frame>. Rename ( mapper =none, axis = none, in place= false)

<Data frame>. Rename (index= none , columns = none , in place = false)

Parameters

Mapper, index, columns. Dict like ( dictionary like )

Axis. Int ( 0 or 1 ) or str ( ‘index ‘ or ‘ column ‘ ,) the default is 0 or ‘ index ‘.

In place. Boolean default false ( which returns a new dataframe with renamed I Dex
labels . If true , then changes are made in the current data frame and new data frame is not returned.

We (ii) the reindex () method

Parameters

Labels array – like , optional; New labels / index to conform to the axis specified by axis to.

Index , column array – like ,optional ; New labels / index to conform to, should be specified using
keywords. Preferably an Index object to avoid duplicating data.

Axis int( 0 or 1 ) or str(‘index or ‘ column ‘ ) , optional ; Axis to target .Default 0 or index .

Fill_ value the values to be filled in the newly added row/ columns

(A) Reordering the existing indexes using reindex ( )

Ndf.reimdex([‘Qtr4’,’Qtr1’,’Qtr3’,’Qtr1’])

Ndf.reindex([‘Qtr4’,’Qtr1’,’Qtr3’,’Qtr2’],axis=0)

(c) specify fill values for new rows/columns.

The reindex_like ( ) method

The reindex like( ) function works on a data frame and reindexed it’s data as per the argument data
frame passed on it . This function does following things:

(a) If the current data frame has some matching row indexes columns labels as the passed data
frame , then retain the index label and it’s data.

(b) If the current data frame has some row indexes columns labels in it which are not in the passed
data frame , drop them.

(c) If the current datagrams does not have some row indexes/ column labels which are in the passed
data frame , then add them to current data frame with values as NaN

(d) The reindex_like ( ) ensure that the current data frame object conforms to the same indexes /
labels on all axes.

Syntax:

<Data frame>.reindex_like (other) is:

Parameters

Other. Name of a data frame as per which current <data frame > is to reindexed.

Now if you reindex ndf2 as per sal_df, you will issue command as :

Ndf2. Reindex _like (sal.df )

Plotting with Pyplot

Matplotlib is the whole python package/ library used to create 2Dgraphs and plots by using python
scripts. pyplot is a module in matplotlib, which supports a very wide variety of graphs and plots

namely - histogram, bar charts, power spectra, error charts etc. It is used along with NumPy to provide
an environment for matlab.

Pyplot provides the state-machine interface to the plotting library in matplotlib. It means that figures
and axes are implicitly and

automatically created to achieve the desired plot. For example,

calling plot from pyplot will automatically create the necessary figure and axes to achieve the desired
plot. Setting a title will then automatically set that title to the current axes object. The pyplot

interface is generally preferred for non-interactive plotting (i.e., scripting)

Plot bar graphs

Example program

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np

label = ['Anil', 'Vikas', 'Dharma',

'Mahen', 'Manish', 'Rajesh']

per = [94,85,45,25,50,54]

index = np.arange(len(label))

plt.bar(index, per)

plt.xlabel('Student Name', font size=5)

plt.ylabel('Percentage', font size=5)

plt. xticks(index, label, font size=5,

rotation=30)

plt. title('Percentage of Marks achieve

by student Class XII')

plt. show()

Histogram in Python –

There are various ways to create histogram in python pandas. One of them is using matplotlib python

library. Using this library we can easily create histogram. We have to write just few statements to create
histogram. So install matplotlib library using following statements at command prompt.>pip install
matplotlib

After installation we can create histogram. If pip does not work then copy the pip.exe file to the folder
where we want to run the above command or move to the folder ofpip.exe then write above command

E.g. Program in python. Develop a python program with below code and execute it.

import numpy as np

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

data = [1,11,21,31,41]

plt.hist([5,15,25,35,45, 55], bins=[0,10,20,30,40,50, 60], weights=[20,10,45,33,6,8],

edge color="red")

plt.sh.

Scatter plots

A scatter plot is a two-dimensional data visualization that uses dots to represent the values obtained for
two different variables - one plotted along the x-axis and the other plotted along the y-axis.

Example program

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

weight1=[93.3,67,62.3,43,71,71.8]

height1=[116.3,110.7,124.8,176.3,137.1,113.9]

plt. scatter(weight1,height1,c='b’ ',marker='o')

plt.xlabel('weight', font size=16)

plt ylabel('height', font size=16)

plt. title('scatter plot - height vs weight', font size=20)

plt. show()

application

The pandas library of Python offers many handy function and functionally , which are very useful for
carrying out many data science related tasks. One such functionality is function application . By function
application , it means that a function ( a library function or user defined function) may be applied on a
data frame in multiple ways:

1. On the whole data frame

2. Row wise or column wise
3. On individual element I.e. element wise

For the above mentioned three types of function application , pandas offers following three functions
 (a) Pipe () data frame wise function application.
(b) Apply () row wise / column wise function application.
(c) Apply map () individual element wise function application.

Other than the above three there are two more function application function: aggregation through
group by() and transform() .

Agile software development

Agile software development refers to the software process models that are : people focused ,
communication, flexible ( ready to adapt to expected change at any time ),speedy (encourage rapid and
iterative development of the product in small release), lean ( focused on shortening timeframe and cost
and on improved quality), responsive ( react appropriately to expected and unexpected changes )and
learning ( focuses on improvement during and after product development ).

Pair programming

Pair programming is a practice of software development wherein two programmers work in pair to
develop the software while sitting at the same workstation . One programmer thinks and the other
codes. Both programmers keep swapping their roles .

Benefits of Pair Programming:

• Increased software Quality

• User Satisfaction

• Easy Integration of components

• Mentoring & Learning by programmers

• Flexibility in development

Scrum

In software terms scrum is an agile software product development strategy that organized software
developers as a team to reach a common goal of creating a ready for market product

The Sprint

The main part of Scrum is a Sprint, where a useable and potentially releasable product Increment is
created. Sprints can be of one week to one month in length. There are three events each Sprint:

Sprint Planning – Team decides what to work in current period .

Daily Scrum – The Development Team meets for 5 to 15 minutes daily to inspect progress toward Goal.

Sprint Review – The Team review about task competed as the per Backlog.
 Sprint Retrospective – The Team discusses on right and wrong development, and how to improve

What is use case diagram

The use case diagram are a formal way of representing how a business system interacts with its
environment by illustrating the activities that are performed by the users of the system.

 Purpose of use case diagram

The main purpose of use case diagram is to determine the functional requirement of a system.

 Types of use case diagram

1. Business use cases that define the system at abstract level.
2. System use cases that defines the system at implementation level.

Element of use case diagram

Various element of use case diagram are actors, use cases, communication and relationships.

1. Actor. It is a person or thing which are outside the system and are involved in a task e.g, in a
banking system , account holder are not part of the system but they are involved in banking
tasks such as deposits , withdraw and so forth .
2. Use case . It represent a task of the system with which actors interact in other word it is the
way to deposit one functionality of the system.
3. Communication. It is the linking line joining an actor and it’s task.
4. Boundary of system. It depict the system in totality that is what all use cases together make a
system . Remember actor are not part of system . They are outside the system and use the
system.
5. Types of relationship. Two use cases have own relationship without involving any external
actor . Use cases generally have relationship of the following three types
(a) Include relationship.
(b) Extend relationship
(c) Generalisation relationship.

Communication

Actor. Actor
Buy ticket

Traveller ticket vending machine

Use case

For example following element are

Structuring/relationship type of Use Cases

• <<include>> Use Case The time to use the <<include>> relationship is after you have completed the
first cut description of all your main Use Cases

• <<extend>> Use Case :The <<extend>> use case accomplishes this by conceptually inserting additional
action sequences into the base use-case sequence.

• Abstract and generalized Use Case The general use case is abstract. It can not be instantiated, as it
contains incomplete information. The title of an abstract use case is shown in italics

Version control statement

Version control system are a specific , specialized set of software tools that helps a software team
manage changes to source code over time

Features of VCS

• Maintain separate track record for each team-members of the project.

• Easy to compare and merge codes of different branches.

• Easy to trace changes in code to find the version that introduced a bug

• Simple to compare versions to resolve conflicts in code during merging

• Revert changes made to code to any state from its history.

Software engineering

Software engineering is a structured , systematic approach for the design , development and
maintenance of software system.

Software process refers to a set of logically related activities , which are carried out in a systematic
order that leads to the production of the software to be delivered .

There are some fundamental activities that are common to all software processes., Known as process
activities . These are:

(1) Software specification

(2) Software design and implementation .
(3) Software verification and validation.
(4) Software evolution.

Software process models is a simplified representation of a software process.

There are three types of models are in there:

(1) The waterfall model

(2) Evolutionary model
(3) Component based model
The waterfall model

 The waterfall model is a linear and sequence approach of software development where
software develop systematically from one phase to another in a downward fashion . This model
is divided into different phases and the output of one phase is used as the input of the next
phase.
Advantages of waterfall model
 Easy to understand
 Easy to arrange task
 Clearly defined stages
 Easy to manage
 Well understood milestones

Disadvantages of waterfall model

 Poor model for long project
 Cannot fulfil changing requirement
 No working software is developed till last phase
 difficult to measure the progress in phases

Evolutionary model

 The evolutionary model is a rapid software implementation is rapidly developed from very
abstract specification , which is them iteratively modified according to the users appraisal of the
software .
Advantages of Evolutionary Model
 Error reduction: because versions are tested at each incremental cycle
 User satisfaction: Users are given full chance of experimenting partially
developed system.
 High quality: Quality is maintained due to thoroughly testing.
 Low risk: There is significant reduction of risk as a versions is implemented.
 Reduction Cost: It reduces cost by providing structured and disciplined steps.

Disadvantages of Evolutionary Model:-

 Multiple versions: Developer has to make table of different versions developed.
 Difficult to Divide software: It is difficult to "divide the software and the problems
in several versions.
 Uncertain customer needs: A confused user has uncertainty over his
requirements
 Time And Cost: As this model reduces "Time And Cost" but requirement is not
gathered correctly, may later on effect over time and cost

Components based model

 Components based software development model is a software development process that

develop software system by selecting appropriate off the shelf component and then assemble
them with a well defined software architecture.
 Advantages
 Reduce the cost & risk of software development.
 Reduce the amount of software to be developed.
 Faster delivery of software.

Disadvantages
 Requirement changes effect the software development.
 Control over the system evolution is lost

Delivery model

 The delivery model that iteratively update system for changes are also known as process
iteration model

There are two such delivery models that support process iteration

(A) Incremental delivery model

(B) Spiral development model

Incremental model

 The incremental model is designed implemented and tested as a series of incremental

software builds until the product is finished . A build consist of pieces of code from various
modules that interact together to provide a specific service or functionality .

The spiral model

 The spiral model comprises of software process activities organised in a spiral and has many
cycles. This model combines the features of the prototyping model and waterfall model and is
advantages for large complex and expensive software system.

use spiral model

 Large and high budget projects
 When risk assessment is very critical
 Requirements are not very clearly defined.
 Requirements are vague and even complex
 The organization does not have much experience with
the domain.
 Ample time is available.

SQL

In order to access data within the Oracle database , all program and users must use structured query
language (SQL) . SQL is the set of command that is recognised by nearly all RDBMSs. SQL command
can be divided into following categories .

1. Data definition language ( DDL) command.

 2. Data manipulation language (DML) command.
3. Transaction control language (TCL) command .
4. Session control commands.
5. System control commands.

DDL command . The data definition. Language command as the name suggest allow you to perform
tasks related to data definition . That is through these command you can perform tasks like create, alter
and drop schema object , grant and revoke privilege etc.

DML command. As the name suggest are used to manipulate data. That is DML command query and
manipulate data in existing schema objects.

TCL. Command. That allow you to manage and control the transaction ( a transaction is one complete
unit of work involving many steps) example:

A. Making changes to database , permanent

B. Undoing changes to database permanent
C. Creating save point
D. Setting properties for current transaction

 Creating table

Create table order ( order id char(12),

Order date,

Customer id integer,

Amount integer,

Primary key ( order id),

Foreign key ( customer id) references customer ( id));

 SQL join

Syntax:

Select < field list >

From < table>,< table2 >,[ , < table3 > ……]

Where < join condition for the tables >

Example :

Select name, location

From employee , dept

Where name = ‘anoop’

 And employee.deptno= dept.deptno;

Inserting data into table

Syntax:

Insert into < table name> [ <column list >]

Values (<value> , < value >….);

Example :

Insert into employee

Values (1001, ‘ Ravi ‘ , ‘ M ‘,’ E4', ‘ 4670.00):

Inserting data into another table

Insert into employee ( code, name , sex )

Values ( 3006. ‘ Meera ‘ , ‘F ‘);

Modifying data in tables

To update the roll and QOH for items having code less than ‘ 1040 ‘ we shall write

Update items

Set roll=400,QOH=700

Where code < ‘1040 ‘;

Deleting data from tables

To delete some data from tables , you can use SQL DELETE command . The delete command robes
row from a table . This removes the entire row not individual field values so no field argument is
needed or accepted .

The DELETE statement takes the following general form;:

DELETE from < table name >

[Where < predicate >];

Ex:

Delete form employee

Where gross < 2200.00;

Altering tables

Syntax:

Alter table < table name>

Modify ( columnar new datatype ( new size)) [FIRST| AFTER column];

Example

Alter table employee

Modify ( job char (30));

 Group by function

The group by clause combines all those records that have identical values in a particular field or a group
of field . This grouping result into one summary record per group if group function are used with it . In
other word the group by clause is used in select statement to divide the table into groups. Grouping
can be done by column name or with aggregate function in which case the aggregate produces. A values
for each group.

For example to calculate the number of employee in each grade you use the command

Select job, count (*)

From employee

Group by job

Output:
Job Count(*)

Analyst 2
Clerk 4
Manager 3
President 1
Salesman 4

Now consider the following query which is also grouping records based on deptno

Select deptno , count (*), SUM (Sal)

From employee

Group by deptno;

Output:

Deptno Count (*) Sum (sal)

10 3 8750.00
20 5 10885.00
30 6 9400.00

Having function:
The having clauses places condition on groups in contract to where clause that place condition on
individual tow . While where condition cannot include aggregate function , having condition cam do so.

For example :

To display the jobs where the number of employee is less than 3 you can use the command:

Select job , count (*)

From employee

Group by job

Having count (*) <3;

This will produce the following output:

Job Count (*)

Analyst 2
President 1
2 rows in set ( 0.011 sec)

Some more example of having function.

1. Select deptno , average (comm), average (sal)

From employee group by deptno

Having average (comm) > 750 and

Average (sal) > 2000;

2. Select deptno , average (sal)

From employees

Group by deptno

Having count (*)<= 3;

3. Select deptno , job , average ( sal)

4. From employee

Group by deptno , job

Having job in ( ‘ clerk ‘,’ salesman ‘);

 Question and answer

Consider the following table named “ soft drink “. Write command of SQL .

DRINKCODE DNAME PRICE CALORIES

101 Lime and lemon 20.00 120
102 Apple drink 18.00 120
103 Nature nectar 15.00 115
104 Green mango 15.00 140
105 Aam panna 20.00 135
106 Mango juice bahaar 12.00 150

6. To display names and drinks codes of those drinks that have more than 120
calories .
7. To display drink codes , names and calories of all drinks , in descending order of
calories.
8. To display names and price of drinks that have price in the range 12 to 18 ( both
12 and 18 included).
9. Increase the price of all drinks in the given table by 10%.

 Answers
1. Select DNAME , DRINKCODE
From SOFTDRINK

WHERE CALORIES >120;

2. Select DRINKCODE , DNAME , CALORIES

From soft drink

Order by calories DESC;

3. Select DNAME , PRICE

FROM SOFTDRINK

WHERE PRICE BETWEEN 12 TO 18

4. UPDATE SOFTDRINK
Set price = price + 0.10 * PRICE;

Q.2. What are general principles of agile method ?

Answer :
The general principles of the Agile Method

• continually develop software to satisfy the client.

• Concentrate on delivering working software.

• Developers and user must work together throughout the software development.

• Constant attention to technical excellence.

• Self-organized teams usually create the best designs.

• At regular intervals, the team focus on how to become more effective, so as tune and adjust

their behaviour accordingly.

Q.3. Create 2d array from 1d array ?

Answer :

Creation of 2D array from 1D array

We can create 2D array from 1d array using reshape() function.

e.g. program

import numpy as np

A = np .array([1,2,3,4,5,6])

B = np. reshape(A, (2, 3))

print(B)

OUTPUT

[[1 2 3]

[4 5 6]]

Q.2. Draw a use case diagram for an online book store

 Online bookstore

Add new titles

Manager publisher

Product
manager Chief editor
Manage titles

Create orders
Online customer

List stock levels Customer support officer