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Eca Lab
Eca Lab
R2
68k
Q1
R1
4.7k
Q2N2222
C1
V1 V2
100mVac 12Vdc
10u
0Vdc
R4 R5
R3
10k 10k
33k
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
When any increase in the output signal results into the input in such a way as to
cause the decrease in the output signal, the amplifier is said to have negative feedback.
The advantages of providing negative feedback are that the transfer gain of the amplifier
with feedback can be stabilized against variations in the hybrid parameters of the
transistor orthe parameters of the other active devices used in the circuit. The most
advantage of the
negative feedback is that by proper use of this, there is significant improvement in the
frequency response and in the linearity of the operation of the amplifier. This
disadvantage ofthe negative feedback is that the voltage gain is decreased.
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram on computer using PSpice.
2. After connecting the circuit of the amplifier go for simulation settings and set the
analysis type as Ac sweep/noise, start frequency, end frequency, points/decade.
3. Place the markers.
4. Simulate the circuit and observe the output.
5. Calculate the gain using the formula 20log (Vo/Vi).
6. Set the lower & higher cutoff frequencies and calculate the bandwidth.
RESULT:
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
Feedback is introduced in a two stage R.C coupled amplifier, signal from the
emitter of the second transistor is coupled to the base of first transistor , via the resistor
Rf. This type of feedback is called “the current shunt feedback type” .The input current is
the difference of the current at the base due Vs and the current If. This is smaller than the
magnitude of current without feed back. Therefore this circuit is functioning as a negative
feedback circuit .
1.Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram on computer using PSpice.
2.After connecting the circuit of the amplifier go for simulation settings and set the
analysis type as Ac sweep/noise, start frequency, end frequency, points/decade.
3.Place the markers.
4.Simulate the circuit and observe the output.
5.Calculate the gain using the formula 20log (Vo/Vi).
6.Set the lower & higher cutoff frequencies and calculate the bandwidth.
RESULT:
R1 R2 R5 R7
100k 15k 100k 15k
C2
C4 V2
12Vdc
Q1 10u Q2
C1
10u
V
10u
Q2N2222 Q2N2222
V
R9
V1
20mv 100
0Vdc
R3 R4 R6 R8
C3 C5
10k 1.5k 10k 1.5k
470u 470u
AIM: To obtain the frequency response of two stage RC coupled amplifier using
Pspice and hardware testing.
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
As the gain provided by a single stage amplifier is usually not sufficient to drive
the load, so to achieve extra gain multi-stage amplifier is used. In multi-stage amplifiers
output of one-stage is coupled to the input of the next stage. The coupling of one stage to
another is done with the help of some coupling devices. If it is coupled by RC then the
amplifier is called RC-coupled amplifier.
Frequency response of an amplifier is defined as the variation of gain with respect
to frequency. The gain of the amplifier increases as the frequency increases from zero till
it becomes maximum at lower cut-off frequency and remains constant till higher cut-off
frequency and then it falls again as the frequency increases.
At low frequencies the reactance of coupling capacitor CC is quite high and hence
very small part of signal will pass through from one stage to the next stage.
At high frequencies the reactance of inter electrode capacitance is very small and
behaves as a short circuit. This increases the loading effect on next stage and service to
reduce the voltage gain due to these reasons the voltage gain drops at high frequencies.
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram on computer using P-SPICE.
2. After connecting the circuit of the amplifier go for simulation settings and set the
analysis type as AC sweep/noise, start frequency, end frequency, points/decade.
3. Place the markers.
4. Simulate the circuit and observe the output.
5. Calculate the gain using the formula 20log (Vo/Vi).
6. Set the lower &higher cutoff frequency and calculate the bandwidth.
PRECAUTIONS:
APPLICATIONS:
1. Audio amplifiers
2. Radio Transmitters and Receivers
RESULT:
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
The above circuit is called as “series fed” because the load RL is connected in
series with transistor output. It is also called as direct coupled amplifier.
ICQ = Zero signal collector current
VCEQ = Zero signal collector to emitter voltage
Power amplifiers are mainly used to deliver more power to the load. To deliver
more power it requires large input signals, so generally power amplifiers are preceded by
a series of voltage amplifiers.
In class-A power amplifiers, Q-point is located in the middle of DC-load line. So
output current flows for complete cycle of input signal. Under zero signal condition,
maximum power dissipation occurs across the transistor. As the input signal amplitude
increases power dissipation reduces.
The maximum theoretical efficiency is 25%.
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram on computer using P-SPICE
software.
2. After connecting the circuit of the amplifier, go for simulation settings and set the
analysis type as time domain (transient), run to time, maximum step size etc.
3. Place the markers.
4. Simulate the circuit and observe the output.
5. Observe whether the waveforms are out of phase or not.
6. Set the minimum and maximum points of the waves.
RESULT:
Q2
12Vdc
V1
Q2N3904
C1 R2 R1
APPARATUS:
Sources:
Vsin source - 1No.
Vdc source - 2Nos.
THEORY:
Power amplifiers are designed using different circuit configuration with the sole
purpose of delivering maximum undistorted output power to load. Push-pull amplifiers
operating either in class-B are class-AB are used in high power audio system with high
efficiency.
In complementary-symmetry class-B power amplifier two types of transistors, NPN
and PNP are used. These transistors acts as emitter follower with both emitters connected
together.
In class-B power amplifier Q-point is located either in cut-off region or in saturation
region. So, that only 180o of the input signal is flowing in the output.
In complementary-symmetry power amplifier, during the positive half cycle of input
signal NPN transistor conducts and during the negative half cycle PNP transistor
conducts. Since, the two transistors are complement of each other and they are connected
symmetrically so, the name complementary symmetry has come
Theoretically, efficiency of complementary symmetry power amplifier is 78.5%.
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram on computer using PSpice.
2. After connecting the circuit of the amplifier, go for simulation settings and set the
analysis type as time domain (transient), run to time, maximum step size etc.
3. Place the markers.
4. Simulate the circuit and observe the output.
5. Observe whether the waveforms are out of phase or not.
6. Set the minimum and maximum points of the waves.
RESULT:
R4
R1
15k
100k
V1
Q3
15v
2N2222
R2 R3
C5
10k 1.5k
470u
0
R5 C6 C7 C9
0.001u 0.001u
0.001u V
15k
R6 R7
10k 10k
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
RC – phase shift oscillator has a CE amplifier followed by three sections of RC
phase shift feedback networks. The output of the last stage is return to the input of the
amplifier. the values of R and C are chosen such that the phase shift of each RC section is
600 .thus, the RC ladder network produces a total phase shift of 1800 between its input and
output voltage for the given frequencies. since CE amplifier produces 1800phase shift the
total phase shift from the base of the transistor around the circuit and back to the
transistor will be exactly 3600or 00.
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram on computer using PSpice.
2. After connecting the circuit of the amplifier, go for simulation settings and set the
analysis type as time domain (transient), run to time, maximum step size etc.
3. Place the markers.
4. Simulate the circuit and observe the output.
5. Set the minimum and maximum points of the waves.
RESULT:
APPARATUS:
Sources:
Vdc source - 1No.
THEORY:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram on computer using P-SPICE.
2. After connecting the circuit of the amplifier go for simulation settings and set the
analysis type as AC sweep/noise, start frequency, end frequency, points/decade.
3. Place the markers.
4. Simulate the circuit and observe the output.
1. Calculate the gain using the formula 20log (Vo/Vi).
2. Set the lower &higher cutoff frequency and calculate the bandwidth.
RESULT:
AIM: To Construct & Plot the frequency response of a single tuned amplifier
using PSpice
APPARATUS:
Sources:
Vdc source - 1No.
THEORY:
Amplifiers which amplify a specific frequency or narrow band of frequencies are called
tuned amplifiers. Tuned amplifiers are mostly used for the amplification of high or radio
frequencies. It is because radio frequencies are generally single and the tuned circuit
permits their selection and efficient amplification. However, such amplifiers are not
suitable for the amplification of audio frequencies as they are mixture of frequencies from
20 Hz to 20 kHz and not single. Tuned amplifiers are widely used in radio and television
circuits where they are called upon to handle radio frequencies. Fig shows the circuit of a
simple transistor tuned amplifier. Here, instead of load resistor, we have a parallel tuned
circuit in the collector. The impedance of this tuned circuit strongly depends upon
frequency. It offers a very high impedance at resonant frequency and very small
impedance at all other frequencies. If the signal has the same frequency as the resonant
frequency of LC circuit, large amplification will result due to high impedance of LC
circuit at this frequency. When signals of many frequencies are present at the input of
tuned amplifier, it will select and strongly amplify the signals of resonant frequency while
rejecting all others. Therefore, such amplifiers are very useful in radio receivers to select
the signal from one particular broadcasting station when signals of many other
frequencies are present at the receiving aerial.
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram on computer using P-SPICE.
2. After connecting the circuit of the amplifier go for simulation settings and set the
analysis type as AC sweep/noise, start frequency, end frequency, points/decade.
3. Place the markers.
4. Simulate the circuit and observe the output.
5. Calculate the gain using the formula 20log (Vo/Vi).
6. Set the lower &higher cutoff frequency and calculate the bandwidth.
RESULT:
MODEL GRAPH:
9. COLPITT’S OSCLLATOR
APPARATUS:
Sources:
Vdc source - 1No.
THEORY:
The Colpitts circuit, like other LC oscillators, consists of a gain device (such as a
bipolar junction transistor, field effect transistor etc..) with its output connected to its
input in a feedback loop containing a parallel LC circuit (tuned circuit) which functions as
a band pass filter to set the frequency of oscillation. A Colpitts oscillator is the electrical
dual of a Hartley oscillator, where the feedback signal is taken from an "inductive"
voltage divider consisting of two coils in series (or a tapped coil) Fig. shows the common-
collector version. Here the voltage across C1 provides feedback. The frequency of
oscillation is approximately the resonant frequency of the LC circuit, which is the series
combination of the two capacitors in parallel with the inductor.
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram on computer using PSpice.
2. After connecting the circuit of the amplifier, go for simulation settings and set the
analysis type as time domain (transient), run to time, maximum step size etc.
3. Place the markers.
4. Simulate the circuit and observe the output.
5. Set the minimum and maximum points of the waves.
HARDWARE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure
2. Connect C2= 0.001uF in the circuit and observe the waveform.
3. Time period of the waveform is to be noted and frequency should be
calculated by the formula f=1/T
4. Now, fix the capacitance to 0.002 uF and then to 0.003 uF and calculate the
frequency and tabulate the reading as shown.
1
5. Find theoretical frequency from the formula f ,
2 LCT
where CT C1C2
C1 C2
RESULT:
AIM: To Construct & Plot the frequency response of a push pull amplifier
using PSpice.
APPARATUS:
Sources:
Vdc source - 1No.
.
THEORY:
A push–pull output is a type of electronic circuit that uses a pair of active devices
that alternately supply current to, or absorb current from, a connected load. Push–pull
outputs are present in TTL and CMOS digital logic circuits and in some types
of amplifiers, and are usually realized as a complementary pair of transistors, one
dissipating or sinking current from the load to ground or a negative power supply, and the
other supplying or sourcing current to the load from a positive power supply. A push–
pull amplifier is more efficient than a single-ended "class-A" amplifier. The output power
that can be achieved is higher than the continuous dissipation rating of either transistor or
tube used alone and increases the power available for a given supply voltage.
Symmetrical construction of the two sides of the amplifier means that even-order
harmonics are cancelled, which can reduce distortion DC current is cancelled in the
output, allowing a smaller output transformer to be used than in a single-ended amplifier.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram on computer using p-spice PSpice.
2. After connecting the circuit of the amplifier, go for simulation settings and set the
analysis type as time domain (transient), run to time, maximum step size etc.
3. Place the markers.
4. Simulate the circuit and observe the output.
5. Observe whether the waveforms are out of phase or not.
6. Set the minimum and maximum points of the waves.
RESULT:
APPARATUS:
1. Voltage gain
Voltage gain =
2. Input impedance
3. Output impedance
RESULT:
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
Feedback is introduced in a two stage R.C coupled amplifier, signal from the emitter of
the second transistor is coupled to the base of first transistor , via the resistor Rf. This
type of feedback is called “the current shunt feedback type” .The input current is the
difference of the current at the base due Vs and the current If. This is smaller than the
magnitude of current without feed back. Therefore this circuit is functioning as a negative
feedback circuit .
RESULT:
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
As the gain provided by a single stage amplifier is usually not sufficient to drive
the load, so to achieve extra gain multi-stage amplifier is used. In multi-stage amplifiers
output of one-stage is coupled to the input of the next stage. The coupling of one stage to
another is done with the help of some coupling devices. If it is coupled by RC then the
amplifier is called RC-coupled amplifier.
Frequency response of an amplifier is defined as the variation of gain with respect
to frequency. The gain of the amplifier increases as the frequency increases from zero till
it becomes maximum at lower cut-off frequency and remains constant till higher cut-off
frequency and then it falls again as the frequency increases.
At low frequencies the reactance of coupling capacitor CC is quite high and hence
very small part of signal will pass through from one stage to the next stage.
At high frequencies the reactance of inter electrode capacitance is very small and
behaves as a short circuit. This increases the loading effect on next stage and service to
reduce the voltage gain due to these reasons the voltage gain drops at high frequencies.
At mid frequencies the effect of coupling capacitors is negligible and acts like
short circuit, where as inter electrode capacitors acts like open circuit. So, the circuit
becomes resistive at mid frequencies and the voltage gain remains constant during this
range.
OBSERVATIONS:
PRECAUTIONS:
RESULT:
Transformer
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
The above circuit is called as “series fed” because the load RL is connected in
series with transistor output. It is also called as direct coupled amplifier.
ICQ = Zero signal collector current
VCEQ = Zero signal collector to emitter voltage
Power amplifiers are mainly used to deliver more power to the load. To deliver
more power it requires large input signals, so generally power amplifiers are preceded by
a series of voltage amplifiers.
In class-A power amplifiers, Q-point is located in the middle of DC-load line. So
output current flows for complete cycle of input signal. Under zero signal condition,
maximum power dissipation occurs across the transistor. As the input signal amplitude
increases power dissipation reduces.
The maximum theoretical efficiency is 25%.
RESULT:
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
Power amplifiers are designed using different circuit configuration with the sole
purpose of delivering maximum undistorted output power to load. Push-pull amplifiers
operating either in class-B are class-AB are used in high power audio system with high
efficiency.
In complementary-symmetry class-B power amplifier two types of transistors, NPN
and PNP are used. These transistors acts as emitter follower with both emitters connected
together.
In class-B power amplifier Q-point is located either in cut-off region or in saturation
region. So, that only 180o of the input signal is flowing in the output.
OBSERVATIONS:
RESULT:
R4
R1
15k
100k
V1
Q3
15v
BC107
R2 R3
C5
10k 1.5k
470u
0
R5 C6 C7 C9
0.001u 0.001u
0.001u V
15k
R6 R7
10k 10k
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
RC – phase shift oscillator has a CE amplifier followed by three sections of RC
phase shift feedback networks. The output of the last stage is return to the input of the
amplifier. the values of R and C are chosen such that the phase shift of each RC section is
600 .thus, the RC ladder network produces a total phase shift of 1800 between its input and
output voltage for the given frequencies. since CE amplifier produces 1800phase shift the
total phase shift from the base of the transistor around the circuit and back to the
transistor will be exactly 3600or 00.
OBSERVATIONS:
THEORETICAL CALCULATION:
1
f Where K = Rc/R
2 RC 6 4K
PRACTICAL CALCULATION:
1
f Where T= time period
T
RESULT:
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
OBSERVATIONS:
RESULT:
AIM: To Construct & Plot the frequency response of a single tuned amplifier
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
Tuned amplifiers are widely used in radio and television circuits where they are
called upon to handle radio frequencies. Fig shows the circuit of a simple transistor tuned
amplifier. Here, instead of load resistor, we have a parallel tuned circuit in the collector.
The impedance of this tuned circuit strongly depends upon frequency. It offers a very
high impedance at resonant frequency and very small impedance at all other frequencies.
If the signal has the same frequency as the resonant frequency of LC circuit, large
amplification will result due to high impedance of LC circuit at this frequency. When
signals of many frequencies are present at the input of tuned amplifier, it will select and
strongly amplify the signals of resonant frequency while rejecting all others. Therefore,
such amplifiers are very useful in radio receivers to select the signal from one particular
broadcasting station when signals of many other frequencies are present at the receiving
aerial.
OBSERVATIONS:
Freq
S.No. Vi(volts) Vo(volts) A=Vo/Vi Gain =20log A
(KHz)
RESULT:
APPARATUS:
The Colpitts circuit, like other LC oscillators, consists of a gain device (such as a
bipolar junction transistor, field effect transistor etc..) with its output connected to its
input in a feedback loop containing a parallel LC circuit (tuned circuit) which functions as
a bandpass filter to set the frequency of oscillation.
OBSERVATIONS:
2 1mH
RESULT:
AIM: To Construct & Plot the frequency response of a push pull amplifier
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
A push–pull output is a type of electronic circuit that uses a pair of active devices
that alternately supply current to, or absorb current from, a connected load. Push–pull
outputs are present in TTL and CMOS digital logic circuits and in some types
of amplifiers, and are usually realized as a complementary pair of transistors, one
dissipating or sinking current from the load to ground or a negative power supply, and the
other supplying or sourcing current to the load from a positive power supply.
A push–pull amplifier is more efficient than a single-ended "class-A" amplifier.
The output power that can be achieved is higher than the continuous dissipation rating of
either transistor or tube used alone and increases the power available for a given supply
voltage. Symmetrical construction of the two sides of the amplifier means that even-order
harmonics are cancelled, which can reduce distortion DC current is cancelled in the
output, allowing a smaller output transformer to be used than in a single-ended amplifier.
OBSERVATIONS:
RESULT: