INSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS PARA LA EXCELENCIA PROFESIONAL IEXPRO Fo Chapter 5 BILINGUALISM 5.1. INTRODUCTION The literature on bilingualism and multilingualism touches on issues that are of great importance for language teaching and learning. In this unit we won't look at the problems that Spanish/English bilinguals might have - rather we will consider what bilingualism means and how it manifests itself in the individual and in society. Languagé study has been concerned almost exclusively with a certain kind of ideal language user, a monolingual individual, with perfect knowledge of one language. As Suzanne Romaine says: “It would certainly be odd to encounter @ book with the title Monolingualism* (Romaine 1989:1). As mentioned earlier, modern society is increasingly made up of a mixture of different groups, cultures and languages. It is increasingly common for educated adults to speak more than one language. Many areas of the world contain communities where two or more languages are widely spoken and most people are bilingual of multilingual. The study of bilingualism has extended beyond linguistics, to include sociology and anthropology, sociolinguistics, and communication studies. However, SLA or FLA (foreign tanguage acquisition) has often ignored the problematic and complex issue of bilingualism. oaSx INSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS PARA LA EXCELENCIA PROFESIONAL IEXPRO 5.2. WHAT IS BILINGUALISM? Definitions of bilingualism go from Bloomfield’s (1933) “native-like control of two or more languages" -perhaps, the definition most lay people think of when discussing the ions that would include the ability to shop with a phrase ion at matter- to more modest defi book. It has often been seen as a matter of degree, going from a very broad defi fone end of the scale, such as incipient bilingualism, which appears ot the initial stages of contact between two languages, to ideal or balanced bilingualism, which is native- like contro! of two languages. We also have to distinguish between bilingual individuals and bilingual societies. The first distinction to be made is between individual bilingualism (bilingualism) and societal bilingualism (diglossia). The fact that a region (for example, Quebec) is considered bilingual does not mean that each and every member of the community is able to speak two languages (or more}. The individuals resident in the area differ widely in their ability to speak the two languages, and even if they possess the ability they tend to make use of their skills differently. We will be looking more closely at bilingualism and diglossia in the next section. Most tests of bilingualism are designed to determine to what extent individuals use two languages or more, and the degree of their proficiency. Balanced bilinguals are difficult to find, but, as Baker (1996:8) says, the term is still of value in research and discussion, as the measurements of attainment in the different languages have to be made against some kind of ideal. In contrast to balanced bilingualism we have the concept of semilingualism or (more accurately) double semilingualism, as the term is not normally applied to monolinguals Semilingual individuals are those who use two languages but habitually exhibit deficiencies in both. The corresponding term for a monolingual would be iliteracy. Both semilingual and iffiterate are terms with strong negative connotations. However, semilingualism can be a very real problem for many immigrant children. The stress and strain which they may endure, in conjunction with inadequate mother-tongue provision in primary schooling after immigration, can result in degrees of semilingualism - with disastrous social consequences.INSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS PARA LA EXCELENCIA PROFESIONAL IEXPRO 5.3. BILINGUALISM AND DIGLOSSIA As we said above, the term bilingualism is typically used to describe the use of two languages by an individual. When we look at the use of two languages in a community, the term used is diglossia. Confusingly, diglossia has also been used to describe varieties of the same languege. Fishman considers that diglossia refers to two languages existing side by side within a geographical areas. More often than not, there . what is called, a high language variety (H) and a low language variety (L). H tends to be used in interaction outside the home and the family, while L is more common within the home. H is the language of official communication and practically always has higher status. Four different situations can be considered: 1. Diglossla and individual bilingualism Almost everyone is able to use both H and L. An example of this is Paraguay where nearly all inhabitants speak Spanish (H), and Guarant (L). 2. Diglossia without bilingualism ‘There are (at least) two languages within a particular geographical area. One ‘group speaks one language, the other a different one. Switzerland, for example, is to a large extent a country where different language groups are located in different areas. However, fluent bilingual speakers of languages may bbe the exception. 3. Bilingualism without diglossia Most peopie are bilingual and do not restrict one language to a specific set of purposes. On the subject of this kind of community, Fishman, as quoted by Romaine (1989), says that the allocation of functions of the languages is, normally imbalanced. Any society which produces functionally balanced bilinguals who use both languages equally well in all contexts would soon cease to be bilingual because no society needs two languages for the same set of functions. This assertion is interesting in view of the situation of functionally bilingual communities. The expectation may be that one language will become more powerful, while the other may stagnate and decrease in its functions, eventually to disappear altogether. 4. Neither bilingualism nor diglossia This is a basically monolingual society. Small pockets of minority language speakers may exist, whose inhabitants insist on not having anything to do with the majority language’e.g. the Samis in northern Scandinavia. 5 SINSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS PARA LA EXCELENCIA PROFESIONAL IEXPRO The co-existence of two or more languages frequently gives rise to tensions among Speakers of majority or minority languages. The situation of diglossia tends to shift according to cultural, social, economic and political factors. It has often been said that the conditions of survival for a minority language are not only the number of speakers, but the number of domains in which it is used. The issue of language shift {one language being replaced by another) is not directly relevant to the main issues of this MA subject. Those interested in reading further will find suggestions at the end of the unit. 5.4. TYPES OF BILINGUALISM Bilingualism has been looked at under a number of dichotomies. Two such distinctions are compound bilingualism and co-ordinate (successive) bilingualism, and additive and ‘subtractive bilingualism. We will take a moment to examine these distinctions 5.4.1. COMPOUND AND CO-ORDINATE BILINGUALISM You have already come across compound and co-ordinate bilingualism in the subject Classroom Management. Compound bilinguals are thought to use two linguistic systems which are fused together, while co-ordinative bilinguals are said to have two functionally independent systems. To study this distinction, many experiments have been carried out but results have not been conclusive. The terms have therefore been modified to distinguish between the acquisition of two or more languages from birth or early childhood, in a bi- or multicultural environment, and the acquisition of a second language at a later stage in life. There are many types of bilingual families, ranging from bilingual parents in a bilingual area, to a situation where one of the parents has chosen to address the child in a Second language. Examples of the first instance could be a French-speaking mother and English-speaking father in Canada, or a community where the language of one of the Parents is the dominant language of the community and the parents each speak their own language to the child from birth. This would be an instance of compound bilingualism. The successive type of bilingual goes through a process which is basically identical to that of @ second- or foreign-language learner. This could occur when a family moves from one country to another and where members have to learn a new language. seINSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS PARA LA EXCELENCIA PROFESIONAL IEXPRO In the case of co-ordinate bilingualism children normally go through a period of blending of their languages. An English/French bilingual might produce the word tati, a blend of thank you and merci, ot shot, which is a blend of chaud and hot. A syntactic blend like ‘Ska vi gamos? (Swedish Ska vi g8? and Spanish ¢ Vamos?) is another example. After operating for some time with this unified system children eventually start to distinguish between the two languages. If @ certain language is associated with one of the parents, the child will invariably address this parent in the appropriate language, and also produce translations for the benefit of any monolinguels present. Harding and Riley offer the following exampl Father: Right, Ket, we're going to eat. Have you washed your hands? Katja: (to her French friends) Hé! On va manger. 1! faut se laver les mains. (Herding and Riley 1986:55) Many children of immigrant parents often have to help their parents communicate with speakers of the majority language, and, as Harding and Riley point out "they are not long in realising how much power this gives them” (ibid). This can often involve a degree of spontaneous reformulation. The scene below was acted out by a Spanish! Swedish bilingual 5-year-old girl and her Spanish father and a not very helpful Swedish shop-assistant: Father: Dile que es un idiota. Little girl: Pappa sager att han inte &r intresserad. (Mi padre dice que no le interesa) Father: Por qué no le dices lo que te dle? ‘Although all bilingual children seem to manage to interpret quite well, it must be remembered thet good interpreting demands more than linguistic knowledge -as the Spanich/Swedish child shows. Clearly there is also an awareness of contextual factors at work in the child's version of the father's speech. Translation and interpreting are separate, specialised and very different skills which require high levels of general knowledge. 5.4.2. ADDITIVE AND SUBTRACTIVE BILINGUALISM This is bilingualism in its sociolinguistic as opposed to its psycholinguistic aspect, and it is a topic you came across in the subject Individual Factors. The situation is well described by Edwards (1994: 59): In some circumstances the learning of another language represents an expansion of the linguistic repertoire; in others, It may lead to a replacement of the first. The different outcomes here reflect the different social pressures and needs ... @ classic ‘example is found in the bilingualism of aristocracies and social elites in systems in ssINSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS PARA LA EXCELENCIA PROFESIONAL IEXPRO Which it was considered natural and proper that every educated person know more than one variety. Subtractive bilingualism, on the other hand, reflects a society where one language is valued more than the other, where one dominates the other, Where one is on the escendant and the other is waning. Clearly social groups are constantly involved in struggle for hegemony - to gain and to maintain power. Language is one aspect of this struggle and is, as Dwight Bolinger said in 1980, “a loaded weapon". Politics and ideology influence decisions taken in the Promotion of one language as the dominant or as the lenguage of education, 5.5. LANGUAGE PLANNING POLICIES The following quotations from James Tolletsen’s book Planning Languege, Planning Inequality (1991) have been included here to trigger a few thoughts about language policies and ideology. The policy of requiring everyone to learn a single dominant language is widely seen as @ common-sense solution to the communication problems of multilinguel ‘societies. The appeal of this assumption is such that monolingualism fs seen as 2 solution to linguistic inequality. If linguistic minorties learn the dominant language, ‘90 the argument goes, ten they will not suffer economic and sociel inequality. This assumption is an example of an ideology, which refers to normally unconscious ‘assumptions that come to be seen as common sense. (1991:10) In modem societies, language policy is used 10 sustain existing power relationships, ie. itis ideological, With competency In specific language varieties and literacy skills essential to tho exercise of power in modern states, policies thot shape language and its use inevitably affect the distribution of power. ... Language education has become increasingly ideological with the spread of Engllsh for specific purposes, curriculs and methods that view English as @ practical skil, 2 ‘too!’ for ‘education and employment. (1991: 11) Exclusionary tactics of dominant groups are normally institutionelized and protected Sy the legal system, and therefore may be difficult to recognize as examples of exploitation, (1991:15) The word minority focuses attention on numerical size, but more often than not a minority is a group with fewer rights or privileges: Historical and structural pressures whieh have influenced language planning policies have relegated certain languages to a situation of less consideration and status, while other languages have been adopted for use at higher levels of economic, cultural and political life.INSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS PARA LA EXCELENCIA PROFESIONAL IEXPRO One of the important issues in language planning is to ascertain how a dominant language can be effectively taught to members of minority language communities. One variable is motivation, which has habitually been thought of as one of the key factors in language learning {see the subject /ndividual Factors). It could be that motivation is determined by sociopolitical factors governing communities and not (only) individuals such as the economic interests associated with different language varieties, ideological support for language leaming, and access to quality education (see Tollefsen 1991:33) 5.6. COGNITIVE THEORIES OF BILINGUALISM AND THE CURRICULUM ‘Simplistic models of bilingualism often represent the two languages as balanced on a ‘scales inside the brain. Cummins’ (1976) Iceberg Analogy (als0 known as the Common Underlying Proficiency model), or the Thresholds Theory {Cummins 1976; Toukomaa & Skutnabb-Kangas 1977) provide a better idea of how the bilingual brain works. For @ detailed explanation of these models, see Baker 1997. Much research is currently being devoted to the phenomenon of code-switching. This refers to the inclusion in one language of elements from another, as we saw in Unit 2. The occurrence of this phenomenon in bilinguals is related to a number of factors, including not only issues of cultural identity, but also socially specific contextual factors. Young bilinguals code-switch frequently, but it is also adopted by older bilinguals when speaking a common language in an environment that triggers reference to elements from the wider cultural context. An example of this would be when English native speakers interact in a Spanish-speaking country, and refer to cultural elements in ‘a mixture of English and Spanish: A: I'm exhausted. | think I'll have a siesta. B: Yeah, me too. Code-switching is in fact seen to take place in a wide variety of situations. Reading 5.1., which is part of a chapter on bilingual children and code-switching by Suzanne Romaine (1989), refers to many of the situations in which code switching can happen. Task 5.1 Read Romaine's chapter on children and code-switching in Reading 6.1, and answer the following questions. StINSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS PARA LA EXCELENCIA PROFESIONAL IEXPRO ee 58 1. What do each of the following references to code-switching mean? ~ addressee ~ pragmatic effect = achange of identity ~ a metalinguistic device > triggering = unknown vocabulary ~ What differences between child and adult code-switching does Romaine mention? 2. Briefly summarise the affective factors which may affect bilingualism in children, ‘3. What is the author's view of the critical period hypothesis? Note: All answers must be in your own words. 5.7. THE YOUNGER-THE- BETTER-LANGUAGE- LEARNER FALLACY Much has been said about the existence of a critical period for language learning, situated in the early years of childhood. Whether or not children make ‘better’ language learners than adults has already been discussed in the subjects Second Language Acquisition and Individual Factors, where we saw that the view of young language learners as being better learners than older ones has been refuted. There are elements of language learning, such as phonology, which are enhanced by early learning, but it Seems to be the case that older learners perform better on morphology and grammar. It would also seem that the more analytical type of skills and those which are Pragmatically determined are acquired with greater cognitive maturity We have to consider that children take many years in acquiring proficiency in their mother-tongue, certainly many more than are required by the average mature language leamer in the learning of a foreign language. In fact children have little else to do except ‘acquire language during the first period of their lives.INSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS PARA LA EXCELENCIA PROFESIONAL IEXPRO 5.8. CONCLUSION In spite of what can be seen as neglect by mainstream SLA, bilingualism is an issue that affects us all as language teachers. Our classrooms are in fact small bilingual communities. When we look at the behaviour of bilinguals in society -whether they are incipient or balanced- we can see that an insistence on English as the only language in the classroom does not take into consideration the toing and froing between linguistic codes that bilingualism implies. Translation and recourse to L1, even when these practices have been banned by the teacher, are present in all our language classes. 5.9, READINGS [1] READING 6.1; Romaine, S. (1989) Bilingualism. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 204- 218. 5.10. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING [1] BAKER, C. (1997): Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 12] HARDING & RILEY (1987): The Bilingual Family. A Handbook for Parents. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 131 PRIDE & HOLMES (eds.) (1972): Sociolinguistics. London: Penguin [4] ROMAINE, S. (1989): Bilingualism. Oxford: Blackwell.