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Engineering Geotechnical Investigation For Coral Reef Site of The Cross-Sea Bridge Between Male and Airport Island
Engineering Geotechnical Investigation For Coral Reef Site of The Cross-Sea Bridge Between Male and Airport Island
Engineering Geotechnical Investigation For Coral Reef Site of The Cross-Sea Bridge Between Male and Airport Island
Ocean Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oceaneng
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The Male-Airport Island Cross-sea Bridge project is the largest island-linking project in Maldives, the country
Coral reefs known as “the kingdom of coral reefs.” Coral reef is also a special type of rock and soil medium to support sig-
Engineering geotechnical investigation nificant civil engineering projects. In the Cross-sea Bridge project, the engineering geotechnical investigation of
Maldives the coral reef site was divided into two stages: the feasibility study and the construction-drawing design phase.
Cross-sea bridge Engineering geological survey techniques were applied, and together with field exploration methods, such as
geophysical prospecting and drilling exploration, the geological conditions of the site with respect to bridge
engineering demands were comprehensively evaluated. In addition, the design parameters for pile group foun-
dations were proposed based on in-situ tests, such as standard penetration, dynamic sounding, and acoustic wave
testing in borehole as well as laboratory physical and mechanical experiments and bearing-capacity tests for pile
foundations using rock and soil samples drilled from the site. The investigative methods adopted in the
Male–Airport Island Cross-sea Bridge project and the results obtained will provide references for similar engi-
neering projects in the future.
1. Project overview The proposed foundation of the bridge is a type of pile group foun-
dation known as “overall steel tube” or conventional large-diameter pile
As a construction project for which China provides a significant group foundations known as “separated steel tube”. Both types of pile
amount of aid, the Mal e-Airport Island Cross-sea Bridge project in the group foundation consist of six pieces of 1.5-m-diamter drilled piles.
Maldives is on the critical path to realizing the 21st Century Maritime The bedrock in the proposed project area is composed mainly of coral
Silk Road envisioned in China's “One Belt, One Road” initiative. The reef sediments, a special type of rock and soil medium. Coral reefs are
project is located in North Male Atoll, Maldives, which crosses the geological sediments formed by accumulation of skeletons and shells of
Gaadhoo Koa Strait and connects three adjacent islands, Male Island, dead reef-building corals, which are primarily distributed in the tropical
Airport Island, and Hulhumale (Fig. 1) which are both in the atoll. The ocean between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn (Wang et al., 1997).
project is the most important island linking project in the Maldives. On this type of bedrock, engineering projects are also distributed (King
The project starts in the southeastern corner of Male Island, connects and Lodge, 1988; Hua, 2015; He et al., 2010; Yuan et al., 2012) (Table 1).
to a construction plan known as Boduthakurufaanu Magu Road in the Their special nature is embodied by two aspects of specificity. Initially,
southern side of Male. Then a bridge is designed to cross Gaadhoo Koa the material composition of coral reef sediments are basically CaCO3.
Strait from the end of Boduthakurufaanu Magu Road and make landfall Additionally, they are formed by organisms in the marine environment.
on the southern side of Airport Island. The endpoint of the bridge connect In relevant specifications of geotechnical engineering projects in China,
to the road from the airport to Hulhumale. The wide of the project is coral reefs have not been included for consideration, and previous studies
21.0 m. And total length of the project is approximately 2 km, with the have shown that this type of rock and soil medium has the following
bridge being 1.39 km long and the total bridge approaches being major characteristics: (1) the size and shape of sedimentary particles
610 m long. show a relatively large variability, leading to a relatively large spatial
* Corresponding author. State Key Laboratory of Geomechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei
430071, China.
E-mail address: 958800895@qq.com (H.F. Liu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2017.09.039
Received 26 February 2017; Received in revised form 27 July 2017; Accepted 24 September 2017
Available online 7 October 2017
0029-8018/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C.Q. Zhu et al. Ocean Engineering 146 (2017) 298–310
Table 1
Engineering projects constructed on coral deposits.
Country Position Project name Construction purpose Foundation form Construction time
1 Australia North west shelf of western Australia North Rankin Gas extraction pile foundation in the sea From 1972/3 to 1987/8
“A” Offshore Gas Platform
2 Saudi East bank of Red Sea in Rabigh Saudi RABIGH Oil-fired power plant Natural base foundations From 2009/2 to 2013/1
2 660 MW Power Plan or Partial replacement
3 Saudi East bank of Red Sea in Jeddah Saudi RSGT Port Project Container terminal Reinforce foundation From 2008/1 to 2009/12
4 Sudan West bank of Red Sea in Sudan Port New Container Terminal Container terminal Reinforce foundation From 2006/6 to 2009/11
Project in Sudan Port
variability in the distribution of porosity in the sediments; (2) the 2. Investigative methods and work assignments
porosity is far higher than that of terrigenous sediments; (3) the strength
of the particle is lower than that of quartz particles, and due to the ex- According to Provision No. 6.11.3 in the “Code for Highway Engi-
istence of intergranular pores, making it fragile; (4) sediments can easily neering Geological Investigation” of People's Republic of China Industry
experience deuteric alteration such as cementation, and after being Standard JTG C20-2011 (The ministry of transport of the people's re-
cemented, the cementation degree and the type of the sediments struc- public of China, 2011), the exploratory points basically focus on the
ture significantly influence the engineering properties (Given and Wil- proposed piers (Fig. 2). The entire investigation process can be divided
kinson, 1985). into two stages: the feasibility study and the
Since there had never been such a large-scale island-linking project construction-drawing design.
undertaken in the local area, therefore, the implementation of the project The major tasks during the feasibility study which is lasted from May
is undoubtedly a huge challenge for geotechnical engineers. 20, 2015 to June 13, 2015 included engineering geological survey,
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C.Q. Zhu et al. Ocean Engineering 146 (2017) 298–310
Fig. 3. Drilling construction on the local site. (a) deep sea area, (b) land area, and (c) coastal area.
mapping, and geophysical prospecting and drilling. And the 2.2. Geological drilling
construction-drawing design stage lasted from June 15, 2015 to July 24,
2015. The major task during the stage is geological drilling. Six boreholes with the depth of the boreholes varied between 11.7
and 71.7 m were put into effect during the feasibility study, among which
2.1. Engineering geological survey and mapping two boreholes (BH01 and BH02) were located in Male Island with the
elevation of orifice ranged from 1.18 to 1.88 m; one drilling hole (BH30)
Before the mapping task, geological data of the bridge site area were was located in Airport Island, and the elevation of orifice was1.2 m; the
collected. In the task of geological mapping, topographic map was used other three boreholes (BH13–BH15) were located in the water on the side
as basemap, then comprehensive mapping of engineering geology was close to Male Island (namely, Pier 19) within a distance between holes of
taken out on the base of topographic map in the same scale of 1:1,000. approximately 20 m, and the elevation of orifice was between 26.49
Fig. 4. (a) Schematic diagram of side-scan sonar imaging, (b) track line distribution diagram, and (c) towfish dragged in the sea.
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C.Q. Zhu et al. Ocean Engineering 146 (2017) 298–310
Fig. 5. (a) electric spark source, (b) electric spark source excitates seismic waves, and (c) marine seismic streamer receives seismic waves.
Fig. 6. (a) shallow seismic reflection in Airport Island, and (b) shallow seismic reflection in Male Island.
and 34.32 m. carried out during bridge construction with the help of an established
During the construction-drawing design stage, 16 boreholes with construction platform (see in Fig. 3).
depths varying between 40.30 and 76.40 m were created instead of 24 In the task of geological drilling, drilling technologies such as pre-
preseted boreholes. Because in the investigation period, it was the mium slurry for rotary drilling and whole hole-section coring were
Southwest monsoon season, and the sea surface was exposed to high adopted; the open-hole caliber was Φ130 mm, and the end-hole caliber
winds and waves, with the surge height typically of 1.5–2.0 m, and was at least Φ91 mm. Meanwhile, during the drilling process, in-situ tests
locally reaching 3 m and higher. Moreover, since the water depth is such as the standard penetration test (SPT) and the heavy-cone dynamic
relatively shallow anchor boats and vessels cannot enter the designated penetration test (DPT) were carried out.
region, and therefore the work of drilling eight holes (BH05–BH08 and
BH26–BH29) located in the breaking-wave regions was postponed to be
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of acoustic logging principle. Fig. 8. Field work of acoustic logging.
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C.Q. Zhu et al. Ocean Engineering 146 (2017) 298–310
axis of the bridge, and 1 longitudinal measuring line was laid at each side
of the central axis by the spacing of 75 m, the measuring line number was
CS1 to CS3. Simultaneously, 4 longitudinal measuring lines were laid at
120 m spacing, perpendicular to the central axis in the area of main
bridge pier. The measuring line number was CS4 to CS7 (Fig. 4(b)
and (c)).
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C.Q. Zhu et al. Ocean Engineering 146 (2017) 298–310
Table 2
Comprehensive stratigraphic column.
Layer No. Burial conditions of the rock and soil layer (m) Lithologic descriptions and distributions
minimum-maximum average
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C.Q. Zhu et al. Ocean Engineering 146 (2017) 298–310
Table 2 (continued )
Layer No. Burial conditions of the rock and soil layer (m) Lithologic descriptions and distributions
minimum-maximum average
framework grains are coral gravels 0.5–1.5 cm in diameter, with a few coral gravel 2–4 cm in diameter;
polycrystalline calcite is medium cemented; intergranular pores develop, and the surface of the cores are
rough; there are few biological drilling holes; core texture are hard, the knocking sound is relatively crisp,
not fragile, and cores are relatively complete; this layer is commonly seen in the bridge area.
(6-3) 15.00–39.00 69.32 to 45.70 0.80–14.50 Reef limestone: milk white, off-white; cores are fragments and gravels 2–5 cm in diameter; few are short
25.82 57.29 5.88 columns 4–9 cm long; particial cores are not completely cemented, and weakly cemented cores turn soft
when meeting with water and become loose when taken in hand; framework grains are mostly calcareous
bioclastic fragments 0.01–0.5 cm long; particial cores are fragmented or bulky coral limestones; cores are
hard, knocking sound is crisp; leaf-like calcite crystallizes; intergranular pores develop, the surface of rock
cores are rough, cores are easy to wear, and the wear is relatively heavy; there are few biological drilling
holes.
(7-1) 23.80–65.40 100.30 to 64.22 1.10–38.30 Angular gravel mixed with gravel: grey, off-white, angular gravel are primarily composed of bioclastic
43.40 78.74 14.82 fragments; grains are inhomogeneous, poorly sorted and poorly graded; the grain size of gravel are 1–3 cm in
diameter, a few gravel can be more than 5 cm; the gravels are relatively hard, intergranular porosity
develops, and the surface are rough.
(7-2) 32.00–57.00 99.60 to 78.10 0.70–8.70 Reef limestone: milk white; cores are 5–13 cm long; a few are 3–5 cm; intergranular pores are well
45.26 82.92 4.77 developed, fragile, heavily worn; the surface are rough, and there are a few biological drilling holes.
detector can convert S wave arrival time and vibration waveform into land subsidence and sea-level fluctuation.
electrical signals, recorded by recording instrument. The wave velocity of The Maldives islands belong to the morphology of the Indian Ocean
the stratum between the two detectors can be calculated from the dif- atoll chain, in which multiple atoll are distributed in strings or circles.
ference of first arrival time of S wave. Male Island and Airport Island are chain islands in Northern Male Atoll,
During the feasibility study, shear wave velocity testing was taken out east of the Maldives Islands, where the terrain is low and flat especially in
in 3 boreholes. If the formation condition was complex, the shear wave the area where the natural lakes in these islands were artificial filled in
velocity testing hole will be increased according to the drilling condition. and reclaimed as land. The land elevation of the island is primarily be-
tween 1.0 and 1.5 m.
2.3.7. Borehole TV inspection The oceanic trench or trough between the two islands near the bridge
The inspection was arranged in 4 boreholes, at the main pier and axis displays an approximate width of 1.4 km, and exhibits a broad and
auxiliary pier of the bridge. gentle “U”-shape (Fig. 10); both shoals show the development of step
The observation window of the whole borehole wall imaging system topography, the platform is wide and smooth, and the platform in the
is 360 (panoramic observation), which can realize the omni-directional shallow water shows a slope gradient increasing from 0 to 10 that is
observation of the occurrence of the target body to be observed. inclined towards the submarine trench.
After the test, unrolled images of the whole borehole wall can be The overall gradient of the submarine slope on the side of Male Island
obtained by stitching along the depth. The borehole TV images can help is between 15 and 20 , locally reaching 25 , and the average width is
to determine the integrity and weathering degree of the rock mass by approximately 200 m. Two levels of platforms manifest within 90 m of
comparing with the borehole core and the result of the wave velocity test the submarine slope. The average gradient of the upper section of the
in the borehole. slope is around 26 , locally reaching 30 , with 10–40 m depth; the sec-
In addition to the above field work, experimental analyses of the ondary platform shows a gentle slope gradient of approximately 9 , and
physical, mechanical, and pile foundation load-bearing characteristics of its width is 95–100 m; the average gradient of the lower section of the
the coral reef rock and soil samples were also performed in the slope is around 32 , within 55–90 m depth.
laboratory. The width of the platform in the shoal water within 0–10 m deep in
the side of Airport Island is approximately 100–190 m, and the slope
3. Engineering geological conditions of the site gradient is 0–9 ; the slope section within 10–20 m depth shows a steep
gradient of 30–35 , and the gradient gradually decreases with the
3.1. Regional geology and geomorphology depth increase.
The width of the deep-sea trench or trough in the bottom of “U”-
The carbonate platform in the Maldives was formed on a volcanic shaped is around 500 m, within 45–50 m depth, and the submarine
plateau since the early Eocene Epoch (approximately 55 million years topography slightly fluctuates.
ago). And for at least 3.5 billion years, no terrestrial sources (mud) were
input in the Maldives. Accordingly, the carbonate platform consisted 3.2. Formation lithology
mostly of carbonate sediments. The formation of the overall morphology
of the majority of underwater carbonate sediments is the result of both The boreholes on this site are arranged along the bridge sites. After
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C.Q. Zhu et al. Ocean Engineering 146 (2017) 298–310
Table 3
Distribution characteristics of holes in each borehole.
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Table 4 Table 7
Physical and mechanical property indexes of coral sands. Saturated uniaxial compressive strength of reef limestones (MPa).
Index Sample size Range Mean Type of Rock and Soil Frequency Variable Range Mean
coefficient
Natural water content (%) 33 3.3–22.6 15.4
Large-scale direct shear test C (kPa) 6 9.9–103.3 56.9 (4-1) Reef limestone 7 0.64 2.8–22.2 10.7
ϕ ( ) 6 38–58 47 (4-3) Reef limestone 3 7.1–12.8 10.1
Consolidated-undrained C (kPa) 3 151.2–400.7 255.2 (5-1)a Reef limestone 23 0.63 3.3–26.3 10.2
triaxial test ϕ ( ) 3 21–34 27 (5-1)b Reef limestone 4 2.7–14.1 7.5
(5-1)c Reef limestone 5 3.1–11.9 5.9
(5-3) Reef limestone 2 5.2–13.7 9.4
Table 5 (6-1) Reef limestone 21 0.54 2.8–29.8 10.6
Saturation density of reef limestones (g/cm3). (6-2) Reef limestone 24 0.47 2.8–18.3 8.4
(6-3) Reef limestone 7 0.77 1.1–13.3 5.5
Type of Rock and Soil Frequency Variable coefficient Range Mean
(7-1) Angular gravel 7 0.30 3.7–7.2 5.2
(4-1) Reef limestone 9 0.04 2.02–2.35 2.21 mixed with gravel
(4-3) Reef limestone 3 1.97–2.73 2.31 (7-2) Reef limestone 17 0.87 2.2–34.6 10.4
(5-1)a Reef limestone 4 2.37–2.46 2.40
(5-1)b Reef limestone 2 2.07–2.37 2.22
(5-1)c Reef limestone 4 2.25–2.31 2.29
Table 8
(5-3) Reef limestone 10 0.05 2.13–2.52 2.34
Statistical table of the standard penetration blow count.
(6-1) Reef limestone 5 2.16–2.43 2.26
(6-2) Reef limestone 12 0.05 2.06–2.45 2.25 Type of Rock and Soil Frequency Variable Range Mean
(6-3) Reef limestone 10 0.04 2.14–2.37 2.23 coefficient
(7-1) Angular gravel 16 0.07 2.04–2.46 2.20
(3) gravelly sand mixed with gravel 13 0.24 12–29 21
mixed with gravel
(4-1) Reef limestone 1 76
(7-2) Reef limestone 1 2.12
(4-2) Reef limestone 4 18–32 25
(5-2)a gravelly sand mixed 2 22–23 22
with gravel
laboratory, the natural water content tests of coral sand samples of (5-2)b gravelly sand mixed 2 33–41 37
different depth were carried out by the drying method. with gravel
Coral sand were dried at 105 C in an oven for not less than 6 h, (5-3) Reef limestone 1 60
(7-1) Angular gravel mixed 7 0.14 39–64 53
with gravel
Table 6
Strength index of standard point load of reef limestones (MPa).
drying to constant weight. The experiment used 2 parallel tests and took
Type of Rock and Soil Frequency Variable Range Mean the arithmetic average.
coefficient
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C.Q. Zhu et al. Ocean Engineering 146 (2017) 298–310
BH2 BH13 BH20 BH30 4.1.4. Saturation density test of reef limestone
(1) Fill soil 198 216 207 Reef limestone samples of diameter 50 mm and height 100 mm were
(3) gravelly sand mixed 228 228 took vacuum pumping saturation for at least 4 h, reaching the absence of
with gravel bubbles. Then let the samples stand for at least 4 h at atmospheric
(4-1) Reef limestone 321 475 398
(4-2) Reef limestone 458 270 364
pressure in the original container (Fig. 14). After saturation, took out the
(5-1)a Reef limestone 615 597 606 samples and dried the surface water until no water dripped, took the
(5-1)b Reef limestone 626 626 quality of the saturated samples, accurate to 0.01 g.
(5-3) Reef limestone 432 432
(6-1) Reef limestone 633 633
4.1.5. Saturated uniaxial compressive strength test
(6-2) Reef limestone 691 636 558 628
(6-3) Reef limestone 587 587 Reef limestone samples taken from boreholes were processed into
(7-1) Angular gravel 565 614 589 standard solid cylinder samples of diameter 50 mm and height of
mixed with gravel 100 mm. After saturation, RMT multi-function rock servo test machine
(7-2) Reef limestone 610 610 was carried out to test the ultimate stress, elastic modulus and Poisson's
ratio of reef limestone samples under axial pressure (Fig. 15).
The physical and mechanical property indexes of coral sands are lis-
Table 11 ted in Table 4. Statistical values of the saturated density, strength index of
Longitudinal wave velocity of rock-soil layer inside boreholes, Vs (m/s). Point Load Test and saturated uniaxial compressive strength for reef
Rock type Mean Statistical
limestones are shown in Tables 5–7. Statistics indicate that the mean of
value saturated density of reef limestones is between 2.12 and 2.40 g/cm3, and
BH2 BH13 BH20 BH30
the discreteness of the experimental values for each reef limestone layer
(1) Fill soil 1,042 987 1,014 is relatively small. But, the layered statistical results of strength index of
(3) gravelly sand mixed 1,355 1,355 Point Load Test and saturated uniaxial compressive strength show rela-
with gravel
(4-1) Reef limestone 1,512 2,468 1990
tively large variability, and the variable coefficient ranges between 0.30
(4-2) Reef limestone 1795 1700 1747 and 0.87, indicating a relatively significant unevenness of the strength of
(5-1)a Reef limeston 3,364 3,274 3,319 reef limestones.
(5-1)b Reef limestone 2,876 2,876
(5-3) Reef limestone 2,146 2,146
4.2. In-situ tests inside the boreholes
(6-1) Reef limestone 3,019 3,019
(6-2) Reef limestone 2,718 2,613 2,259 2,530
(6-3) Reef limestone 2,587 2,587 The results of standard penetration test (SPT) blow count and conic
(7-1) Angular gravel 3,283 2,635 2,959 dynamic sounding test blow count in coral reefs shown in Tables 8 and 9
mixed with gravel
indicate the relatively large discretenesses in the ground. In particular,
the minimum and maximum of the SPT blow count is respectively 12 and
76. The conic dynamic sounding test blow count also displays the same
4.1.2. Large direct shear test discreteness. With the increase of stratum depth, the experimental value
During the large direct shear test, the length, width and height of the shows an increasing trend.
shear box were 500 mm, 500 mm, 410 mm respectively (in which the
shear seam is 10 mm in the height). 4.3. Wave velocity test
The baffles on both sides of the shearing box were connected with the
upper and lower shearing box through the bearing and the pulley, and In order to study the relationship between the features of integrality
the 10 mm shearing joint was generated between the upper and lower and structure of reef limestones and geotechnical strength. Wave velocity
shear boxes, so that the influence of the friction on the experimental tests in situ in four boreholes and laboratory acoustic wave test on reef
result was eliminated (Fig. 13). limestone samples were put into effect (Fig. 16). The results
(Tables 10–12) reveal that the shear wave velocity (Vs) of each rock-soil
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C.Q. Zhu et al. Ocean Engineering 146 (2017) 298–310
Table 12
Longitudinal wave velocity of reef limestones, Vs (m/s).
Index Borehole
layer is within 207–633 m/s and the longitudinal wave velocity (Vp) is rolling in late-stage. They are now in slightly dense or medium dense
between 1,014 and 3,319 m/s. The longitudinal wave velocity (Vp) of status, thus can be used directly as foundation bearing layer for
saturated reef limestone samples measured indoors were approximately connection road in the future. Other section of the foundation soil due to
4,622 m/s. According to the results of wave velocity measurements, the non compaction, most of them are in loose or slightly dense status, with
following conclusions can be reached: (1) The longitudinal wave velocity relatively low strength, high compressibility and poor uniformity. So the
(Vp) increases with increase of burial depth. (2) The longitudinal velocity method of vibrating compaction or mechanical compaction was needed
(Vp) shows small in those reef limestones having large porosity and many to strengthen and improve the compactness and uniformity of the foun-
holes. (3) The integrity index of reef limestones in the proposed site is dation. Of particular note, road foundation founded on reef flat or outer
0.30, and the rock mass is categorized to be fragmentized according to coral reef flat should be treated using the same method above even if the
related terms in the Chinese National Standard “Code for Investigation of thickness of the overlying unconsolidated sediments was not large.
Geotechnical Engineering” (GB50021-2001) (Ministry of housing and
urban-rural development of the people's republic of China, 2009). 5.2. Proposed bridge
5. Selection of foundation type As a large scale sea-crossing bridge, the bearing load of the proposed
bridge foundation is relatively large. Consequently, the type of pier
5.1. Connection roads foundation overmatching natural foundation or enlarged pier foundation
with high load-bearing capacity must be selected. Moreover, the bored
The foundation of connection roads can be formed by filling. The pile group foundation is the most ideal type for proposed construction
filling soil layer, reef gravel layer, or gravelly sand mixed gravel layer can after taking into account key indicators such as topography, geology,
be treated as the foundation bearing layer, and the filling materials can construction factors, and the environment.
be coral fragment, bioclastic gravels or bioclastic sands. In the over- Coral reefs are a special biogenetic rock and soil medium. Owing to
lapped section between connection road and the current road, the properties such as brittleness, porosity, and low material strength, asso-
foundation soils are compacted both by mechanical methods and vehicle ciate with the relatively outdated and not rigorous investigative
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C.Q. Zhu et al. Ocean Engineering 146 (2017) 298–310
Table 13
Suggestion values of design parameters for coral reef rock-soil layer.
Stratum Standard penetration Dynamic Saturation Strength index Saturated uniaxial Characteristic Standard value of
blow count penetration density ρsat of Standard compressive value of foundation ultimate side
(count/30 cm) blow count (g/cm3) point load (mpa) strength frk (mpa) bearing capacity friction resistance
(count/10 cm) fak (kpa) qsik (kpa)
methodology of coral reefs, several engineering accidents have happened structure with developed pores and varied cementation or diage-
in the worldwide caused by coral reef rock and soil medium. In 1968, netic grade. Therefore, local experience should be taken into ac-
during the construction of the Arabian gulf ocean platform, the pile count for the selection of design parameters for coral reef
foundation was free falling 7.5 m when the pile was going through the limeston.
cemented calcareous soil layer (Mcclelland, 1988). In 1982, a surpris- 4). Because of the lack of experience in the design and construction of
ingly low pile resistance took place in the northwest continental shelf of large pile foundation in this area, the design parameters of the pile
Australia, at the time, a diameter of 1.8 m base pile was free falling 60 m foundation for the reef limestone are limited to use in a pre-
under its own weight (King and Lodge, 1988). These indicate that the liminary design stage. It is suggested that the testing of the bearing
friction of the piles can not meet the design requirements. capacity of field pile foundations should be performed to fully
The Maldives has never mounted such a large engineering and con- understand the load-transfer mechanism of the pile body before
struction project before, and the local experts are lack of experience in the actual construction of pile foundations, so as to provide ac-
the engineering properties of coral reefs, especially regarding the prop- curate design parameters for the pile parameters and the optimi-
erties of pile foundations of coral reefs. zation of pile bearing stratum.
In view of this, test device researching on the property of pile foun-
dation engineering were specially developed. And experimental studies Acknowledgements
(Figs. 17 and 18) on the property of foundation bearing of reef limestones
(Zhu and Meng, 2015) were carried out (Table 13). This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (Grant nos. 41372318, 41330642 and 41372316), the National
6. Conclusions and suggestions Key Technology Support Program (Grant no. 2014BAC01B01), the Na-
tional Program on Key Basic Research Project of China (Grant no.
1). Coral reefs are a special type of rock and soil medium. The 2013CB956104 and 2012CB026103).
physical and mechanical properties and related relationships of
coral reef rock and soil in the Maldives were analyzed using
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