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Topik 7 Homeostasis-OUM PDF
Topik 7 Homeostasis-OUM PDF
Topik 7 Homeostasis-OUM PDF
12
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of homeostasis and the negative feedback loop;
2. Summarise the regulation of blood sugar levels and the hormones
and mechanisms involved in this;
3. Describe the structure and mechanism of action of the human kidney
and discuss its role in osmoregulation;
4. Explain the mechanism of nerve impulse transmission;
5. Summarise the process of synaptic transmission;
6. Describe the reproductive systems of a human male and female; and
7. Explain the hormonal regulation of the human menstrual cycle.
X INTRODUCTION
The previous topic has introduced you to animal physiology. This topic covers
the second part of animal physiology which discusses the topic homeostasis,
including the urinary, nervous and reproductive systems.
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12.1 HOMEOSTASIS
We learnt in chemistry that matter tends to assume its lowest energy state. It
tends to change towards high entropy by changing from an ordered state to a
disordered state. The survival of organisms depends on the ability to overcome
this tendency to disorderliness by remaining stable. By bathing cells in a fluid
whose composition remains constant, the chemical reactions within these cells
can take place at a predictable rate. The cells will be able to survive and function
efficiently and the whole organisms can become more independent of its
environment. All living things are able to control their internal conditions so that
their cells have a constant chemical and physical environment in which they can
function effectively. This regulation and maintenance of a relatively constant set
of conditions within an organism is called homeostasis. It is a feature of all living
systems, from single cell to the whole biosphere.
Reptiles and insects can regulate their body temperature by basking in the sun or
seeking shade. However, they become sluggish if the temperature falls because
their vital chemistry slows down.
Increase in sweating results in more sweat lying on the skin surface. The skin is
cooled when this sweat begins to evaporate. The hairs lie flat against the skin
when the erector muscles relax which reduces the stationary layer of insulating
air. Elevation and depression of hair in controlling heat loss is shown in Figure
12.3.
The hypothalamus detects a decrease in the temperature of its blood supply and
receives impulses from the skinÊs cold receptors when the surrounding
environment gets cold. It sends out nerve impulses and through vasoconstriction
of arterioles, diverts blood away from the skin surface so that less heat is lost
through radiation. Sweating then is very much reduced. By contraction of the
erector muscles, the hairs are raised and trap a stationery layer of insulating air
close to the skin surface. By the involuntary contraction and relaxation of
muscles, shivering is induced which results in increased heat production. Body
heat is conserved and more heat is produced.
SELF-CHECK 12.1
List down other animal biological systems that are being regulated.
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When a person is fasting, the conversion of stored lipid maintains the blood
glucose level. Since animals do not store proteins, starvation may lead to proteins
being used, which results in muscular wastage.
12.1.5 Glucagon
Too much lowering of the blood glucose level will be detected by the alpha-cells
of the islets of Langerhans. As a result, glucagon will be secreted. This hormone
fits into receptor sites on the cell membranes of liver cells. This leads to the
activation of enzymes inside the cell that convert glycogen to glucose and
increase the rate of gluconeogenesis.
12.1.6 Insulin
The beta-cells of the islets of Langerhans detect the change and secrete insulin if
the level of glucose in the blood is too high. This hormone circulates around the
body in the bloodstream and attaches to receptor sites on the cell membranes of
liver, muscle and adipose cells. Figure 12.5 shows the summary of the blood
sugar control by glucagon and insulin.
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EXERCISE 12.1
1. (a) What is homeostasis?
(b) What are control systems?
(c) Explain all the components of a control system and its
functions.
In human, a branch of the aorta called the renal artery supplies each kidney with
its blood supply. Kidneys are composed of millions of basic filtering units called
nephrons. Blood enters the kidney under high pressure to make filtration
efficient and the filtered blood leaves the kidneys along the renal veins. Urine is
the filtered waste product that is excreted by the kidney and it passes down a
muscular tube called the ureter. One ureter connects each kidney to a muscular
sac called the bladder where urine is stored. In order for urination to occur, a ring
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of muscle called the sphincter muscle relaxes and allow urine to pass out of the
body along the urethra. As the kidneys reabsorb most of the filtered fluid, only a
relatively small proportion of urine is produced each day.
The cortex is the dark outer region. Filtration is carried out here by the nephrons.
A dense capillary network receives blood from the renal artery. The lighter inner
region is the medulla. Structures called renal pyramids are extensions of each
nephron across the medulla. The renal pyramids project into a central space
called the pelvis. Before urine can pass down the ureter, it has to pass out into the
pelvis.
Each nephron is richly supplied with blood. The renal artery brings blood to the
kidney, which branches many times to form arterioles. An afferent arteriole
supplies each BowmanÊs capsule with blood. The afferent arteriole branches
inside the BowmanÊs capsule to form a knot of capillaries called a glomerulus. An
efferent arteriole takes blood away from the BowmanÊs capsule. More blood by
volume is carried to the glomerulus than is carried away from it. That is why the
afferent arteriole is much wider than the efferent arteriole.
(a) Ultrafiltration
The function of the glomerulus is the production of a filtrate from blood by
a process called ultrafiltration. Figure 12.9 illustrates ultrafiltration in the
BowmanÊs capsule.
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It involves filtering under pressure of small molecules out of the blood and
into the BowmanÊs capsule. The blood entering the glomerulus is separated
from the space inside the BowmanÊs capsule by two cell layers and a
basement membrane. The microstructure of glomerulus and BowmanÊs
capsule are illustrated in Figure 12.10.
The first cell layer is the lining or endothelium of the capillary. This layer of
cells has thousands of gaps, much more than in other capillaries. The
basement membrane between the two cell layers is composed of a network
of glycoprotein and collagen fibres. Its mesh-like structure acts as a filter
during ultrafiltration. The second cell layer is formed from epithelial cells
and makes up the wall of the BowmanÊs capsule. They have many tiny
finger-like projections called podocytes. Like the cells of the capillary, they
do not fit tightly together, so there are gaps between them. Most molecules
be allowed to pass through the gaps in the capillary endothelium and in the
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(b) Reabsorption
The fluid which has filtered through the renal capsule is almost identical to
the blood plasma except that it does not contain the large plasma protein
molecules which are too large to pass through the basement membrane.
Many useful substances such as amino acids and glucose needed by the
body are reabsorbed into the blood as the filtrate flows along the nephron.
This process is called selective reabsorption because only certain molecules
are reabsorbed.
Most of the reabsorption takes place in the proximal convoluted tubule. All
the glucose, amino acids, vitamins and many sodium and chloride ions are
actively transported out of the proximal convoluted tubule and back into
the blood. The structure of the cells making up the wall of the proximal
convoluted tubule has adaptations associated with active transport. Pumps
in the membrane reabsorb useful substances by active transport. The
microvilli provide a large surface area for absorption and the numerous
mitochondria provide ATP for active transport. The uptake of these
substances through active transport means that the blood in the capillaries
surrounding the nephron has a relatively high solute concentration. Hence,
a large amount of water passes out of the filtrate in the proximal
convoluted tubule and back into the blood through osmosis.
The ascending limb is more permeable to salts and less permeable to water.
The cells in the walls of this area actively transport sodium and chloride
ions out of the fluid in the tube, into the tissue fluid between the cells filling
the space between the two limbs. As the filtrate moves up, sodium and
chloride ions move out passively at first and are then actively pumped out
into the surrounding tissue. This causes water to pass out of the descending
limb by osmosis. This results in a more concentrated filtrate as it passes
down the descending limb of the loop. The net result is that the solute
concentration at any part of the loop is lower in the ascending limb than it
is in the descending limb.
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The second part of the distal convoluted tubule acts as the collecting duct.
Hormones affect the permeability of the walls of both the distal convoluted
tubule and the collecting duct, and so precise control of the salt and water
balance of the blood is possible. This regulates how much water passes out
into the medulla and the concentration of the urine.
12.2.4 Osmoregulation
The kidneys play an important role in homeostasis by regulating the
concentration of water in the body fluids. This is known as osmoregulation and
operates on a principle of negative feedback.
The release of ADH into the bloodstream makes the distal convoluted tubule and
the collecting duct more permeable to water. This allows more water to be
reabsorbed from the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct into the
region of high solute concentration in the medulla. As a result a smaller volume
of more concentrated urine is produced. Hence the action of ADH is to conserve
body water.
If you drink too much water, the blood will have a high water potential and
becomes more dilute. This is detected by the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
and results in a decrease in the amount of ADH secreted by the pituitary. This
decrease in the amount of ADH in the bloodstream makes the distal convoluted
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tubule and the collecting duct less permeable to water. Less water is reabsorbed
into the medulla and larger volumes of dilute urine are produced.
Figure 12.11: ADH control of water reabsorption in the kidney and a summary of blood
sugar control by negative feedback
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EXERCISE 12.2
The collection of information from our internal and external environment is done
by receptors. Together with the neurones which transmit this information, the
receptors form the sensory system. Processing and integration of this sensory
information is done by the central nervous system (CNS). The final function
whereby information is transmitted to effectors which act upon it, is carried out
by the motor system. The sensory and motor neurones are sometimes called the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). Sensory neurones which carry information
towards the CNS are called afferent neurones, while the motor neurones, which
carry information away from the CNS are termed efferent neurones.
The main difference is that a motor neurone has long dendrite bringing
information to the cell body rather than long axon taking information away. The
sensory neurone carries impulses from receptor cells towards the brain or spinal
cord.
Find out about the six steps involved in the transmission of an impulse
along a neurone at:
http://www.dummies.com/WileyCDA/DummiesArticle/id-1210.html
TOPIC 12 HOMEOSTASIS W 185
The difference between the two potentials is called the resting potential and
is about ă 70 mV. The electrical potential on the inside of the axon is 70 mV
lower than that on the outside. In this resting state, the condition of the
membrane is said to be in polarised state.
Na+ ions are picked up by carrier proteins and transported to the outside.
At the same time, K+ ions are picked up from the outside and brought
across the membrane into the cytoplasm of the axon. This is known as the
sodium-potassium pump and requires ATP. The Na+ ions are passed out
faster than K+ ions are brought in. Approximately, three Na+ ions leave for
every two K+ ions that enter. The membrane is more permeable to K+ ions
and these are able to diffuse back out more rapidly than Na+ ions can
diffuse back in. As more K+ ions move out, the rate at which they leave
decreases. After sometime, equilibrium is reached whereby the rate at
which they leave is exactly balanced by the rate of entry. So the net result is
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This is known as the action potential and in this condition the membrane is
said to be in a depolarised state. The graph of membrane potential
difference (mV) versus time (ms) in Figure 12.16, illustrates the action
potential.
For a very brief period, the inside of the axon becomes positive and the
outside negative. It returns to resting potential and lasts about 3
milliseconds. This is known as re-polarisation.
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(c) Depolarisation
Changes occur in the permeability of the axon membrane to both Na+ ions
and K+ ions when the membrane becomes depolarised. Channels open in
its cell surface membrane, which allows Na+ ions to pass through when the
axon is stimulated. Since there is a higher concentration of Na+ ions outside
the axon membrane they flood in by diffusion. The Na+ ions create a
positive charge of +40 mV inside the membrane, reversing the resting
potential and causing the action potential. This is shown in Figure 12.17.
When too many ions leave, the charge on the inside of the membrane
becomes more negative than before. The potassium channels close and the
sodium-potassium pump starts again, restoring the normal concentration of
sodium and potassium ions on either side of the membrane. This re-
establishes the resting potential.
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This is due to the greater surface area of axon membrane over which
exchange of ions can occur.
The synaptic vesicles fuse with the pre-synaptic membrane and discharge
the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. The released acetylcholine
diffuses across the synaptic cleft and attaches to specific receptor sites on
the post-synaptic membrane.
SELF-CHECK 12.2
EXERCISE 12.3
1. Explain and illustrate what is meant by the following:
(a) Resting potential;
(b) Refractory period.
2. (a) Describe the structure of a synapse.
(b) How does synaptic transmission occur?
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Mitosis determines the full chromosomes number of body cells (diploid), while
meiosis determines the half chromosomes number of gamete cells (haploid).
During sexual reproduction, a sperm and an egg are fused together in a process
called fertilisation. This fusion of a haploid sperm with a haploid egg will
produce a diploid fertilised egg called a zygote. The zygote then divides many
times by mitosis to eventually grow into a new individual.
Figure 12.23: Front and side view of the human male reproductive system
The testes produce the male gametes, the spermatozoa. The male hormone
testosterone is also made in the testes. The testes develop inside the abdomen
196 X TOPIC 12 HOMEOSTASIS
and descend into a sac of skin called the scrotum just before birth. The
temperature in the scrotum is about 3ÀC lower than the temperature within the
body, which is the optimum condition for the production of sperm. Each testis is
an oval structure, about five centimetres long. It is divided up into many
compartments called lobules, which contain a number of tightly coiled tubes
called seminiferous tubules.
The seminiferous tubules are lined by the germinal epithelium, which is made up
of cells called spermatogonia, which are the cells that divide to form the sperm.
The seminiferous tubules merge to form small ducts called the vasa efferentia,
which in turn join up to form a six metres long coiled tube called the epididymis.
The epididymis leads into the vas deferens, a tube that carries the sperm out of
the testis into the urethra. Sperm is stored in both the epididymis and the vas
deferens.
The seminal vesicles, Cowper Ês glands and the prostrate gland secrete a sticky
fluid into the urethra. It is alkaline and neutralises any acidic urine present in the
urethra.The resulting mixture of sperm and these secretions is called semen.
During copulation, the semen passes along the urethra and out of the penis into
the vagina of the female partner.
Figure 12.25: Front and side view of the human female reproductive system
Each ovary is an oval structure about four centimetres long, attached to the
inside of the abdomen just below the kidney. Eggs are formed from the germinal
epithelium on the outside of the ovary, which is made up of actively dividing
cells called oogonia. Leading away from each ovaries are the oviducts or
Fallopian tube. The funnel-like opening of this tube has a fringe of finger-like
fimbriae. This feathery fringe is lined with cilia, which collect the secondary
oocytes when they are released from the ovary.
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An egg is released about every 28 days. The oviducts are two muscular tubes
lined with cilia. The egg is swept along the oviduct by a combination of ciliary
action and muscular contractions of the wall. This is called ovulation. If sperms
are present in the oviduct, the egg will be fertilised. If not, it will die after about a
day. The oviducts open into the uterus (womb), which is pear-shaped and is
about five centimetres wide and eight centimetres long. Most of the uterus wall is
composed of smooth muscle, called myometrium. The lining of the womb is
called endometrium. It is well-supplied with blood and is the part of the womb
into which the embryo implants during pregnancy and which is shed during
menstruation.
At the base of the uterus is a narrow opening guarded by a ring of muscle called
the cervix. The vagina is a muscular tube, which opens to the outside through the
vulva (a collective name for the external genital organs). These consist of two
outer folds of skin, the labia majora, which covers two inner, more delicate folds,
the labia minora. Enclosed within the labia is a small body of erectile tissue called
the clitoris, which is homologous to the penis of a male. It is very sensitive and
when sexually stimulated, swells with blood. Between the vaginal opening and
the clitoris is the urethra.
12.4.3 Spermatogenesis
This is the process in which sperms are produced in the densely-coiled
seminiferous tubules. Figure 12.27 shows the stages in the development of
human sperm.
12.4.4 Oogenesis
This is the process by which eggs are produced in the ovary and starts in the
foetus when the oogonia lining the germinal epithelium divide to form primary
oocytes. Figure 12.28 shows the stages in the development of a follicle in a
human ovary.
The germinal epithelium also divides to form follicle cells, which surrounds the
primary oocytes forming primary follicles. At birth, a baby girl will already have
about a million primary follicles. The primary oocytes will have started to divide
by meiosis, but the process stops at prophase 1.
SELF-CHECK 12.3
The follicle cells around the secondary oocyte grow and a number of fluid-filled
spaces form. The mature Graafian follicle migrates to the surface of the ovary.
Eventually the follicle bursts and the secondary oocyte surrounded by some
follicle cells is released, a process known as ovulation. The second division of
meiosis to form a mature ovum will only occur if a sperm penetrates the
secondary oocyte. After ovulation, the remaining follicle cells develop into a
corpus luteum. The corpus luteum is important
in secreting the hormone progesterone.
The start of the cycle is taken to be the initial discharge of blood through the
vagina and is known as menstruation. This involved the breakdown of the lining
of the uterus (the endometrium). The menstrual cycle involves the interaction of
four hormones. The anterior pituitary gland in the brain secretes follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH), which causes the Graafian follicles to develop in the
ovary. It also stimulates the ovary to produce the hormone oestrogen.
Oestrogen causes the repair and thickening of the lining of the uterus following
menstruation. It also inhibits the production of FSH by the anterior pituitary
gland, and stimulates it to secrete a second hormone, luteinising hormone (LH).
LH causes ovulation to take place, which causes the release of a secondary oocyte
from the Graafian follicle at about fourteen days into the cycle. LH also
stimulates the remaining follicle cells in the ovary to form the corpus luteum,
which secretes the hormone progesterone.
Progesterone, along with oestrogen, inhibits the production of both FSH and LH
by the anterior pituitary. Progesterone and oestrogen stimulate the further
growth and blood supply of the endometrium in preparation for implantation of
the fertilised egg. If pregnancy occurs, these two hormones continue to be
produced. If there is no pregnancy, then the corpus luteum starts to degenerate
and the levels of progesterone and oestrogen fall. FSH is no longer inhibited and
starts to be secreted by the pituitary. The endometrium breaks down, resulting in
menstruation, and the cycle starts again.
12.4.6 Fertilisation
For fertilisation to take place, the sperm has to travel from the seminiferous
tubule of the male to the oviduct of the female. Sexual arousal results in the penis
of the male becoming erect. This is the result of an increase in the blood supply to
the spongy tissue of the penis. In this condition the penis can be inserted into the
femaleÊs vagina.
Sexual stimulation may eventually result in waves of intense pleasure for both
partners, known as an orgasm. In the male, the semen is forced out of the penis
by powerful rhythmic contractions of the urethra. This is called ejaculation. The
force of ejaculation of the semen from the penis is sufficient to propel some
sperm through the cervix into the uterus, while the remainder is deposited at the
top of the vagina. About 2 to 6 cm3 of semen is ejaculated and deposited at the
top of the vagina near the cervix of the female during copulation.
Sperms swim using their tails up through the cervix, through the uterus and into
the oviducts. The speed with which they reach the top of the oviducts indicates
that muscular contractions of the uterus and oviduct are also involved. Sperm
can only swim at a rate of about 4 mm mină1. The sperm can remain viable for up
202 X TOPIC 12 HOMEOSTASIS
to 2 days. If a sperm does not fertilise the egg within 8 to 24 hours after
ovulation, it will die. This is because the egg released from the Graafian follicle of
the ovary is metabolically inactive and dies within 24 hours.
By this time it has only travelled a short way along the oviduct. So a sperm must
reach an egg while it is quite near the top of the oviduct if fertilisation is to be
successful. The alkaline semen helps to neutralise the acid fluid in the vagina and
uterus. Out of the millions of sperm in one ejaculation, only a few hundred will
finally reach the oviducts. If ovulation has recently occurred, then there will be a
secondary oocyte in the oviduct.
The male nucleus of the sperm fuses with the egg nucleus, producing a diploid
zygote or fertilised egg, which will develop into a foetus.
• The pancreas secretes glucagons to raise the blood glucose level, and secretes
insulin to reduce the blood glucose level.
• The kidneys are the main organs of the urinary system and are composed of
numerous nephrons.
• The loop of Henle creates a region of high solute concentration deep in the
medulla by the counter current multiplier mechanism. This enables water to
be reabsorbed back into the blood.
• At rest, the nerve axon is polarised. The sodium-potassium pump makes the
outside of the axon positive and the inside of the axon negative. An action
TOPIC 12 HOMEOSTASIS W 203
potential results in the inside of the axon becoming positive and the outside
negative.
• The transfer of information from one neurone to the next relies on the
secretion of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine.
• The menstrual cycle involves the production and release of eggs (ovulation)
and the preparation of the uterus to receive the egg if it is fertilised
(implantation).
3. Which of the following is a hormone that regulates the blood sugar level in
human body?
I. Insulin
II. Glucagon
III. Islets of Langerhans
A. I only
B. I and II only
C. II and III only.
D. I, II and III.