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Standard Frequency Spectrums

• Pierson and Moskowitz (1964)
• JONSWAP (Hasselmann et al., 1973)
• Bretschneider (1968)-Mitsuyasu (1970)
• Wallops Spectrum (Huang et al., 1981)
• TMA Spectrum (Kitaigorodskii et al., 1975;
Bouws et al., 1985)

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Standard Frequency Spectrums:

Pierson and Moskowitz (1964)
• At short fetches, the waves grow fairly rapidly (young sea
states), but gradually the growth slows down until it
eventually stops (the wave speed, celerity, c=gT/2/π, of the
longest waves approaches the wind speed, and wave
breaking balances the energy transfer from wind to waves).

• In this final stage, the waves are said to be fully developed.

• Pierson and Moskowitz (1964) analysed observations of

such fully developed waves in the North Atlantic Ocean.

• Used in wave forecasting.

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Standard Frequency Spectrums:

Pierson and Moskowitz (1964)
• Pierson and Moskowitz (1964) used the wind speed at the
anemometer elevation of the weather ships at which the
observations were taken (19.5 m) and they found

gH m0 , / U 192 .5  0.21
U 19.5  1.075U 10
gT peak , / U 192 .5  7.14

(the subscript ∞ indicates the fully developed state).

• PM spectrum represents a fully developed sea in deep water.

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Standard Frequency Spectrums:

Pierson and Moskowitz (1964)
• PM Spectrum
g2   f  
4

S PM ( f )   f 5
exp   1 . 25    (in m2/Hz)
( 2 ) 4  f  
  p 
g 19PM.5
fp    0.0081  19PM.5  0.14
U 19.5
Phillips constant

g2   f  4 
S PM ( f )   f 4
exp     (in m2/Hz) after Donelan et al
( 2 ) 4 f p   f p   (1985) and Alves et
 
al (2003).
g 10PM
fp    0.00615  10PM  0.123
U 10

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Standard Frequency Spectrums:

Bretschneider-Mitsuyasu
• Alternatively PM spectrum could be expressed as a function
of Hm0 and fp, which is also known as Bretschneider spectrum:
5 2 4 5
B
S PM (f) H m0 T p f exp[1.25(T p f ) 4 ]
16
• BM Spectrum
S BM ( f )  0.257 H 12/ 3 T1/43 f 5 exp[1.03(T1 / 3 f ) 4 ] for T p  1.05T1 / 3

however a number of later measurements suggests the

relation of Tp≈1.1T1/3 as more appropriate for wind waves
Goda 88
S BM ( f )  0.205 H 12/ 3 T1/43 f 5 exp[0.75(T1 / 3 f ) 4 ] for T p  1.1T1 / 3

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Standard Frequency Spectrums:

JONSWAP (Hasselmann et al., 1973)
• The JONSWAP spectrum (J) (Hasselmann et al, 1973)
represents fetch-limited sea-states, ie growing sea.
• For waves generated by strong winds in a relatively small sea
area (developing wave conditions).
• Includes an additional term compared to the original PM
spectrum and also depends on the fetch length.
• It has a sharper peak than the PM spectrum.
• Original JONSWAP form has a high-frequency tail.

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Standard Frequency Spectrums:

JONSWAP (Hasselmann et al., 1973)
• J Spectrum
g2   f   
4

SJ ( f )   f 5
exp   1 . 25   
(2 ) 4 f p  f  
  p 
0.33 0.22
g  gF   gF
  ( f / f p  1) 2 
f p  3 .5     0.076     exp  
U 10  U 102  2
 U 10
  2  2 

  0.07 if f  f p and 0.09 if f  f p

γ = peak enhancement factor that varies between 1 (in this case giving the
original PM spectrum) and 7, with an average value of 3.3.

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Standard Frequency Spectrums:

JONSWAP (Hasselmann et al., 1973)
• J Spectrum (modified by Goda)
exp[  (T p f 1) 2 /2 2 ]
S JGoda 88 ( f )   J H 12/ 3 T p4 f 5 exp[1.25(T p f ) 4 ] 

0.0624
J  [1.094  0.01915 ln  ]
0.230  0.0336   0.185 (1.9   ) 1

T p  T1/ 3 /[1  0.132 (  0.2) 0.559 ]

 a  0.07 : f  f p
 
 a  0.09 : f  f p

Goda 88
For γ = 1, it reduces to the modified BM spectrum: S BM (f)

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Standard Frequency Spectrums:

Modified Wallops Spectrum
(org. by Huang et al., 1981)
• The functional shape of the modified Wallops spectrum
(Goda, 1988) depends on the exponent m, showing a sharper
peak and more rapid high frequency decay with a larger m
value.
 m 
SW ( f )  W H 12/ 3 T p1 m f  m exp (T p f ) 4 
 4 
0.0624 m ( m1) / 4
W  ( m 5 ) / 4
[1  0.7458 ( m  2) 1.057 ]
4 [(m  1) / 4]
Found to be applicable
also in finite depths.
0.684
Tp  T1/ 3 /[1  0.283 (m  1.5) ] Check out lit by Huang et al.

Goda 88
For m = 5, it reduces to the modified BM spectrum: S BM (f)

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Standard Frequency Spectrums:

TMA Spectrum
• To cover both fetch-limited sea and shallow-water effects, the TMA (for
Texel-Marsen-Arsloe experiments) spectrum were developed
(Kitaigorodskii et al., 1975; Hughes, 1984; Bouws et al, 1985).
• This spectrum consists of factors originating from the PM and from the J
spectra.
• Additionally, a factor φ(ωh) has been introduced to describe the effect of
the water depth.

STMA ( f )  S J ( f ) ( h )
STMA ( f )  S J ( f ) (h )  h  2f h / g
1
 1  ( h )  tanh 2 ( kh)
 h for  h  1 or 2n
 ( h )   2
1 h  1 1 2kh
1  2  h 2 for n  (1 
2 sinh( 2kh)
)
 2

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Water surface elevations (η) of

3 different sea states of same wave conditions

smax,0 = 10 smax,0 = 25 smax,0 = 75

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Directional Wave Spectrum

S ( f , )
f  df   d
1

 2
f
a 2
n  S ( f , )df d

[after Prof. Leo Holtjisen (2006)]

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Directional Wave Spectrum

SE(( ff ,,)) (in m2/Hz/degrees)
normalised S ( f , )
circular transect (| f)E f , 
GD
E  f S ( f )

f




1800 900 00 900 180 0

 constant f
constant f
f

θ0 : Azimuth; angle btw dir of a wave component and θ0 [after Prof. Leo Holtjisen (2006)]
θ0 : Azimuth of the principal wave direction

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Directional Wave Spectrum

• General definition

S ( f , )  S ( f ) G ( | f ) :  G ( | f ) d  1
• Types:
– cos2l type (Pierson et al. 1952 with l=1)
– cos2s type (Mitsuyasu et al. 1975)
– sech2(βθ) type (Donelan et al. 1985)
– wrapped-Normal type (Borgman, 1984)

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Directional Wave Spectrum:

cos2l type (Pierson et al. 1952)
• Pierson et al. (1952) proposed P-N-J wave forecasting method based on
dir. spectrum concept and adopted a cos2θ-type spreading.
• They have used below given function with l=1.
• Disregards the frequency dependency of spreading.
 2l!! 
 (2l  1)!! cos  : |  |
2l
,
2
GC ( )  
0 
 : |  | .
2
where 2l!!=2l·(2l-2)·…·4·2 and (2l-1)!!=(2l-1)·(2l-3)·…·3·1

• Simple to use.
• Not validated by field measurements.

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Directional Wave Spectrum:

cos2s type (Mitsuyasu et al. 1975)
• Based on detailed field measurements with a special cloverleaf-type
instrument buoy, as well as other available data:
1
    max    Put (θ-θp) instead of
G ( | f )  G0 cos 2 s   : G0    cos 2 s   d  θ, if you would like to
 
2   min
2 
draw wrt θp.
( f / f p )5 smax : f  fp
s  2.5
( f / f p ) smax : f  fp

 max
 min
G ( | f ) d  1

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Directional Wave Spectrum:

cos2s type (Mitsuyasu et al. 1975)
• What is smax?

Approximate value of smax (Deep Water)

Wind waves smax = 10

Spreading Parameter, smax,0

Swell with short decay distance smax = 25
Swell with long decay distance smax = 75

smax  11.5  (2  f p U / g )

• Directional spreading, smax, is inversely

proportional with the directional
deep water wave steepness.

Deep Water Wave Steepness, H0/L0

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Directional Wave Spectrum:

cos2s type (Mitsuyasu et al. 1975)
In water of finite
depth, where
structures are to be
built, waves have
transformed under the
effect of wave
refraction which result
in longer wave crests
and reduced
dispersion in wave
directions.

α0: incident wave angle

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Directional Wave Spectrum:

cos2s type (Mitsuyasu et al. 1975)
• The parameter s representing the degree of directional wave energy
concentration takes a peak value at fp and decreases in both directions.
• Directional spreading is narrowest around fp.
• Waves in high frequency region exhibit broad spreading of wave energy.

f *  f /fp

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Directional Wave Spectrum:

cos2s type (Mitsuyasu et al. 1975)

smax = 10
Relative
energy
-20o to
+20o
PE = 45%

Cumulative distribution of wave energy with respect to azimuth

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Directional Wave Spectrum:

sech2(βθ) type (Donelan et al. 1985)
• The parameter β controls the angular spreading of wave
energy.
1 
GH ( | f ) 
2 cosh 2 
  2.61  ( f / f p )1.3 for 0.56  f / f p  0.95
  2.28  ( f / f p ) 1.3 for 0.95  f / f p  1.6
  1.24 for 1.6  f / f p

• or later by Banner (1990)

  0.4  0.8393 exp[0.567 ln( f / f p ) 2 ] for 1.6  f / f p

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Directional Wave Spectrum:

Wrapped-Normal type (Borgman, 1984)
• Used especially in the simulation of directional waves in multi-directional
wave basins.
• Simply, a Fourier series representation of directional spectrum and
proposed by Borgman, 1984.
1 1 J   ( j m ) 2  
GN ( | f )    exp   cos j ( )
2  j 1   2  

• where J is the number of arbitrary number of harmonics (usually btw 5-

50) chosen to represent the Fourier series, σm is the spectral width
parameter.  max
2  
(   ) 2 G ( | f ) d

min

• For broad directional spreading, σm=30° (smax≈13.5, wind waves)

• For narrow spreading σm=10° (smax≈130, swell waves).
• Check out lit for frequency dependent versions (Briggs et al. 1987).

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Example on
cos2s type (Mitsuyasu et al. 1975)
for
s 10 θ (°) θ (rad) cos2s(θ/2) G(θ|f)=G0·cos2s(θ/2) G(θ|f)·Δθ ∑G(θ|f)·Δθ  max
G0
Δθ (°)
0.903
20.00
-180
-160
-3.14
-2.79
0.00
0.00
0.000
0.000
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
 min
G ( | f ) d  1
Δθ (rad) 0.35 -140 -2.44 0.00 0.000 0.00 0.00
-120 -2.09 0.00 0.000 0.00 0.00
-100 -1.75 0.00 0.000 0.00 0.00
-80 -1.40 0.00 0.004 0.00 0.00
-60 -1.05 0.06 0.051 0.02 0.02
-40 -0.70 0.29 0.260 0.09 0.11
-20 -0.35 0.74 0.665 0.23 0.34
0 0.00 1.00 0.903 0.32 0.66
20 0.35 0.74 0.665 0.23 0.89
40 0.70 0.29 0.260 0.09 0.98
60 1.05 0.06 0.051 0.02 1.00
80 1.40 0.00 0.004 0.00 1.00
100 1.75 0.00 0.000 0.00 1.00
120 2.09 0.00 0.000 0.00 1.00
140 2.44 0.00 0.000 0.00 1.00
160 2.79 0.00 0.000 0.00 1.00
180 3.14 0.00 0.000 0.00 1.00
∑ 3.17 2.86 1.00

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Example on
cos2s type (Mitsuyasu et al. 1975)
@ θ=θ0

@ f=fp

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Due: 16.12.2019
Homework 4
1) Define frequency spectrums of a sea state with Hs,0=4 m and Ts=8 sec in deep water using
Pierson-Moskowitz and Jonswap spectrum (for γ = 1, 3.3 and 7) functions and draw the
spectrums on the same plot.

2) Generate a time series of 1000 waves long from one of the spectrums you have defined in
step 1. Analyze the time series with the code that you have written HW3 (zero-down
crossing method). Compare the Hs and Ts values of your time series with the values defined
in step 1.

3) Apply one of the given directional spreading functions in lecture notes to a frequency
spectrum (defined in step 1) and generate a multi-directional spectrum for a mean
approach angle of 30° in a directional domain of θ=-90°:dθ:90°. Draw the 2-dimensional
spectrum. (Check example on cos2s type, Mitsuyasu et al. 1975 in lecture notes).

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Find the difference between two pictures :)

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Crest pattern of
random sea waves
approaching in
shoaling waters of
planar beach.
(Goda, 2010)

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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

(Dalga Değişimi/Dönüşümü/Transformasyonu)
Wave conditions: Hs,0 = 5 m, Ts = 8.0 s, θ0 = 30°, m = 1/20
h=0.5 m

h=100 m

smax,0 = 10 smax,0 = 75
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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

• Shoaling (dalga sığlaşması)

• Refraction (dalga sapması, kırınımı*)
• Diffraction (dalga dönmesi, sapması*)
• Depth-induced breaking (dalga kırılması)
• White-capping
• Bottom friction Wave height,
• Transmission though obstacles direction and
• Nonlinear wave-wave interactions frequency**
(triads in shallower depths or changes
quadruplets in deep water)
• Wave-current interactions
• Wind-wave interac ons → genera on
• Reflections
• Dispersion in frequency and direction**

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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

• Shoaling is the variation of waves in their direction of propagation due to depth-induced
changes of the group velocity in that direction. These changes in group velocity generally
increase the wave amplitude as the waves propagate into shallower water (the propagation
of wave energy slows down, resulting in ‘energy bunching’).

• Refraction is the turning of waves towards shallower water due to depth- or current-induced
changes of the phase speed in the lateral direction (i.e., along the wave crest). For harmonic,
long-crested waves in situations with parallel depth contours, Snell’s law can be used to
compute the wave direction. If the depth contours are not parallel, the wave direction should
be computed with wave rays.

• Diffraction is the turning of waves towards areas with lower amplitudes due to amplitude
changes along the wave crest. Diffraction is particularly strong along the geometric shadow
line of obstacles such as islands, headlands and breakwaters. For long-crested, harmonic
waves, propagating over a horizontal bottom, Huygens’ principle, or a generalisation thereof,
can be used to compute the diffraction pattern.

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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

• Depth-induced wave-breaking of individual waves starts when the wave height becomes
greater than a certain fraction of the water depth. As a rule of thumb, the wave height of an
individual wave at breaking is often said to be around 80% of the water depth, but this is a
very approximate figure.

• White-capping or top-breaking is steepness-induced wave-breaking, which occurs in deeper

water when the wave height becomes too large compared to the wavelength.

• Bottom friction causes energy dissipation and thereby wave height reduction as the water
depth becomes more and more shallow. Friction is of special importance over large areas
with shallow water. Except for the case of long swell propagating over long distances on
continental shelves or in the nearshore zone, energy dissipation caused by bottom friction is
usually of less importance compared with the other processes.

• Transmission of waves through porous medium results in dissipation of energy due to drag
resistance.

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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

Nonlinear wave-wave interactions

a familiar face from CE 491 :)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eMBU1eXDYDc

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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

Nonlinear wave-wave interactions
• Consider a large wave tank with constant water depth. One machine generates harmonic
waves in one corner of the tank. Another machine generates waves in another corner with a
different frequency and in a different direction.

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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

Nonlinear wave-wave interactions
• Consider a large wave tank with constant water depth. One machine generates harmonic
waves in one corner of the tank. Another machine generates waves in another corner with a
different frequency and in a different direction.

• The resulting waves in the tank create a diamond pattern of crests and troughs, which has its
own wave length, speed and direction (and hence its own wave number).

• Such a diamond pattern would interact with a third, freely propagating wave component if
this third wave had the same wave length, speed and direction as the diamond pattern.

• The original pair of wave components would thus interact with this third wave component if
the proper conditions were met, which is called triad wave–wave interaction.

• Significant in very shallow waters.

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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

Nonlinear wave-wave interactions
• It is possible in deep water to have one pair of wave components interacting with another
pair.

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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

Nonlinear wave-wave interactions
• It is possible in deep water to have one pair of wave components interacting with another
pair.

• If the frequency, wave number and direction of one diamond pattern coincide with those of
another diamond pattern, then energy is transferred amongst the four free components
involved.

• Such a set of four wave components is called a quadruplet and the interactions are called
quadruplet wave–wave interactions.

• It should be emphazised that the quadruplet wave–wave interactions only redistribute

energy over the spectrum. No energy is added or withdrawn from the spectrum as a whole.

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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

Nonlinear wave-wave interactions
• The progressive shift of energy to lower frequencies with fetch, the characteristic decay of
the high frequency spectral tail and the unimodal spectral shape are all characteristics largely
governed by quadruplet nonlinear interactions.

• In shallow water, however, the importance of triad interactions increases. Energy spectra of
shoaling waves often show the appearance of harmonics of the spectral peak.

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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

Wave-current interactions
• Tides and currents, which may be due to tides, storm surges or river discharge, may change
the (i) amplitude, (ii) frequency and (iii) direction of an incoming harmonic wave.

• Change in amplitude might be due to energy bunching (as in shoaling), current-induced

refraction and transfer of energy between wave and current.

• Change in frequency is closely related to the well-known Doppler effect. Waves of the same
apparent absolute period will have a longer intrinsic period in a favourable following current
and a shorter intrinsic period in an opposing current.

• Change in direction is refraction, induced by current-related changes in propagation speed.

• Wave-current interaction is also one of the possible mechanisms for the occurrence of rogue
waves, such as in the Agulhas Current. When a wave group encounters an opposing current,
the waves in the group may pile up on top of each other which will propagate into a rogue
wave.

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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

• Damaged ships by rogue waves
• Agulhas Current around
South Africa

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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

Wave-current interactions

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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

Dispersion in frequency and direction
• The linear theory of surface gravity waves shows that in deep water the propagation speed of
the wave energy depends on the frequency of the wave component considered.

• The energy of low-frequency waves therefore travels faster than the energy of high-
frequency waves.

• The initially random, short-crested wave field, as generated in a storm, disintegrates when it
moves out of the storm. It disintegrates in fields of more regular waves in the direction of
propagation, with the low frequencies in the lead and the high frequencies in the trailing
edge. This process is called frequency-dispersion.

• In addition to growing more and more regular, the waves will also change from short-crested
to long-crested because the waves in the storm travel in a range of directions and the initial
wave field will disintegrate in these directions. This is called direction-dispersion.

• Waves that have thus dispersed across the ocean are called ‘swell’. Generation of
swell waves !!?#
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Transformation of Random Sea Waves

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Somewhere in Africa’s Western Shores

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α1 > α2 L1> L2

α1

REFRACTION + SHOALING L1

α2
L2

WAVE BREAKING

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Linear Wave Shoaling and Refraction

(Regular Waves)
by Conservation of wave
energy flux btw wave
orthogonals (rays)
P0  P1 0
E0  C g ,0  b0  E1  C g ,1  b1
1
gH 02 gH 12
C g ,0  b0  C g ,1  b1
8 8
H1 b C0  n 0
 0 
H0 b1 C1  n 1
b0 x  cos  0
Kr  
b1 x  cos  1
C0  n0
Ks 
C1  n1 Snell’s Law
sin  1 L1  2h1 
1 2 kh    tanh  
n   1   sin  0 L0
2 sinh(2 kh)   L1 
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Random Wave Shoaling and Refraction

How to find
Ks and Kr for
random sea waves?

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Random Wave Shoaling

• For random sea waves, some modifications to the linear

shoaling coefficient given for regular waves.

1. One reason is the effect of the energy distribution in the

frequency domain, expressed through the frequency
spectra.

2. Another is the effect of the finite amplitude of the

individual waves (non-linear wave shoaling).

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Random Wave Shoaling

Effect of the energy distribution in the frequency

• The effect of wave frequency on shoaling coefficient is not large.
• Shoaling coefficient of spectral waves can be estimated by computing the
wave shoaling coefficient at various frequency intervals in the wave
spectrum and by summing the results
1/ 2
M N  1 f i  f  j  
K s ,irr   (E ) i , j ( K s )i2, j  ( E ) i , j 
m0 f  S ( f ,  )  d  df
 i 1 j 1 
i j

• or just computing for the characteristic wave period (peak, significant etc.)
only.
• The error is a few percent: Ks,irr = 0.937 and Ks = 0.913. Difference is on the
order of 2-3% which may be neglected in practical design procedures.

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Random Wave Shoaling

Effect of Nonlinear Shoaling

• When the wave height is large enough to negate the assumption of small
amplitude (i.e. cnoidal or Stoke waves), the wave height increases much
faster in shoaling waters than that given by:
( cG ) 0 C0  n0  2 kh  Linear
Ks   1 1   tanh kh
cG C n  sinh 2 kh  Shoaling
Coefficient
1 tanh kh  kh(1  tanh 2 kh)

• Nonlinear shoaling coefficient is approximately given by:

2.87 1.27
 h   H 0'  Nonlinear
K s ,n  K s  0.0015   
 L0   L0  Shoaling
Coefficient
H
for H 0'  H 0  K r , K s  ' , H  H 0 K r K s (Goda, 2010)
H0
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Random Wave Shoaling

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Random Wave Shoaling

Effect of Nonlinear Shoaling

• Nonlinear shoaling is caused by deformation of wave profiles with
sharpening of wave crests and flattening of the wave troughs at shallower
depths.

• Use of the nonlinear shoaling coefficient is necessary when estimating

characteristic wave height such as H1/3 and Hmax to evaluate wave actions
on structures.

• However, it should not be employed when the spatial variations of wave

energy and radiation stresses are to be evaluated.

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Random Wave Refraction

• Real sea waves are composed of infinite number of components having
different frequencies and directions.
• Refraction coefficient for regular waves is not enough to express refraction
of real sea waves.
• Each wave component undergoes process of refraction individually.

• Fundamental equation for the estimation of the refraction coefficient of

random sea waves, Kr,irr:
1/ 2
 1   max 
( K r ) irr  
 ms0
0  min
S ( f ,  )  K s2 ( f )  K r2 ( f ,  )  d  df 

  max
m s0    S ( f ,  )  K s2 ( f )  d  df
0 min

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Random Wave Refraction

• Neglecting effect of shoaling, one can use:
1/ 2
M N  1 f i  f  j  
K r ,irr   (E )i , j ( K r )i2, j  ( E ) i , j 
m0 f  S ( f ,  )  d  df
 i 1 j 1 
i j

• Δθ might be selected as you wish, 22.5° or 30° or 45°, but how to select
Δf?
• The division of the frequency range can be made so as to equalize the
wave energy in each frequency interval.
• Representative frequency in each interval (fi) is best determined as the
mean of the second spectral moment of each interval:
1/ 2
1    M   M    1 t  x2 / 2
fi  2.912 M   2 ln     2 ln    t    e dx
0.9T1 / 3 i  1   i  2 0
       
Error Function
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Random Wave Refraction

S (m2/Hz)
T  m0 / m2
A1=A2=A3=A4

A2
A3
A1 A4

f2 (=1/T2) f (Hz)
T2  A2 / A2, 2

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Random Wave Refraction

• or just use the frequency which bisects the area (into two equal parts) of
the wave spectrum in each interval:
1/ 4
1  0.675 
fi   
0.9T1 / 3  ln[2 M /(2i  1)] 

• Then, relative energy of the component waves:

1
( E ) i , j  Dj
M
where Dj is the ratio of wave energy in each directional bin.

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Random Wave Refraction

Ratio of wave energy to

total energy (Dj)
for directional bin of
+22.5° of a 2D
spectrum with smax=25.

How to find these?

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Random Wave Refraction

Example:
By employing three divisions in the
frequency range, the representative wave
periods of the component waves are
obtained as T1 = 14s, T2 = 11s, and T3 = 6.5s
for T1/3 = 12s.
For 16-point bearing within the range of
±90° around the principal direction of SSE
and smax=25, compute Kr,irr at point A?

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Random Wave Refraction

Solution:
Draw refraction diagrams for all 21 components (7 directions and 3 periods)
and compute refraction coefficients of each component.

b0 H A
Kr  
bA H 0

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Random Wave Refraction

Solution:
Draw refraction diagrams for all 21 components (7 directions and 3 periods)
and compute refraction coefficients of each component.

Easy task for bathys with horizontal bottom

contours parallel to shoreline

• But how for irregular bathymetries?

• Either
– draw refraction diagrams by hand or
– use a numerical model (i.e. REFRA Wave Ray Tracing Numerical Model by
METU-OERC)

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Random Wave Refraction

Some sample outputs of REFRA (METU-OERC):
2000

8000
1000 1800

7000 500
1600
400
6000
300 1400

5000 200
1200
100
4000
50 1000

3000
20
800

2000 10
600
0.01
1000
0 400

0 -1000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 200

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

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Random Wave
Refraction

Goda (2010),
Fig. 3.6. Refraction
coefficient of random
sea waves on a coast
with straight, parallel
depthcontours.

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Random Wave
Refraction

Goda (2010),
Fig. 3.7. Variation of
predominant direction
of random sea waves
due to refraction on a
coast with straight,
parallel depth-
contours.

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Kashima Port
under construction in 1972

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Reflected waves

Incident waves
Diffracted waves

Reflected waves
Incident waves

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Hi

Hd

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Wave Diffraction
• When water waves encounter an obstacle such as a breakwater, island, or
headland during propagation, they pivot about the edge of the obstacle
and move into shadow zone of the obstacle.

• This phenomenon is called the diffraction of water waves, and it is

common with the other wave motions of sound, light, and
electromagnetic waves.

• The spatial distribution of diffracted wave height of regular waves in

uniform depth can be computed by means of the Sommerfeld solution
based on velocity potential theory.

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Wave Diffraction
Sommerfeld solution H / H incident
10 Monochromatic wave
0.9 1.1 1.1
y/L 0.9
diffraction by a single
8 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.2
barrier
0.1
H / H incident
6
y / L =4.5
y / L =4.5 1.0

4 0.8
Sommerfeld solution
0.6
2
0.4

0 0.2
breakwater
0.0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x/ L 6 -6 0 x/L 6

incident wave H / H incident  1 [after Prof. Leo Holtjisen (2006)]

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Wave Diffraction
• Wiegel (1962) summarized the Penny and Price (1952) solution and
prepared conventional diffraction diagrams for approach angles varying by
15 degrees intervals from 15 to 180 degrees.

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Random Wave Diffraction

• Diffracted heights of real sea waves should be computed as follows by
introducing the directional wave spectrum:
1/ 2
 1   max 
( K d )irr  
 m0
 
0 min
S ( f ,  )  K d2 ( f )  d  df 


where Kd is diffraction coefficient of component (regular) waves with

frequency f and direction θ.

• Spectral diffraction diagrams are given for different Smax (spreading

parameter at the tip of the diffracting source) values (10 and 75).

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Random Wave Diffraction

Procedure:
1. Directional spectrum is decomposed into 20 to 50 frequencies and 50 to
100 directions.

2. Diffraction coefficient is computed for each frequency and directional

components with monochromatic wave theory.

3. Diffracted wave spectrum is reconstructed with the diffraction

coefficient of component waves.

4. Diffracted wave height is estimated from the integration of diffracted

wave spectrum.

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Random Wave Diffraction

To find
spreading
parameter at
the tip of the
diffracting
source

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Random Wave Diffraction

Check out also
diagrams for gaps!

As half of the energy is blocked

(reflected and/or dissipated) and
the other half passes to the lee
side of obstacle.
ΔElee ≈ (0.7H)2

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Random Wave Diffraction

• To compute random wave diffraction coefficient behind an

obstacle, several other methodologies are available:

Illuminated Shadow
Kraus (1984) Zone Zone

PE ( ) θ (-)
K d ( )  lee
100
PE ( )  50  [tanh( A)  1] (%) sea

S max
A  (θ in radians)
W
W  5.31  0.270  S max  0.000103  S max
2

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Random Wave Diffraction

• To compute random wave diffraction coefficient behind an

obstacle, several other methodologies are available:

Illuminated Shadow
Leont’yev ‘s Method (1999) Zone Zone

1    / 6 θ (+)
 0.1  (   / 6)  cos 3 (   / 6),  /6    /2 lee

Kd  
0.087  (3  4 /  ),  / 2    3 / 4
sea
0 3 / 4  
(θ in radians)

On the contrary to the definition of the shadow angle θ in Kraus (1984), Leont’yev
defines θ as positive in the shadow zone and negative in the illuminated region.

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Random Wave Diffraction

• To compute random wave diffraction coefficient behind an

obstacle, several other methodologies are available:

Illuminated Shadow
Kamphuis (2000) Zone Zone

 0.71  0.0093    0.000025   2 ,  90    0 θ (-)

 lee
K d  0.71  0.37  sin( ), 0    40
0.83  0.17  sin( ), 40    90
 sea
(θ in degrees)

or
0.71  0.0077  

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Random Wave Diffraction

• Another method to find random wave diffraction coefficient is to use
cumulative distribution curves of total wave energy.

Example: Estimate the wave height ratio at

Point 0 which is partly sheltered by
the headland P. (smax=10)

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Random Wave Diffraction

Example: Estimate the wave height ratio at Point 0 which is partly sheltered
by the headland P.
Solution:
θ1 = 17°, Among all wave components, those in the range of θ=17° - 90°
are assumed to be blocked by the headland. 17°
K d ( )  0.68  0.83

68 %

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Random Wave Diffraction

Example: Estimate the wave height ratio
at Point 0 which is sheltered by the
island.

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Random Wave Diffraction

Solution:
θ1 = 27° and θ2 = 31°.
∆E = PE(31°) - PE (-27°) = 0.82 - 0.22 = 0.60
Kd = √(1 - ∆E) = 0.63

Waves
Waves from left
θ2
from right

θ1

What is the mean wave direction at O?

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Random Wave Diffraction

Solution:

Two main
θ2
component
waves
θ1

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Random Wave Diffraction

Solution:

Although the above calculation gave a single wave height ratio, the actual situation is that waves
are arriving at Point 0 from two different directions, from the left end and the right end of the
island. The ratios of the respective wave heights to the incident height are estimated as follows:

Wave group from the left side: ( K d )1  PE (27)  PE (90)  0.22  0.47

Wave group from the right side: ( K d ) 2  PE (90)  PE (31)  1  0.82  0.42

K d  0.47 2  0.422  0.63

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Depth-induced Wave Breaking

• As the waves approach to the shore, they increase in steepness (ratio of wave
height to the wave length) due to decreasing water depths. (energy bunching)

• When the increasing wave steepness of a single wave reaches to a limiting value,
the wave breaks dissipating energy and inducing nearshore currents and an
increase in the mean water level at the shore.

• Regular waves break almost at a certain location, called as “breaking depth”

approximately equal to the wave height, depending on the bottom slope, the wave
steepness and the approach angle.

• For directional random waves composed of individual waves with different heights,
periods and directions, depth-induced wave breaking becomes a continuous
process of dissipation of wave energy due to bottom effect and wave steepness
over a wide nearshore area, called as “surf zone.”

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Depth-induced Wave Breaking

• Random wave breaking is mostly studied or modeled with either the similarity
method, assuming a constant height-to-depth ratio called as “breaker index”.

• Ratios of wave heights to the water depths are assumed to be equal to or smaller
than the breaker index within the surf zone and the wave heights are determined
accordingly.

• Limiting ratio of wave-height-to-water-depth (breaker index) for Regular Waves for

any depth, h (Goda, 2007; after Rattanapitikon and Shibayama, 2000)

 Hb 
  
A 
1  exp  1.5

h

1  11s 4 / 3  : A  0.17
s: bottom slope
(i.e. 1/10, 1/100)
 hb  h h / L0  L0 
• Breaker index is defined wrt to bottom slope (s) and relative water depth (h/L0).

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Depth-induced Wave Breaking

• A comprehensive review and comparison of most of them can be found in
Rattanapitikon and Shibayama (2000).

• Rattanapitikon and Shibayama (2000) and in Rattanapitikon et al (2003), who also

proposed a new criterion giving the best fit to the experimental points of the
validation database:
0.35
Hb
Lb

  1.40 m 2  0.57 m  0.23  HL 0 
 for Regular Waves
 0 
Lb: wavelength computed at the breaking point (depth hb) by the linear wave
theory.

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Depth-induced Random Wave Breaking

Concept of Incipient Breaking of Random Waves (Kamphuis, 1991)

• Incipient breaking water depth is the depth at which several large waves among a
train of random waves start to break, or

• it is approximately the water depth at which the significant wave height (H1/3,peak)
takes its maximum value (Goda, 2010) due to shoaling before decay process due to
wave breaking starts.

 H 1 / 3, peak  

 h1 / 3, peak
  A


1  exp   1.5

h

1  11s 4 / 3   : A  0.12
  h h / L0  L0 

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Depth-induced Random Wave Breaking

Goda’s (1975)
PEGBIS Model

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Depth-induced Random Wave Breaking

2.5
Ting's Lab. Data
0.99
Reduced variate, SQRT [ -ln (1 - P)]

Rayleigh
Non-exceedance Probability, P

2.0
h /H0' = 1.90
h /H0' = 1.60
h /H0' = 1.28 0.95
h /H0' = 0.97
1.5 0.90
h /H0' = 0.69
h /H0' = 0.48
0.75
1.0
0.50

0.5 0.25
0.10
0.05
0 0.01
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Relative wave height, H /H1/3 [After Goda, 2008]

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Depth-induced Random Wave Breaking:

Uniform Slope
• Goda’s Model (1975): Probability density function (pdf) of wave heights is
modified.

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Depth-induced Random Wave Breaking:

Uniform Slope
• Goda’s Model (1975): Probability density function (pdf) of wave heights is
modified.
K s H 0 ' : h/L0  0.2
H 1/ 3  
min(  0 H 0 ' 1h),  max H 0 ' , K s H 0 ' : h/ L0  0.2

1.8 K s H 0 ' : h/L0  0.2

H max  H 1/ 250  
 
min (  0* H 0 ' 1 * h),  max* H 0 ' , 1.8 K s H 0 ' : h/L0  0.2
*

Coefficients for H1/3 Coefficients for Hmax

0 = 0.028(H0’/L0)−0.38exp[20 s1.5] 0* = 0.052(H0’/L0)−0.38exp[20 s1.5]
1 = 0.52exp[4.2 s] 1* = 0.63exp[3.8 s]
max = max{0.92, max* = max{1.65,
0.32(H0’/L0)−0.29exp[2.4 s] 0.53(H0’/L0)−0.29exp[2.4 s]

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Depth-induced Random Wave Breaking:

Non-Uniform Slopes (Arbitrary Bathys)
• Several random wave breaking models are available:

– in which distribution of waves within surf zone are obtained

transforming the waves individually and re-evaluating their
distribution (Dally, 1990; Larson and Kraus, 1991; Dally, 1992)

– or assuming a truncated/modified distribution (Collins, 1970; Battjes,

1972; Goda, 1975a; Battjes and Janssen, 1978; Thornton and Guza,
1983; Baldock et al., 1998; Goda, 2004; Janssen and Battjes, 2007).

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Random Wave Transformation over

Non-Uniform Slopes with NSW1D
• Solving energy balance equation (truncated/modified distribution method for
random wave breaking)

 (v x E ) gH rms
2
  Db E v x  C g cos 
x 8
Dissipation rate of energy flux due to
depth-induced random wave breaking

Janssen and Battjes, 2007

3  H 3  4  H  3 3  H b    H 2   H  
Db  f p rms 1   b       exp   b    erf  b  
16 h  3  H 2  H rms   H  H rms  
  rms     rms  
Fraction of waves broken
Nairn, 1990   H 2 
 b  0.39  0.56 tanh( 33 H rms ,0 / L0 ) Qb  exp   b  
  H rms  
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Random Wave Transformation over

Non-Uniform Slopes with NSW1D
• Comparison of LSTF Movable Bed Experiments: Wang et al. (2002a) and Gravens
and Wang (2007) with Janssen and Battjes (2007) Random Breaking Model

Deep Water Deep Water

Offshore Offshore Sig. Peak Wave Sig. Wave
Sig. Wave Sig. Wave
Test No Water Wave Height, Period, Tp Period, Ts
Height, Hs,0 Steepness,
Depth, h (m) Hs (m) (sec) (sec)
(m) sos
T1-C1 0.9 0.25 1.5 0.293 1.435 0.091
T3-C1 0.9 0.27 3.0 0.262 2.517 0.027
T5-C1 0.9 0.16 1.5 0.172 1.412 0.055
T6 0.9 0.19 3.0 0.194 2.727 0.017
*
TEST-BC1 0.67 0.225 1.459 0.243 1.39 0.081

0.3 3 0.25 2.5 0.3 3

0.25 2.5 0.2 2 0.25 2.5

Hs (m) V (m/s)

0.2 2 0.15 1.5 0.2 2

V (m/s)
HS - T6
0.1 Hs - NSW - γbr=0.50 1
0.15 1.5

h (m)
0.15 1.5
Hs - NSW - γbr=0.56

Hs (m)
0.05 0.5

h (m)
Hs (m)

Hs - T1-C1
h (m)

0.1 1 Water Depth, h (m) 0.1 Hs - TEST-BC1 1

Hs - NSW - γbr=0.914 0 0 Hs - NSW - γbr=0.914
0.05 Hs - NSW - γbr=0.78 0.5 0.05 0.5
-0.05 -0.5 Hs - NSW - γbr=0.78
Water Depth, h (m)
0 0 Water Depth, h (m)
η (m)

0 0
-0.1 -1
-0.05 -0.5 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
-0.05 -0.5
Cross-shore Distance, x (m)
-0.1 -1
-0.1 -1
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Cross-shore Distance, x (m) Cross-shore Distance, x (m)
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Nearshore Spectral Wave Model: NSW

Governing Equation: Steady State (Stationary) Energy Balance Equation

 (v x S )  (v y S )  (v S ) Random Wave Breaking

   Dd  Db S  S ( f , )
x y  Janssen and Battjes (2007)

 Cg C C  Wave Diffraction
(vx , v y , v )  C g cos  , C g sin  , (sin   cos  )
C x y  (Mase, 2001)

Assumption: Energy is concentrated in one frequency (peak frequency) and spreaded over
the directional domain with a spreading factor (smax).
S(f,θ) (m2/Hz/rad)

S(θ) (m2/rad)

fp fp

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Nearshore Spectral Wave Model: NSW

• Measured and computed (by NSW) significant wave heights (Hs) of Test 1,
Case 1 from Gravens and Wang (2007)

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Nearshore Spectral Wave Model: NSW

• Diffraction diagrams of a semi-infinite breakwater for smax=10.

20
NSW - smax=10
0. 6
0.7

18 SWAN - smax=10
0.5
0. 8

Goda et al. (1978) - smax=10

16
0.9

14
4
0.

12
0.6
0.7

0.5
y/L

10
0. 8
0.9

8
4
0.

6 0.3

4 0.2
0.6
0.5
0.9

0.7

2
0. 8

1 0.1
0.4
0.3

1 1 0.2
0 1
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
x/L

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Spectral Wave Models for Generation and Propagation

of Random Sea Waves
• Energy balance equation (Karlsson, 1969): EBED, NSW

E  (c g , x E )  (c g , y E )  (c E )
    Sin  S diss  S nl
t x y 
E  E ( f ,  ; x, y , t )

• Action balance equation (Bretherton and Garrett, 1968): wave energy density is
not conserved if waves travel with ambient currents, whereas wave action density
is conserved (SWAN, WABED, STWAVE, etc.).
N (c g , x N ) (c g , y N )  (c N )  (c N ) S in  S diss  S nl
    
t x y   
N  N ( ,  ; x, y, t )   2 / T absolute angular freq.
N ( ,  )  E ( ,  ) /  k  2 / L wave number
 
    k U relative angular freq.
 2  g k tanh( k h)

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Term Project
1) Check out recent literature on coastal and ocean engineering and select a a topic
or a paper. (sciencedirect.com: Coastal Engineering, Ocean Engineering, Journal of
Waterways,…, etc.)
2) Make a presentation of maximum 10 minutes on the selected paper/topic,
a) discussing why you have selected that paper/topic,
b) recent studies about the topic covered in the literature,
c) scientific novelty and missing/lacking points in the paper/topic,
d) theory and application,
e) future studies that may be carried out in that topic.
3) Make a 2 page report of your presentation.
4) Important Dates:
a) Presentation: 3rd January 2019
b) Report: 15th January 2019

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Wave-induced set-up
• Waves transport not just energy; they also transport momentum (product of the
mass, ρ, and the wave induced velocity, 𝑢,of the water particles, ρ𝑢).

• Such momentum transport is equivalent to a stress and horizontal variations in

this stress act as forces on the water (body forces; gravitation is another body
force) and may thus tilt the mean sea level or generate currents.

• The transport of wave-induced momentum is equivalent to a stress (consisting of

normal stresses and shear stresses) and it is called radiation stress (Longuet-
Higgins and Stewart, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1964).

• Remember: time rate of change of momentum is proportional to force.

• The total transport through the vertical window Δy Δz in a time interval Δt is

therefore (ρuxux + pwave)ΔzΔyΔt. Integrate this over z and time to obtain Sxx.

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Wave-induced set-up
• The balance of gradients of the radiation stress and the hydrostatic pressure on a
vertical column under a wave with varying wave amplitude approaching a beach at
normal incidence.

h
h

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Wave-induced set-up
• Time-averaged transport of x-momentum in the x-direction per unit width and per
unit time is denoted as the radiation stress component Sxx.

• Time-averaged transport of x-momentum in the y-direction is denoted as Sxy and

of y-momentum in the x-direction is denoted as Syx.

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Wave-induced set-up
Change in mean water level for bottom slopes 1/10 and 1/100. (Goda, 2010)

Effect of surface Effect of surface

rollers is excluded rollers is excluded
in these figs. in these figs.

 ( E  c g  cos  )
  Db h
x

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Wave-induced set-up

ζθ=0
η h

Effect of surface
Rise in mean water level rollers is included
in these figs.
at the shoreline for random
multi-directional waves for the coast with
straight, parallel bottom contours
(ζθ=0 = ηh=0,θ=0). (Goda, 2008)

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Wave-induced set-up
Inluding effect of surface rollers:

for oblique wave incidence

The wave setup at the landward edge of the swash zone (Hanslow and Nielsen,
1993)

H0rms is the root-mean-square wave height in deep water and θF denotes the
foreshore slope.
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Surf beat: Dynamic component of wave set-up

• The set-up depends on the incoming wave height and, if this wave height is
stationary, then the set-up is stationary.
• At an actual beach, the waves tend to arrive in groups and the incoming wave
height correspondingly fluctuates more or less periodically with the period of the
wave groups.
• This causes the set-up to fluctuate accordingly, so that the surf zone moves
periodically up and down as the wave groups arrive one after another, generating
low-frequency waves that travel out to sea.
• This phenomenon is called surf beat.
• Goda has proposed the following for the amplitude of the surf beat:

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Surface Rollers

Formation of surface rollers in front of breaking waves

(Basco and Yamashita, 1986)
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Surface Rollers
• Surface roller concept was introduced by Svendsen (1984) to explain the increase
of return flow velocity observed in the surf zone.

• Inclusion of the variation of the kinetic energies of the surface rollers in the surf
zone in the computations of nearshore currents and mean water levels shifts the
location of the maximum longshore currents toward the shoreline and increases
the current speeds as observed especially in case of barred beaches (Goda, 2006).

• Surface rollers are simply the white foams (vortices) in front the breaker with a
kinetic energy proportional to the celerity of the breaker and surface area of the
roller.

• They gradually grow by absorbing a part of the energy dissipated through the wave
breaking process, and then decay by losing its energy by turbulence (Goda, 2006).

• Dally and Osiecki (1994) and Dally and Brown (1995), Tajima and Madsen (2003)
give mathematical expressions for the growth and decay of the kinetic energy of
the surface rollers similar to the energy balance equation.

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Surface Rollers
• Surface rollers are vortices with a thickness of δ occurring in front of the
breaking waves and moving with the wave celerity and the bottom part
moves with the depth- and phase-averaged velocity (u).
• Tajima and Madsen (2003) give the kinetic energy of the surface roller (Esr)
with the following equation,

Asr C 3
E sr  K sr  ( 0.3  2.5 m )
2T 8

Asr is the surface roller area, C is

the wave celerity, T is the wave
period, m is the bottom slope, Ksr
is the energy dissipation rate of
the surface roller

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Surface Rollers
• The evolution of the kinetic energy of surface roller over an arbitrary
bathymetry is given as

where α is the energy transfer coefficient (taking values between 0 and 1)

controlling the transferred energy to the surface roller, m0 is the total
energy density. Then, mean water level gradient becomes:

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Due: 31 Dec 2018

Homework 5
1) Find the breaker heights (Hb) and indexes (γb=Hb/hb) for regular waves with deep water approach angles
α=0°, 15° and 45°, and deep water wave height H=4m, wave period T=8sec using Goda’s (2007) regular
wave breaking criterion and two other methods that you can find from Rattanapitikon and Vivattanasirisak
(2002).

2) Find the incipient breaker depth (h1/3,peak) and the incipient breaker height (H1/3,peak) for the unidirectional
random waves with deep water approach angles α=0°, 15° and 45°, deep water wave height Hs=4m, wave
period Ts=8sec. (Use linear and regular shoaling and refraction.)
a) Compute also the Hs at the water depths of h = [1, 2, 3, 6, 10, 12] m using Goda (1975; see slide 255).
b) Using Goda’s approach find the wave set-up (both static and dynamic) components at the shoreline
for the wave conditions given in option 2.

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Due: 31 Dec 2018

Homework 5 (contd.)
Notes:
• In option 1 and 2, as a hint, plot the variation of H/h (without considering breaking) and γb along x/H0 on
the same plot for both steps given above. In Option 2, Also plot variation of Hs wrt Goda (1975) on the
same plot.
• In option 1-2, write separate functions for linear shoaling and refraction in Matlab and incorporate them in
your computations.

Bonus question (+25 pts):

Write the Matlab routines for the computation of wave diffraction coefficient using Kraus (1984), Leont’yev
(1999), Kamphuis (2000) methods.
a) Routines should take the location of point of interest (x,y in meters wrt to tip of the breakwater) and
wave period, then give the output of Kd = Hd/Hi.
b) Compare the three methods drawing a figure as in Slide 261.
c) Add also any missing input variable to your routing depending on the method.

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Summary for Random Wave Transformation

• The relative importance of the various processes affecting the evolution of waves in
oceanic and coastal waters (after Battjes, 1994).

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Summary for Random Wave Transformation

Energy flow through the

spectrum

[after Prof. Leo Holtjisen (2006)]

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Summary for Random Wave Transformation

• In deep water, the transfer of wind

energy to the waves occurs mostly
near the peak of the spectrum and at
the mid-range frequencies.

• The corresponding energy gain at

these frequencies is rapidly removed
by wave–wave interactions (triad and
quadruplet) to lower and higher
frequency and by white-capping.

• In addition (in very shallow water),

the energy at these intermediate
frequencies is dissipated by bottom
friction and surf-breaking.

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Summary for Random Wave Transformation

• At the higher frequencies, most of the

energy that is received from the mid-
range frequencies is also dissipated,
by white-capping and surf-breaking
(high frequencies are barely affected
by bottom friction), but it is not quite
clear what happens additionally.

• Near the outer edge of the surf zone,

the transfer of energy from the
spectral peak to its second harmonic
by triad wave–wave interactions is so
strong that a secondary high-
frequency peak is created, but, deeper
inside the surf zone, it disappears.

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Summary for Random Wave Transformation

• At the lower frequencies (below the

peak frequency) the energy that is
received from the mid-range
frequencies is absorbed: just below
the peak frequency by the quadruplet
wave–wave interactions (thus down-
shifting the peak frequency); and at
still lower frequencies by the triad
wave–wave interactions (creating
infra-gravity waves or surf beat).

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