Chapter 1.

- The Nature & Relevance of Research

What is research?
Sekaran (2013: 4) defines research as, ‘an organised, systematic, data-based scientific enquiry
or investigation into a specific problem which is undertaken with the objective of finding
solutions or answers to it’. In this definition, Sekaran takes a conventional view of the nature
of research. According to him research is a linear process that has a clear focus and purpose,
that is organised and systematic, and is based on data capable of being verified or challenged.
It is conducted objectively by using the ‘scientific method’ to eliminate the influence of
subjective values and bias.

By contrast, Wilson (1997: vi) defines ‘research as a process of “principled compromise”,

informed by professional knowledge of the techniques and limitations of research methods,
driven by personal energy, and presented with whatever honesty and objectivity that can be
mustered’. Wilson takes a realistic stance and contends that research is inherently subject to
personal influence and bias and the idea that a ‘method’, scientific or otherwise, can
somehow create an objective, bias-free process is an illusion. Because the tools and
techniques used to implement the method are chosen by the researcher, and it is the
researcher who decides how the results are to be presented, it is inevitable that personal
preferences and biases will influence the whole process.

In reality, research tends to lie somewhere on a continuum between the two extremes of being
objective and value-free and subjective and value-ridden.

Characteristics of Scientific Research

1. Purposeful: a purposeful research project has a clear focus that is achievable. It has
specified overall aim and associated objectives. The aim defines the overall purpose
and output of the research while the objectives indicate the tasks to be completed
2. Rigorous: concerns with the quality of the design and how the research is conducted. A
rigorous research has sound and logically consistent thinking that produces an
appropriate overall design (methodology) and adopts/uses appropriate tools and
techniques (methods). It will have a sound underlying conceptual basis and will be
conducted in a manner that is transparent and defensible.
3. Testable: Concerns the nature of the question being researched. The question, or a
hypothesis derived from it, must be written or phrased in a form that will enable it to be
 tested or proved. Essentially, this means phrasing the issue clearly in either positive or
negative terms so that it can be determined whether the proposition can be supported by
the evidence or not.
4. Replicable: Replicability is the ability to replicate or repeat that research to test the
rigour of its processes and the accuracy of its findings. It involves the assumptions
made, the hypotheses tested and the data collection and analysis procedures and
techniques used to be reported comprehensively and transparently to enable others to
test the validity of the findings by repeating the work in a different context, geographic
location, time or industry.
5. Precision: Because of the scale, scope and complexity of most real-world situations, the
issue concerning the extent to which the findings obtained from a sample are a true
reflection of the population as a whole determines the precision or accuracy of the
research.
6. Confidence: Considering there is always some potential for error in research work,
confidence is related to precision and is concerned with the likelihood, or probability,
that the findings from the sample are correct. The general convention is that a 95 per
cent level of confidence is the minimum acceptable. Degree of confidence has to be
substantiated with proof.
7. Objective: The greater the objectivity in the research, lesser will there be a subjective
bias. If the ‘ideal’ is total objectivity, then the closer one can get to that the better it is.
8. Generalisable: is the ability to generalise from the results of a research project to other
contexts, thus increase its value. However, to maximise the generalisability of the
research results, considerable thought, time, effort and, often, money is required to be
devoted to the research design and procedures.
9. Parsimonious: This characteristic is essentially concerned with simplicity. Any issue
being researched is likely to be one that could be influenced by a wide range of factors,
but not all of these possible influences will be equally strong or important to the overall
answer. Not only would a parsimonious approach to designing the research help to
make it more economical and manageable but it would also mean that the results would
be likely to have greater practical value

Types of Research
1. Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory research:
a. Exploratory Research: is defined as the initial research into a hypothetical or
theoretical idea. It is designed to generate some initial insights and understanding
that would make the situation clearer and set the research agenda. It is done
where the situation is very new, has been previously inaccessible or the research
problem is too large and complex to address without some initial exploratory
work. The goal of exploratory research is to formulate problems, clarify concepts,
and form hypotheses. Exploratory research lays the initial groundwork for future
research or to determine if what is being observed might be explained by a
currently existing theory. Exploratory research can be a new topic or new angles
of looking at things, either from a theoretical perspective or a new way of
measuring something.
b. Descriptive research: is designed to establish a factual picture of the issue under
investigation. It tries to describe what is happening in more detail, filling in the
missing parts and expanding understanding. It describes people, products, and
situations. Descriptive research usually has one or more guiding research
questions but generally is not driven by structured research hypotheses. Because
this type of research aims to describe characteristics of populations based on data
collected from samples, it requires the use of a probability sampling technique,
such as simple random sampling. Customer satisfaction surveys, presidential
approval polls, and class evaluation surveys are examples of descriptive projects.
c. Explanatory research: is concerned with explaining the why and how of the
situation. Though explanatory research includes elements of descriptive research,
it goes beyond it to differentiate between, and measure, the relative influence of
the factors and explain the cause and effect relationship between them. It does not
aim to provide final and conclusive answers to the research questions but allows
the researcher to explore the research with varying level of depths. Explanatory
research requires probability sampling, because its goal is to generalize the results
to the population from which the sample is drawn. The data are quantitative and
requires statistical tests to establish the validity of the relationships.
Example: The south pole of the moon is of special interest to scientists because of
the occurrence of water ice in the craters. These craters that are unique as sunlight
does not reach their interiors. They cold traps that contain a fossil record of
hydrogen, water ice, and other volatiles dating from the early Solar System. But
how did they know there is hydrogen and water in those craters? Orbiters from
several countries have explored the region around the lunar south pole. Extensive
studies were conducted by the Lunar Orbiters, Clementine, Lunar
Prospector, Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter and Chandrayaan-1, that discovered
the presence of lunar water. These orbiters did not land on the moon surface but
orbited around the moon and using advanced technology could identify them.
This is exploratory research where now know what exists on the surface of those
craters. These findings were than studied by scientists and geologists who
produced a descriptive research paper of the factual position of what exists in
those craters on the moon. Their paper could only describe what is known until
than. On 3rd January 2019, Chang'e 4, a Chinese spacecraft, was the first to
successfully soft land in the Von Kármán crater. This spacecraft will conduct
experiments and dig deeper into the surface of these craters and tell us what, how,
why, when about the hydrogen and water ice in those craters. This is explanatory
research.
No. Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory
1 Provides first Describe accurately Verifies the predictive
description of the key and systematically a ability of a principle or
facts and the actors situation, phenomenon theory.
involved in a situation or problem
or phenomenon
2 Produce an Develop descriptive Test existing theories
empirically based inferences about and empirical findings
picture of what is relationships, to develop better
happening processes and explanations
mechanisms
3 Collect a large amount Provides a picture of Specify and explain
of relatively what, who, when and why and how the
unstructured where to create a mechanisms of an
information to develop context for further underlying process
a range of ideas to investigation works
help build tentative
positions
 4 Investigate the Identify possible Synthesise the
feasibility of associations and/or different topics or
conducting further correlations issues and/or the
research into the issues theoretical
perspectives into a
more unified structure
5 Identify the key focus Record and document Test, develop and
issues and begin to the effects of key refine an existing
develop more refined changes, interventions theory so that it
research questions for etc. becomes a more
further enquiry complete and useful
explanation
6 Explore the Synthesise raw data by Enhance the value of
possibilities for new categorisation and an existing theory by
research directions and classification applying it to develop
techniques a better understanding
of a new context or
problem.
7 Provide the empirical Identify linkages in Generate a stronger
data as a basis for terms of sequences, and more complete
development of chains, steps etc. empirical evidence to
theoretical support or refute an
propositions existing theoretical
explanation.

2. Pure and Applied Research:

a. Pure research: is also called ‘blue sky thinking’, is conceptual or theoretical in
nature and concerned with intellectual reflection, discovery and invention. It is
driven by intellectual interest and curiosity rather than a need to address a
particular real-world problem. It is designed to contribute new thinking or
knowledge to an existing field of enquiry without having any other specific
purpose. Its role is to expand and/ or improve the body of knowledge within the
 field concerned with no immediate utility or application to real-life problems. It
may be translated into more practical circumstances in the future.
b. Applied research: is a more practical and focused type of research. It is generally
concerned with practical problem-solving and finding solutions to real-world
problems. It is focused and goal-directed and hence, more utilitarian. It has a clear
use value and concentrates on the explanation, action and implementation of
solutions
Example: Space scientist have been trying to find life on other planest in the
universe or conditions that can sustain life. Any advancement in this research,
only expands the body of knowledge but is of no utility until that knowledge
makes it possible to establish colonies of human beings on those planets.
No. Pure Research Scientific Research
1 The pursuit of knowledge is Research is regarded as utilitarian
undertaken for its own sake and its having a practical use value and is
value is assessed by academic undertaken in response to a specific
peers problem or issue arising in the real
world being judged on its ability to
provide satisfactory solutions
2 The researcher has total freedom to The selection of research problems
select problems and subjects to and questions is more focussed on
research the problems and concerns of the
practitioners
3 The quality of the research is Research may be ‘quick and dirty’
measured by the standards of or may accord with accepted
scholarship and the requirements of scientific standards. Concerns may
academic rigour. be focussed on practical rather than
the academic value of the work.
4 The focus lies in the credibility of The key focus lies in the
the research design and the rigour generalisability of the findings to
of its implementation explain and provide solutions to
real world problems
 5 The primary objective is to make
contribution to the basic theoretical
knowledge.
6 Success is measure by the
acceptance and significance of the
outcomes to peers in the same
scientific community
The primary objective is to
generate results that have a
practical application and value
Success is measured by the use
value of the outcomes in the real
world that they facilitate greater
understanding and enable more
effective solutions to be devised.

3. Theoretical / Empirical Data/ Primary / Secondary Research:

a. Secondary research: relies on data that is contained in the literature relating to the
issue in question
b. Primary research: involves the collection of new data that is obtained first-hand.
All the research that collects and analyses primary data will use the same basic
procedures for secondary data.
c. Theoretical research: The existing secondary knowledge is questioned, tested, re-
evaluated and revised to take an abstract, conceptual and reflective stance in
relation to the existing body of knowledge. Its role is to improve and extend the
conceptual and concrete understanding of the issue. It is viewed as secondary
research in nature and practice. Theoretical research can also be conducted by
means of the collection and use of primary data and, hence, will be empirical in
nature.
d. Empirical research: is synonymous to primary research as it involves the
collection of primary data,

Main Research Approaches:

1. Induction: approach is a journey from the unknown to the known and begins by
identification of the problem or the question to be addressed. It builds new theory,
rather than test existing theory and focuses on collecting data from the real world in
developing explanations or theories. Thus, the collection of empirical data occurs much
earlier in the inductive approach than in the deductive approach. The inductive
approach frequently uses ‘ideographic’ methodologies because it is rooted
phenomenology or interpretivism or constructivism. As the philosophical beliefs and
types of methods used by the inductive researcher are likely to value qualitative data.
Inductive research may collect basic numerical data to facilitate the description or
indicate the scope and boundaries of the situation being studied.
2. Deduction: is embodied in the literature existing on the issues being researched. By
conducting a review of this literature to determine the theories, that will be tested in the
research. This approach takes the existing body of theoretical and empirical knowledge
as the starting point to develop the theoretical framework that informs and helps to
structure and guide the remainder of the research process. The deductive approach is
generally more highly structured, focused and constrained, in terms of how the data
collection and analysis procedures are designed and implemented.
 Chapter 2.
1. Ontology: is concerned with beliefs about the nature of reality. For example, some
researchers – particularly those in the physical and natural sciences – believe that there
are universal truths waiting to be discovered, while others suggest that reality is more
complex and dynamic as it is shaped and interpreted by human action and intellect and,
therefore, because of the multitude of differing situations and interactions that this gives
rise to, it is more contextually determined rather than universal or contextually
independent.

Taylor and Edgar (1999: 27) succinctly summarise the relationship between ontology,
epistemology and methodology in stating that: ‘the belief about the nature of the world
(ontology) adopted by an enquirer will influence their belief as to the nature of
knowledge in that world (epistemology) which in turn will influence the enquirer’s
belief as to how that knowledge can be uncovered (methodology)’.

2. Positivism & Phenomenology:

1. Positivism: is a belief based on and derived from the view that a ‘real’ world of
tangible social and physical phenomena exists independently of how such
phenomena are perceived and conceptualised by people and what is required to
understand and explain these is impartial, value free, logical, empirical, scientific
research. In short, the truth is out there and it can be revealed by applying an
appropriate methodology.

The positivist assumes that people and/or organisations behave in a self-

interested, logical and rational manner. Phenomena and events can be explained
by cause–effect laws because knowledge and cause–effect relationships, though
probabilistic and conditional are not contextual.

Positivists contend that the theories and laws established through research must
be logically consistent and explain empirical reality. Further, this theoretical
empirical consistency should be replicable across a range of different contextual
circumstances. Hence, positivists believe that scientific research is the only way
to discover the truth and it must be conducted in an objective manner,
 deterministic in purpose (to determine cause–effect relationships), mechanistic in
process and use well established and validated methods.

Positivists take the view that the most valid, way to learn the truth is to conduct
laboratory experiments. Because it enables the research to be designed and
conducted with the maximum degree of control so that the contaminating or
confounding effects of the other influences on the results are eliminated or, at the
least minimised. Further, because in the real world, phenomena and events are not
caused by one factor acting in isolation, it is difficult to distinguish between the
most and least important influences and be certain of the nature and mechanism
of the cause–effect relationship.

Among the criticism of positivism, is that it is acontextual due to the high levels
of artificiality created by the methods. Critics also point out that researchers
cannot be totally objective and objectivity is a myth as human beings cannot
avoid being influenced by our beliefs, values and prejudices. Further, in the
positivist approach, the researcher exerts much greater influence and control on
the subject which can distort the research process and leads to accurate but not
truthful results. It delivers answers that are more simplistic and partial than the
reality and hence less valid.

2. Phenomenology:
Phenomenological, constructivist or interpretative approaches to research place
less emphasis on objectivity and more on the need for interpretation.
Phenomenologists believe that the phenomena and events that occur in the real
world, are created by the subjective thoughts, actions and interactions of
people who inhabit it.

Phenomenologists are interested in understanding how people make sense of the

world they live in. Hence context is an important element because people exist
and interact within contexts.

Phenomenology favours an inductive approach for undertaking research. This

perspective suggests that a valid understanding of a phenomenon or event can be
derived by investigating them in their real-world contexts followed by theorising
about them in isolation and then collecting data on them to test the theory. This
approach is known as ‘grounded theory’ as it is based upon, or grounded in, the
data collected from the real world.

Phenomenologists begin with an absolute blank page, ignoring any previous

empirical or theoretical work thus being in the danger of possibly reinventing the
wheel again.

Because context, realism and interpretation are critical to the phenomenologists,

methods such as case studies, field study, participant or non-participant
observation are the methods preferred by them.

Though phenomenologists are more likely to favour collection of qualitative data,

there is nothing inherent in its stance that precludes the use of any particular type
of data.

Positivistic
Basic The world is external and
beliefs objective. The observer is
independent. Science is value
free
What Focus on facts. Look for
researchers causality and fundamental
should do laws. Reduce phenomena to
their simplest elements.
Formulate hypotheses and
then test them
Preferred Operationalising concepts so
Methods that they can be measured.
Taking large samples.
Phenomenologic
The world is socially constructed
and subjective. The observer is
part of what is observed. Science
is driven by human interest.
Focus on meaning. Try to
understand what is happening.
Look at the totality of each
situation. Develop ideas through
induction from data.
Using multiple methods to
establish different views of
phenomena. Small samples
investigated in depth or overtime.
 Chapter 3
1. Finding and refining a topic:
Questions that need to be answered are:
a. Why do I want to do some research on a particular topic?
b. What is it about the topic that will be interesting and motivating for me?’
This process needs to be done with every topic one considers until something sets
one thinking. The research process is a journey and one that does not always
progress smoothly, so the chosen topic should be one that sustain ones interest
and curiosity until the end.

2. Choosing a topic with potential value

King et al. (1994) suggest that:
a. The project should pose, and address, a question that is of importance in the
real world. That it has some significance in terms of developing understanding,
explanation and possibly prediction.
b. The project should make a contribution to the scholarly literature relating to the
research topic.
3. Doing some exploratory work
It is useful to speak with people associated with or involved in the issue and
organisation. This is essentially an exploratory exercise, conducted in a relatively
unstructured manner, to ‘surface’ ideas, views and so on. It simply involves having
conversations with a number of people associated with, and probably affected by, the
situation, in an attempt to obtain a range of perspectives regarding the nature of the
issue or problem, the possible cause–effect mechanisms and probable answers or
solutions. In some instances, they may give vital raw material that will enable you to
focus and structure the research project.
4. Refining and focusing the topic.
5. Refining the Research Question(s)
formulating the key question(s) it will address or answer. Bearing in mind the need to
retain the idea of conducting a focused and purposeful enquiry, it should be self-evident
that the research question(s) should be limited in number. There may only be one or, at
the most, two or three.
6. Using what is known already
7. Developing Aims and Objectives
8. Putting the Research Proposal Together
A title This will not necessarily be the same as the aim of the project and is
not critical at this stage as it can be changed later on if necessary.
An aim and objectives These indicate the overall purpose, desired outcome
and stages required to achieve the aim.
An introduction, background or rationale for the research This explains
and justifies why the issue(s) to be researched are important, how your
work will develop from what is known already and how it may provide a
contribution to advancing this knowledge.
A research plan This indicates what you plan to do to achieve the aim. This
may or may not include some indication of timings for the start/completion
of these activities, but it should always include as much detail as possible
on the overall approach and the methods and processes to be used for the
data collection and analysis. Again, at this early stage, this may be
somewhat speculative, but it can be changed later on when more is known.
Some references These should also be included to indicate that evidence
exists to support the statements you have made regarding the importance of
the work and the methods and processes you have chosen to undertake it.
9. Ethical Considerations
the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) – has produced a document,
Framework for Research
Ethics, containing six key principles of ethical research that it would expect to
be addressed in a research proposal (ESRC, 2012: 2–3).
Research should be designed, reviewed and undertaken to ensure integrity, quality and
transparency.
Research staff and subjects must be informed fully about the purpose, methods and
intended possible uses of the research, what their participation in the research entails
and what risks, if any, are involved.
The confidentiality of information supplied by research subjects and the anonymity of
respondents must be respected.
Research participants must take part voluntarily, free from any coercion.
Harm to research participants and researchers must be avoided in all instances.
The independence of research must be clear, and any conflicts of interest
or partiality must be explicit.
 Chapter 4
1. The Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework provides a logical and coherent structure for any research
study. It identifies and presents the key factors in a logical format. Depending on the
nature and purpose of the research project, the conceptual framework may be
correlational or causal in form.

A correlational framework suggests possible connections between two or more factors

or a range of different factors. For example, Economic factors like bank interest rates
has a correlation with liquidity in the market and inflation rates. A causal framework is
more specific about the nature and direction of the suggested relationship. It presents a
cause–effect linkage between factors. For example: If bank interest rates are increased
then the liquidity in the market is reduced and inflation rate falls. The conceptual
framework is the link between the existing body of knowledge and an empirical
investigation.

In the inductive approach, where the empirical data are collected during the early stages
of the study, the conceptual framework is the outcome of the analysis of the empirical
data, establishing any logical links between the interpretation of reality and any existing
literature. In the deductive approach, it is the critical review of the literature that
determines the nature of the conceptual framework to be used for the empirical part of
the research.

2. Variables:
a. Independent and Dependent Variables:
The variables between which nature and direction of the cause–effect mechanism
operates are the independent and dependent variables. The independent variable
can be manipulated or altered and the dependent variable gets altered as a
consequence of the manipulation or alteration in the independent variable.
b. Intervening variable: is one that has a direct consequence of a change in the
independent variable and has an effect on the expected relationship between it
and the dependent variable. This effect might be known before the empirical
research or may be brought to knowledge after the effect of changes in the
independent variable on the dependent variable are known. This effect may be to
 enhance or lessen the influence of the independent variable has on the dependent
variable.
c. Moderating Variable: moderates the expected relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. It might be positive or negative in nature
and may or may not be evident before the investigation begins. The moderating
variable may only becomes evident when the expected independent–dependent
variable relationship does not materialise and needs to be explained by
identifying what is moderating or affecting it.

The relationship between the variables can expressed in various ways:

a. A simple narrative statement may be used.
b. In a diagrammatic form
c. Theorised relationships between variables, as provided by Hwang et al.
(2013).
d. As a logical function. For example, we could state that, other things being
held constant, the rate of inflation (D) we expect to get would be a
function of (f), or depend on, the rate of interest (R) giving us the equation
D = f(R).

3. Theories & Models:

A theory is a set of concepts, and associated propositions, that are organised logically
and systematically in order to explain and predict a phenomena. They it helps us to
understand, explain and predict what has happened, what is happening and what will
happen, so that we may also be able to control what does happen.
For a theory to be useful, it must be able to explain and predict. The better it can do
that, the more practical value it has. Where a theory does not adequately explain and
provide a sound basis for action in a real-world situation or environment, does not make
it worthless. It just needs to be replaced by better theory.

Theories that are valid and applicable across time and space are known as general
theories or universal laws while those having value limited to certain contexts or the
existence of certain conditions are referred to as context- or condition-specific theories
 While the role of theory is explanation, the role of models is to represent the logic of
the explanation. Such representation of theories may be descriptive, explanatory or
designed to simulate the processes the theory is about. Models are relatively simple,
revealing the structural relationships between its components, or slightly more
developed, in that the nature of these structural relationships is explained, or more
complex still, with the processes associated with the relationships being simulated.

4. Hypotheses:
A hypothesis expresses is a prediction of what to expect if the theory proves to be
sound. It is a mechanism that tests whether or not the theoretical explanations and
predictions can be supported by evidence from the real world. It is an ‘educated guess’
about a problem’s solution. It suggests or asserts a certain relationship between the
concepts in the conceptual framework but which cannot be confirmed because they
have not yet been tested. Therefore, the hypothesis is a statement that can be tested.

Depending on the extent to which the theory has been developed previously and/or the
researcher’s ability to be more or less specific in wording the hypothesis, may be
tentative or prescriptive in how it is written.
a. Causal and correlational hypotheses
A causal hypothesis is directional as a cause–effect relationship being specified
and tested. It specifies that the independent variable will definitely produce an
specific effect in the dependent variable
The 3 criteria for establishing a causal relationship are:
i. Association: An empirical (or observed) association between the
independent and dependent variables. They must vary together so when one
goes up (or down), the other goes up (or down) at the same time. For
example: When cigarette smoking goes up, so does lung cancer.
ii. Time order: The variation in the independent variable must come before the
variation in the dependent variable. The cause must come before its
presumed effect.
iii. Non-spurious: A relationship between two variables is spurious when it is
actually due to changes in a third variable, so what appears to be a direct
connection is in fact not one. For example: If we measure children’s shoe
 sizes and their academic knowledge, we will find a positive association. But
such a relationship is spurious.
A correlational hypothesis suggests or postulates a connection or association of
some kind between at least two variables. For example, in a causal relationship,
the if the hotel room-night charge is higher the quality of the room décor is
superior. If this were to be specified in a correlational form then, one would
simply hypothesise that the hotel room-night charge is connected to the room
decor in some way or in hotels where the room night charge is higher, there
seems to be better décor in such rooms.
b. Null and alternate hypotheses:
Hypotheses can be stated in negative or positive terms.
i. Null (negative) form: would state that the independent variable (cause) does
not have a relationship with, or effect on, the dependent variable (effect).
ii. Alternate (positive) form:
the independent variable does have a relationship with or effect on the
dependent variable. These are the only two possible outcomes for a
hypothesis

5. Operationalisation: Is to establish explicit and unambiguous meaning and assist in the

empirical measurement of the concept(s) concerned.

6. Measurements & Scales:

a. Collective Exhaustion: means that the content of the range or scope of the scale
should be sufficient to collectively exhaust any other possible responses. In other
words, it covers all the possible answers. For Example a scale relating to the age
of the respondents 18 – 30, 31 – 50, 51 – 70 cannot be regarded as collectively
exhaustive because persons aged below 18 years and above 70 years cannot find a
category to be listed under.
b. Mutual exclusivity: means that the intervals used in the scale should not overlap.
The importance of this is that a person responding to the question cannot then
give a response to more than one of the items in the scale. For example, a scale
relating to the age of the respondents under 18, 18 – 30, 30 – 50, 50 – 70, above
70 cannot be regarded as mutually exclusive because persons aged 30 and 50
years find their ages listed under two categories.
There are four basic types and/or levels of measurement scale:
a. Nominal Scale: is used to name, group or classify either respondent’s
characteristics or substantive answers into different groups or categories. Because
it places the values of the attributes into separate groups or categories it is also
known as the basis for measuring ‘categorical’ variables. The members of a group
or category share at least one thing in common. For example, they are all male or
female, or, single or married. The type of data provided by the nominal scale is
limited in terms of the extent that it can be manipulate or analysed using
statistical techniques. Nominal data alone are only amenable to calculating either
the frequency and/or the percentage of the responses in each category. They can
be used to explore possible associations between variables.
b. Ordinal Scale: is used to place the attributes of the variable into some form of
order – from highest to lowest, more to less, top to bottom, best to worst etc. For
example, the scale may be used to ask questions about people’s perceptions, their
experiences, behaviour or intentions or to elicit a judgement about a product or
service. The distances between the orders or levels in the ordinal scale tend to be
viewed as being equal, but this may not be the case in reality.

c. Interval Scale: has a standard interval between the range of points in the scale and
the interval is usually one. The nature of each point in the scale is defined and this
allows the magnitude of the difference between each point to be measured. It
provides a range of possible response options to a question or statement from
totally negative at one end to totally positive at the other. For Example, the three,
five, seven or nine-point scales that range from, terrible to excellent, from totally
disagree to totally agree or never to always. The agree/disagree type of interval
scale is commonly known as a ‘Likert’ scale and defines the points, in a five-
point scale, as follows – totally disagree, disagree, neither agree or disagree,
agree, totally agree.

d. Ratio scale: is an open-ended scale that has a zero starting point and could extend
to infinity. It does not contain categories, groups, ranks or points so it collects
ungrouped, unclassified or raw data. Ratio data has to be grouped or organised
after they have been collected. The ratio scale is generally used where the
 variable is known or expected to vary continuously across a range and where the
full range of variation is not known.

7. Validity & Reliability

a. Validity or Accuracy: is concerned with the extent to which the measures actually
measure, the truth. This means that the measures should be able to provide data
that measure what it is supposed to measure and give an accurate reflection of
reality. Precision is concerned with the amount of detail that the measure can
provide. A measure that is very precise will be able to provide very fine detail –
that is, one that is able to measure in millimetres would be more precise than one
able only to measure in centimetres. Alternatively, a nine-point interval scale
would provide more precision than a three-point scale.
b. Reliability: refers to the consistency of the measure when it is used over time or
in different contexts. If a measure is highly reliable, then it can be used across a
wide range of contexts and time periods because it will produce ‘stable’
measurements.

8. Unstructured Open Ended Questions & Structured Close Ended Questions:

If qualitative data or words is the type of response that is elicited from the respondent,
than the structure and form of the questions is not overly structured and is open-ended,
that is, the response is not dictated by particular response options that are provided with
the question.

The unstructured, open-ended form of the question allows for a considerable amount of
flexibility, in terms of what is asked, what is pursued further and how the data are
recorded. This flexibility also enables more in-depth responses to be captured, which
are crucial in the collection of qualitative data. It can also help in situations where the
researcher is not sure of the nature and/or breadth of the possible responses that could
be given to a question.

But the nature of the data collected do lead to some problems. For various reasons
people do not always give ‘truthful’ answers. They may over- or understate certain
issues or deliberately give false answers to cover up failures or avoid sensitive issues.
They may give answers that they believe, but do not know, to be correct. They may
 express opinion as fact and may give responses that they think the researcher is looking
for.

In addition, the nature of the data precludes statistical analysis. Words have to be
interpreted and people’s interpretations of the same collection of words can vary,
leading to differing conclusions. Further unstructured questions generate a high volume
of non-standard data, which can give rise to problems in terms of not only recording
and/or transcribing the data but also in being able to cope with this volume of material
when trying to analyse it.

If quantitative data is required, the questions are more specific and the options to
answer will be prescribed in the question. It will have a predetermined structure along
with instructions for the respondent on how to record their responses. Because of these
features the data collected is amenable to statistical analysis. These type of questions
are referred to as structured, with close-ended questions.

The structured questions are preferred in situations where relatively large-scale surveys
are being conducted, where the sample is geographically dispersed and can only be
accessed by some form of remote communication, such as by mail, electronically or by
telephone, and where quantitative data are required. That said, this form is also used for
direct interviews such as market research interviews conducted in public spaces, or
situations where the sample is self-selecting such as customer comment/feedback
questionnaires left in hotel bedrooms, on restaurant tables, or at tourist destinations and
attractions and so on.

8. Triangulation & Member Checking

Triangulation is a term derived from navigation, where, to fix your position and/or
course accurately, you need to take at least 3 reading or bearing, and construct a
triangle to determine the point you are seeking. In the context of research this
translates to the use of more then one methodology or method, theoretical
perspective and data sources and/or types. In using a range of differing
approaches and methods it is claimed that a wider and deeper understanding
may be achieved and that this variety may be complementary, i.e. that findings
from one perspective or method may illuminate those from another.
 Triangulation is a technique used to increase confidence in the accuracy and
dependability of the results by utilising more than one data analyst or interpreter, source
of data or data collection method. The idea of this is that if the interpretations of more
than one person analysing the same data independently, or the data produced in
different locations by different people or at different times, or else different methods
used to collect data relating to the same issue or question, e.g. ‘questionnaire and
interview data’, all arrive at or point to the same conclusions, then this type of
confirmatory process increases confidence in the research process and results. In short,
the results are validated from a number of different directions. For an example of this in
practice see the study by Matteucci (2013), which triangulates data from photographic
images, participant observation and in-depth interviews.

However, the downside to this is that it often makes the research process more
complex, time-consuming and difficult to design and put into practice.

Member checking is a used to establish the tenet of credibility in trustworthiness.

Credibility involves showing that the findings are accurate and honest. According to
Lincoln & Guba, member checking is sharing either a brief summary of the findings or
sharing the whole findings with the research participants. Transcript review is an
example of member checking wherein the researcher sends a copy of the interview
transcript to each respective participant so they can review the document. This is done
to ensure participants have an opportunity to review what they said, add more
information if they want to, and to edit what they said

8. Explanatory & Exploratory Sequential Design:

Mixed-method research designs combine methods used to collect both qualitative and
quantitative data. Researchers today tend to be more flexible and pragmatic and less
restricted to one paradigm or designs and methods seen to be consistent with the school
of thought adopted by the researcher. So, mixed- or multiple-methods designs have
become more widespread and acceptable within the academic community in general.

• The explanatory sequential design. The explanatory sequential design (also referred to as
the explanatory design) occurs in two distinct interactive phases (see Figure 3.1b). This design
starts with the collection and analysis of quantitative data, which has the priority for
addressing the study’s questions. This first phase is followed by the subsequent collection and
analysis of qualitative data. The second, qualitative phase of the study is designed so that it
follows from the results of the first, quantitative phase. The researcher interprets how the
qualitative results help to explain the initial quantitative results. For example, the researcher
collects and analyzes quantitative data to identify significant predictors of adolescent tobacco
use. Finding a surprising association between participation in extracurricular activities and
tobacco use, the researcher conducts qualitative interviews with adolescents who are actively
involved in extracurricular activities to attempt to explain the unexpected result. • The
exploratory sequential design. As shown in Figure 3.1c, the exploratory sequential design (also
referred to as the exploratory design) also uses sequential timing. In contrast to the
explanatory design, the exploratory design begins with and prioritizes the collection and
analysis of qualitative data in the first phase. Building from the exploratory results, the
researcher conducts a second, quantitative phase to test or generalize the initial findings. The
researcher then interprets how the quantitative results build on the initial qualitative results.
For example, the researcher collects qualitative stories about adolescents’ attempts to quit
smoking and analyzes the stories to identify the conditions, contexts, strategies, and
consequences of adolescent quit attempts. Considering the resulting categories as variables,
the researcher develops a quantitative instrument and uses it to assess the overall prevalence
of these variables for a large number of adolescent smokers.
 Sampling

Simple random sampling

This is a relatively straightforward procedure, but it does demand that the sampling frame is
known and each item in the frame is numbered or coded. Each item has an equal chance of
being, or not being, selected. The chance of an item being selected to be included in the
sample cannot be influenced by the person selecting the sample because it is made on a
random basis. Random number tables can be used for this, or website random number
generators is a quick and easy way to generate a set of random numbers for this purpose

Systematic random sampling

This is conducted by selecting the items for inclusion in the sample at systematic or regular
intervals, using a randomised starting point. For example, to select a sample of 30 restaurants
from a sampling frame containing 270, the sampling interval would have to be 270/30 = 9. If
the random number selected to start the process was 4, then the 4th, 13th, 22nd, 31st …
would be selected until the total of 30 had been reached. Ideally, the items in the sampling
frame should be organised randomly before selection takes place, to avoid the problem of
‘periodicity’. This happens because the items in the sampling frame are likely to be ordered
in some way, so a systematic selection may result in some types being over-, or
underrepresented, even though the selection proceeds from a random point. To avoid
this, it is necessary to mix, shuffle or randomise the list comprising the sampling frame
before selection takes place.

Stratified random sampling

This technique assumes some prior knowledge of the population that can be used to separate
it into distinct, mutually exclusive groups or strata. This may be on the basis of age, location,
gender, occupation and so on. This may be done where it is hypothesised that a particular
characteristic could constitute a source of variance. In such circumstances a proportional
representation of the strata would be desired. So, if it were proposed that men and women
would have significantly different opinions on certain issues, then it would be important to
ensure that the correct proportions of each gender were included in the sample. For example,
if it was known that the population was comprised of 60 per cent males and 40 per cent
females, it would be important to ensure that these groups were proportionately represented
in the sample in order to explore the ‘between-group’ variations. Once the sample frame is
organised into the relevant groupings the desired degree of proportionality can be identified.
Following this it is a relatively simple matter to then apply either a simple or systematic
random selection procedure for each strata.

Cluster sampling
The sampling frame is comprised of the list of clusters rather than individual cases. From
this, a number of clusters are selected on a random basis and data are collected from every
case contained in the clusters selected. This is known as one or single-stage cluster sampling.
It is possible to go beyond this and employ two-stage cluster sampling. Here data are
collected from selected members of each cluster rather than all the members of each.

Convenience sampling
This is the simplest form of non-probability-based sampling. It is, as the name implies, a way
of selecting a sample that is convenient – that is, one available at the time and place of your
choice. It might constitute stopping people in the street and asking for their cooperation or
approaching visitors at a tourist destination or attraction and asking them if they would
complete a questionnaire or be interviewed.

Purposive, judgemental or criterion sampling

These procedures can be used to select sample subjects on the basis of some important
characteristic(s) they possess. For example, as referred to earlier, a person may be regarded as
a ‘key informant’ because of the position they hold.