Invited Paper EAEF 1(1) : 24-32, 2008

Effects of Feed Compositions and Screw Configurations

on the Properties of Biodegradable Loose-Fill Extruded Foams

Wai-Bun LUI1 and Jinchyau PENG*2

Abstract
In this study, the main effort was to determine the effects of the extruder’s operating conditions on the physical,
mechanical and chemical properties of corn/PVA extrudates. The operating conditions were feed compositions (FC;
food grade corn grit, feeding grade corn grit), screw threads (ST; single, double), screw pitches (SP; narrow (3.5
mm), intermediate (5.0 mm), wide (6.5 mm)), and screw speeds (SS; 50 rpm, 60 rpm, 70 rpm). The experiment was
a 2×2×3×3 factorial design. Samples of each treatment were collected and the physical, mechanical and chemical
properties were measured and analyzed using the PROC ANOVA and PROC CORR of the SAS 6.0 software
package. Experimental results indicated that: screw thread, feed composition, and screw pitch had a most significant
effect on the radial expansion ratio and compressibility; whereas, screw speed had a most significant effect on the
longitudinal expansion, water absorption index and compressibility, respectively.
[Keywords] Feed compositions, Screw configurations, Biodegradable, Loose-fill, Extruded foams

I Introduction
Extrusion technology can be defined as a high-temperature
short-time (HTST) process that combines several unit
operations including mixing, kneading, shearing, cooking,
shaping and forming (Harper, 1981). It has been applied in the
production of ready-to-eat cereals, snacks, pet foods,
confectionery products, textured vegetable protein, macaroni
and chemreactors (Hayter et al., 1986; Harper, 1981; Dziezak,
1989; Miller, 1992; Peng et al., 1994). The ecological
problems increase due to the excessive use of
non-biodegradable expandable polystyrene as cushioning
materials (Barenberg et al., 1990; Stdut, 1990; Narayan, 1994).
Extrusion technology has been applied to cornstarch
processing for many years (Chinnaswamy, 1988; Moore et al.,
1990; Haper, 1991; Tsai, 1991). If extruded products from
whole yellow dent corn are used for loose fill cushioning
material, we can get low cost and biodegradable advantages
(Andreas, 1989; Altieri et al., 1990; Bastioli et al., 1991; Tsai,
1991). Therefore, the research in the extruded cushioning
materials, especially in the degradable cushioning extrudates,
is an important and expanding aspect in extrusion technology.
Huge amount of non-biodegradable plastic products such as
refuse and retail bags, fast-food containers, egg cartons,
packaging films, and loose fillers are used in the past
(Andreas, 1989; Roger, 1989; Barenberg et al., 1990; Narayan,
1994). For example, about 23 × 106 kg of expandable
polystyrene loose fill was consumed in the United States in
1988 (Frey and Star, 1988). Disposal of used plastic products
has become a public concern because of their
non-degradability (Barenberg et al., 1990; Naranya, 1994).
Much effort has gone into producing environmentally friendly
alternatives to plastic products from the incineration process
(Altieri et al., 1990; Neumann et al., 1993). The use of starch
in plastic production would greatly reduce the demand of
petroleum as well as the negative impact in the environment
caused by discarding non-biodegradable materials. This is
because starch can be easily degraded into small molecules
that can be metabolized by microorganisms such as bacteria,
yeast and fungi (Mohsenin, 1986; Roger, 1989; Roper et al.,
1990; Sachetto et al., 1991).
Moreover, Lacourse and Altieri (1989), Sachetto et al.,
(1991), Bastioli et al., (1991), and Neumann and Seib (1993)
have patented technology to make biodegradable starch-based
foams. Starch-based foam prepared from the mixture of 95%
hydroxyproplated high amylose corn starch and 5% polyvinyl
alcohol is used commercially as an alternative to polystyrene

1. Teacher, Chairperson, Department of Agricultural Machinery, National Pei-Kang Senior Agricultural-Industrial Vocational
School, Yunlin, Taiwan, ROC.
*2 Professor, Department of Bio-Industrial Mechatronics Engineering, National Chung-Hsing University, 250 Kuokwang Road,
Tai-Chung, Taiwan; voice: +886-4-22857572; fax: +886-4-22859490; e-mail:jcpeng@dragon.nchu.edu.tw
*Author for correspondence.
 LUI, PENG: Effects of Feed Compositions and Screw Configurations
on the Properties of Biodegradable Loose-Fill Extruded Foams
loose fill material (Chinnaswamy, 1991; George, 1994). The
mechanical properties of the starch-based foams from various
mixtures have been studied by Hayter et al. (1986), Mohsenin
(1986), Hutchinson et al. (1987), Chinnaswamy and Hanna
(1988), Moore et al., (1990), Waburton et al. (1990～1992),
Lourdin et al. (1995) and Bhatnagar and Hanna (1995). The
power law correlation between mechanical properties and
bulk density of starch-based foams was found by impact,
compression, tension and the flexure tests (Hayter et al., 1986;
Hutchinson et al., 1987; Waburton et al., 1992)
On the other hand, much more effort has been made to
improve the mechanical properties of starch-based foams
because an increase in starch levels decreases their
compressibility, spring index, flexibility, and elasticity (Tsai,
1991). Still, starch-based plastic foams have poor mechanical
properties compared to pure plastic foams (Tsai, 1991). The
mechanical properties of starch-based foams are dependent on
feed compositions and screw configurations, yet the effects of
the above operating conditions have not been studied.
Therefore, in this study, two different feed compositions
were used to produce corn grit-based extrudates with different
screw configurations. The objective was to study the effects
of feed composition and screw configuration in the physical,
mechanical and the chemical properties of the corn grit-based
foam extrudates.
II Materials and Methods
1. Materials
Food grade corn grit and feed grade corn grits were the
basic raw materials for this study. The moisture content of the
corn grits were adjusted to 13%, dry basis, before being
blended with the polyvinyl alcohol (PVA).
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) used in this study was BF-17 from
Chang Chun Petrochemical Co., Ltd. (Taiwan, R.O.C.). The
molecular weight was 74800 and the degree of polymerization
was 1700.
2. Extruder
A local made single-screw extruder with a 45mm diameter
and 165mm length was used. A 3.34mm cylindrical die was
used to give continuous cylindrical rope-like extrudates.
3. Experimental design
The process variables were the operating conditions, screw
thread (single, double), feed composition (food grade corn grit,
feeding grade corn grit), screw pitch (narrow (3.5 mm),
intermediate (5.0 mm) and wide (6.5 mm)), and screw speed
(50 rpm, 60 rpm, 70 rpm). The proportions of the PVA and
25
corn grits were fixed at 1:4. The die temperature was fixed at
90°C. The experiment was a 2×2×3×3 factorial design.
Samples of each treatment were collected and the physical,
mechanical and chemical properties were measured and
analyzed.
4. Physical properties measurements
Moisture content was measured for each of the extrudates.
First, measured a small container; and then measured 10 g of
the material into the container; moreover, dried the samples
for 24 h. in a 105-110°C oven; finally, measured the sample
again, subtracted the weight of the container, and determined
the moisture content using the following equation (1) (AOAC,
1984):
Mn = ((Ww-Wd)/Ww) x 100……………………………(1)
where:
Mn = moisture content (%) of material n
WW = wet weight of the sample, and
Wd = weight of the sample after drying.
Radial expansion ratio of the extrudates was calculated by
dividing the mean cross-section area of the extrudates by the
cross-section area of the die nozzle. The mean cross-section
area of the extrudates was estimated by taking the average of
50 measurements on randomly chosen extrudates. Each
calculated value was a mean of 20 observations (Bhatnagar
and Hanna, 1995).
Longitudinal expansions of the extrudates were obtained by
dividing the average lengths by the corresponding weight
(AOAC, 1984).
Bulk densities of the extrudates were determined using a
seed displacement method. The 200ml rape seeds (Brassica
capestris) were used as the displacement medium. The seeds
were poured into a graduated cylinder (250 ml). The cylinder
was tapped soundly 20 times. The weight of each sample was
weighed with an electronic balance. The bulk density (g/m3)
was calculated by dividing the weight of the extrudates by the
volume displaced. Ten measurements were taken for each
treatment (Bhatnagar & Hanna, 1995).
Water solubility indices were used to ascertain water
solubility of the extrudates. Since it was difficult to grind the
extrudates to exact size due to their plastic content, extrudates
were ground for 1 min in a blender prior to the determination
of water solubility indices. Water solubility indices were
measured at room temperature and expressed as percentage on
dry matter basis (AOAC, 1984).
5. Mechanical properties measurements
Compressibility of a sample was the force needed to create
26 Engineering in Agriculture, Environment and Food Vol. 1, No. 1 (2008)

2mm deformation, which was measured using an INSTRON
4464 universal testing machine (within 5kg static load cell). A
10cm2 compression anvil (model 2830-011) was used to
compress the sample to 2mm deformation at a loading rate of
30 mm/min (Altieri and Lacourse, 1990; Wang et al., 1996).
The initial gauge length of the samples was about 50 mm. A
high value was attributed to a sample that was relatively hard,
meaning it was less compressible, while a lower value was
attributed to a sample that was easily compressed (Bhatnagar
and Hanna, 1995).
Spring index refers to the ability of a material to recover to
its original shape after it has been deformed. The force
required to initially compress the sample and the force
required to recompress the same sample after 1 min of
releasing the initial load were determined by an INSTRON
4464 universal testing machine employing the conditions used
in measuring compressibility (Altieri and Lacourse, 1990;
Wang et al., 1996). Recovery of the sample was measured by
dividing the recompression force after 1 min by the initial
compression force. For an ideal elastic body, the value of
spring index is 1. A higher recovery value corresponds to a
material having better elastic characteristics or resiliency
(Bhatnagar and Hanna, 1995).
6. Biodegradability measurements
Biodegradability of the samples was measured by the
modified BOD5 test method used for testing the pollution of
waste water (Roger, 1989). The proportion of the
bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD5) to the chemical oxygen
demand (COD) of the microorganism can be used as the
standard index of the biodegradability. The samples of each
treatment were mixed with the microorganism (E. coli). The
biodegradability of the samples was determined by dividing
the bio-chemical oxygen demand by the chemical oxygen
demand (BOD5/COD).
7. Statistical analysis
The experimental results were analyzed using statistical
software SAS version 6.0 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC,
USA). The data were analyzed by procedure ANOVA and
procedure CORR of the software package to determine the
significance of the process variables and the correlation
among the experimental properties, respectively (SAS, 1988).
III Results and Discussion
1. Physical properties
(1) Moisture content
Table 1 shows the relationships between extrusion
operating conditions and the physical and mechanical
properties and biodegradability of the extrudates. The
maximum value of moisture content was obtained with a
single screw thread, food grade corn grits, intermediate screw

Table 1 The extrudate’s experimental results of the factorial experiment.

Water Water
Moisture Radial Longitudinal Bulk Spring
Treatments Operating Conditions solubility absorption Compressibility Biodegradability
content expansion ratio expansion density index
index index
Screw Feed Screw Screw
X100(%) (mm2/mm2) (mm/g) (g/mm3) (g/g) (g/g) (Mpa) (BOD5/COD)
thread compositions pitch speed
1 1 1 1 1 0.09±0.01 21.25±1.23 173.67±16.16 0.04±0.01 0.05±0.03 5.79±0.52 0.17±0.01 0.94±0.03 0.64±0.15
2 1 1 1 2 0.06±0.02 13.89±1.21 301.98±61.47 0.06±0.11 0.4±0.51 5.7±0.17 0.09±0 0.96±0.01 0.44±0.11
3 1 1 1 3 0.07±0.04 9.24±1.22 121.23±6.75 0.01±0 0.39±0.5 5.94±0.23 0.09±0 0.96±0.01 0.68±0.25
4 1 1 2 1 0.09±0.01 11.68±0.8 149.65±14.89 0.04±0.01 0.09±0 5.81±0.05 0.12±0.01 0.95±0.02 0.45±0.14
5 1 1 2 2 0.14±0.06 16.87±1.12 148.59±18.39 0.05±0.01 0.07±0 5.83±0.11 0.07±0.01 0.89±0.08 0.7±0.24
6 1 1 2 3 0.1±0.06 15.52±1.54 213.44±15.68 0.03±0 0.06±0 6.32±0.21 0.06±0 0.96±0.01 0.58±0.06
7 1 1 3 1 0.11±0.06 14.95±1.56 157.58±11.24 0.04±0.01 0.09±0 5.74±0.22 0.11±0.01 0.95±0.02 0.45±0.08
8 1 1 3 2 0.09±0.01 9.65±1.04 160.63±14.78 0.06±0.02 0.06±0 5.78±0.43 0.24±0.01 0.96±0.02 0.44±0.1
9 1 1 3 3 0.09±0.01 9.7±1.06 149.01±29.9 0.05±0.01 0.05±0.01 6.52±0.2 0.3±0.02 0.94±0.01 0.77±0.08
10 1 2 1 1 0.1±0 13.96±1.89 66±11.16 0.19±0.06 0.38±0.02 5.77±0.1 0.31±0.02 0.95±0.01 0.64±0.15
11 1 2 1 2 0.11±0 10.45±0.73 57.41±6.18 0.14±0.03 0.39±0.01 6.13±0.29 1.17±0.09 0.94±0.02 0.43±0.15
12 1 2 1 3 0.11±0 11.86±1.15 62.72±8.95 0.12±0.02 0.06±0.01 5.95±0.23 0.71±0.07 0.92±0.03 0.51±0.04
13 1 2 2 1 0.1±0 11.98±1.1 99.7±22.33 0.07±0.01 0.04±0 5.79±0.1 0.56±0.04 0.94±0.03 0.42±0.13
14 1 2 2 2 0.1±0 7.32±0.64 80.63±6.2 0.1±0.02 0.05±0 6.16±0.04 0.39±0.05 0.93±0.03 0.65±0.09
15 1 2 2 3 0.11±0 7.55±0.97 75.22±11.45 0.13±0.01 0.05±0 6.01±0.1 0.82±0.07 0.94±0.02 0.41±0.12
16 1 2 3 1 0.09±0.01 11.39±1.55 163.6±80.21 0.11±0.01 0.05±0.01 5.9±0.18 0.8±0.07 0.94±0.01 0.61±0.11
17 1 2 3 2 0.1±0 10.13±1.16 101.72±21.56 0.07±0.03 0.06±0 6.21±0.28 0.34±0.02 0.96±0.01 0.49±0.1
18 1 2 3 3 0.1±0.01 9.6±0.38 103.99±2.75 0.06±0.02 0.05±0 5.94±0.08 0.46±0.03 0.95±0.02 0.43±0.13
19 2 1 1 1 0.1±0.01 12.35±1.42 141.04±9.58 0.34±0.98 0.07±0 5.93±0.19 0.08±0.01 0.87±0.07 0.5±0.08
20 2 1 1 2 0.09±0.01 20.74±1.24 220.06±12.99 0.02±0 0.07±0.02 6.05±0.17 0.09±0.01 0.95±0.02 0.53±0.17
21 2 1 1 3 0.1±0 17.28±0.82 142.37±27.29 0.04±0.01 0.06±0 5.66±0.24 0.16±0.01 0.95±0.03 0.42±0.16
22 2 1 2 1 0.09±0.01 18.76±1.35 161.83±16.47 0.03±0 0.07±0 6.8±0.14 0.1±0.01 0.93±0.01 0.4±0.14
23 2 1 2 2 0.09±0.01 13.34±0.97 145.77±11.21 0.03±0 0.07±0 6.26±0.13 0.14±0.01 0.95±0.02 0.47±0.15
24 2 1 2 3 0.1±0 29.06±1.6 98.84±6.09 0.04±0 0.06±0.01 6.17±0.26 0.09±0.02 0.92±0.02 0.53±0.21
25 2 1 3 1 0.09±0.01 18.47±1.15 109±7.07 0.03±0 0.06±0 5.87±0.37 0.09±0.01 0.95±0.03 0.36±0.15
26 2 1 3 2 0.1±0 26.78±3.14 96.38±10.09 0.03±0 0.05±0 6.07±0.29 0.1±0.01 0.96±0.03 0.44±0.13
27 2 1 3 3 0.1±0.01 22.64±1.81 228.96±370.87 0.04±0 0.06±0 5.96±0.07 0.13±0.01 0.94±0.03 0.65±0.18
28 2 2 1 1 0.09±0 14.23±1.44 55.65±11.61 0.14±0.04 0.05±0 5.91±0.21 0.8±0.07 0.84±0.06 0.42±0.14
29 2 2 1 2 0.08±0.02 14.08±1.2 72.92±11.58 0.09±0.02 0.05±0.01 6.14±0.13 0.39±0.04 0.93±0.03 0.4±0.15
30 2 2 1 3 0.09±0 14.76±1.47 65.19±7.87 0.07±0.02 0.37±0.03 6.16±0.45 0.52±0.06 0.94±0.04 0.42±0.15
31 2 2 2 1 0.09±0 10.97±1.37 111.2±11.89 0.08±0.02 0.08±0 5.35±0.13 0.35±0.03 0.94±0.02 0.43±0.14
32 2 2 2 2 0.09±0 12.59±1.6 117.16±16.33 0.07±0.01 0.06±0 5.85±0.17 0.3±0.01 0.96±0.01 0.43±0.14
33 2 2 2 3 0.1±0.02 11.04±0.4 121.24±19.19 0.05±0.01 0.05±0 5.75±0.02 0.33±0.04 0.93±0.03 0.47±0.11
34 2 2 3 1 0.11±0.06 13.24±2.51 43.34±1.69 0.19±0.06 0.05±0 5.63±0.03 1.63±0.27 0.92±0.06 0.4±0.13
35 2 2 3 2 0.09±0 16.01±3.12 71.23±9.25 0.09±0.01 0.06±0.01 5.76±0.05 0.11±0.02 0.93±0.06 0.48±0.11
36 2 2 3 3 0.13±0.15 12.92±1.67 75.71±13.31 0.08±0.02 0.06±0 5.87±0.03 0.27±0.03 0.95±0.03 0.42±0.16
Where (1)Screw thread--1：Single；2：Double (2)Feed compositions--1：Food grade corn grit；2：Feeding grade corn grit (3)Screw pitch--1：Narrow；2：Intermediate；3：Wide (4)Screw speed--1：
50 rpm；2：60 rpm；3：70 rpm
 LUI, PENG: Effects of Feed Compositions and Screw Configurations 27
on the Properties of Biodegradable Loose-Fill Extruded Foams

pitch and 60 rpm screw speed (Table 1). However, the
minimum value was obtained with single screw thread, food
considerably more hydrophilic than most of the polymers
used the moisture content in the starch phase of the melts
probably increased as resin content increased.
Table 2 indicates the significance of process variables to
extrudate’s experimental results. The change of screw thread
(ST) had no significant effect on the moisture content of the
extrudates. This may have been due to reformation resulting
in some form of grafting of corn starches polymers and the
plastics (PVA) polymers during the screw rotation (Lenk and
Merrall, 1981; Moore et al., 1990; Chinnaswamy and Hanna,
1991; George, 1994). On the other hand, the effect of screw
thread (ST) manifested itself in the moisture content through
the ST*FC*SP*SS interactions.
The feed composition (FC) had no significant influence in
the moisture content (Table 2). However, the influence of FC
also manifested itself in the moisture content through the
ST*FC*SP*SS interactions. Shogren and Willett (2002)
mentioned that PVA was nearly as hygroscopic as starch, and
the water would be expected to partition between the starch
and PVA to a greater extent than in the other blends.
The screw pitch (SP) had significant effect on the moisture
content at 5% level. The influence of SP also manifested itself
in the moisture content through the ST*FC*SP*SS
interactions.
The screw speed (SS) had no significant influence in the
moisture content (Table 2). The influence of SS also
manifested itself in the moisture content through the
Table 2 The significance of process variables to extrudate’s experimental results.
Radial expansion Longitudinal
Operating Moisture content
ratio expansion
Pr>F Signification
Conditions Pr>F Signification Pr>F Signification
grade corn grit, narrow screw pitch and 60 rpm screw speed
(Table 1). Shogren and Willett (2002) stated that starch was
ST*FC*SP*SS interactions.
(2) Radial expansion ratio
A maximum value for the radial expansion ratio was
obtained with the double screw thread, food grade corn grit,
intermediate screw pitch and 70 rpm (Table 1). The minimum
value was obtained with single screw thread, food grade corn
grit, narrow screw pitch and 70 rpm (Table 1). Shogren and
Willett (2002) reported that radial expansion of extruded
starch foams could be described by the ratio of the
cross-sectional area of the foam to the die cross-section
(Rf/Rd )2, where Rf was the radius of the foam and Rd was the
radius of the die. It has been suggested that radial expansion
of extruded starch is dependent on the melt elasticity.
The screw thread (ST) had a very significant effect on the
radial expansion ratio of the extrudates. This may have been
due to reformation resulting in some form of grafting of corn
starches polymers and the plastics (PVA) polymers during the
screw rotation (Lenk and Merrall, 1981; Moore et al., 1990;
Chinnaswamy and Hanna, 1991; George, 1994). The effect of
ST also manifested itself in the radial expansion ratio through
the ST*FC, ST*SS and ST*FC*SP*SS interactions.
The feed compositions (FC) had a very significant
influence in the radial expansion ratio (Table 2). The
influence of FC also manifested itself in the radial expansion
ratio through the ST*FC, FC*SP and ST*FC*SP*SS
interactions. Generally, the radial expansion ratio increased
Water solubility Water absorption
Bulk density Compressibility Spring index
index index
Pr>F Signification Pr>F Signification Pr>F Signification
Pr>F Signification Pr>F Signification

Screw thread (ST) 0.4362 NS 0.0001 ** 0.0088 ** 0.7692 NS 0.1259 NS 0.8884 NS 0.0001 ** 0.0391 *

Feed compositions (FC)

0.1804 NS 0.0001 ** 0.0878 NS 0.0054 ** 0.0382 * 0.0143 * 0.0001 ** 0.1984 NS

Screw pitch (SP) 0.0173 * 0.0002 ** 0.3021 NS 0.0852 NS 0.1336 NS 0.2455 NS 0.0001 ** 0.0648 NS

Screw speed (SS) 0.4079 NS 0.6547 NS 0.0076 ** 0.0560 NS 0.6116 NS 0.0050 ** 0.0001 ** 0.0382 *

ST*FC 0.6125 NS 0.0001 ** 0.7668 NS 0.2642 NS 0.0662 NS 0.0005 ** 0.0035 ** 0.9509 NS

FC*SP 0.1408 NS 0.0001 ** 0.0040 ** 0.8652 NS 0.0731 NS 0.0001 ** 0.0001 ** 0.2192 NS

SP*SS 0.2692 NS 0.0001 ** 0.2704 NS 0.1571 NS 0.4828 NS 0.4205 NS 0.0001 ** 0.0613 NS

ST*SS 0.1600 NS 0.0001 ** 0.0137 * 0.1514 NS 0.4868 NS 0.0121 * 0.0001 ** 0.0139 *

ST*FC*SP*SS 0.0267 * 0.0001 ** 0.0023 ** 0.4572 NS 0.4405 NS 0.0001 ** 0.0001 ** 0.1483 NS

**: means most significant difference (Pr < 0.01)
*: means significant difference (0.01 <Pr <0.05)
NS: means no significant difference (Pr > 0.05)
28 Engineering in Agriculture, Environment and Food Vol. 1, No. 1 (2008)
with increasing the resin content.
Table 2 shows that the screw pitch (SP) had a most
significant effect on the radial expansion ratio at 5% level.
The influence of SP also manifested itself in the radial
expansion ratio through the FC*SP, SP*SS and
ST*FC*SP*SS interactions.
The screw speed (SS) had no significant influence in the
radial expansion ratio (Table 2). The radial expansion ratio
increased with the increase in the screw speed. The influence
of SS also manifested itself in the radial expansion ratio
through the SP*SS, ST*SS and ST*FC*SP*SS interactions.
This could be explained by observing the decrease of the
shear strain by the increase of resin content, which was the
product of the shear rate and the residence time during the
screw rotation (Grilffin et al., 1984; Hayter et al., 1986;
Bhatnagar and Hanna, 1995).
(3) Longitudinal expansion
A maximum value of the longitudinal expansion was
obtained with a single screw thread, food grade corn grit,
narrow screw pitch and 60 rpm (Table 1). However, the
minimum value was obtained with double screw thread,
feeding grade corn grit, wide screw pitch and 50 rpm (Table
1). Shogren and Willett (2002) mentioned that the
longitudinal expansion which is a measure of expansion in the
flow direction. Longitudinal expansion of expanded starch
products is thought to be dependent on the viscous nature of
the melt.
The screw thread (ST) had a very significant effect on the
longitudinal expansion of the extrudates. This may have been
due to reformation resulting in some form of grafting of corn
starches polymers and the plastics (PVA) polymers during the
screw rotation (Lenk and Merrall, 1981; Moore et al., 1990;
Chinnaswamy and Hanna, 1991; George, 1994). The effect of
ST also manifested itself in the longitudinal expansion
through the ST*SS and ST*FC*SP*SS interactions.
The feed compositions (FC) had no significant influence in
the longitudinal expansion (Table 2). The influence of FC also
manifested itself in the longitudinal expansion through the
FC*SP and ST*FC*SP*SS interactions. Shogren and Willett
(2002) mentioned that addition of resin to normal corn starch
increased the longitudinal expansion of the resulting foam.
The addition of either polymer had effect on longitudinal
expansion for this starch. Higher melt elasticity is generally
associated with improved foaming properties. It is known that
polymers which exhibit strain hardening during extension
have improved foaming properties (Gendron et al., 2000),
consistent with the extensional deformation experienced by
the melt during bubble growth in the foaming stage. In this
regard, it has been reported that the addition of as little as 10
wt% of one polymer into another can significantly alter strain
hardening in poly (ethylene) blends (Schlund et al., 1987)
The screw pitch (SP) had no effect on the longitudinal
expansion at 5% level. In this study, the results in table 2 may
have been due to the short barrel length (165mm only) of the
extruder without any heat control system. The heat control
system was only at the surrounding of the die, so the heat
energy cannot evenly spread through the barrel during the
screw rotation. Thus, the SP had no significant effect on the
longitudinal expansion. The influence of SP also manifested
itself in the longitudinal expansion through the FC*SP and
ST*FC*SP*SS interactions.
The screw speed (SS) had a most significant influence in
the longitudinal expansion (Table 2). The influence of SS also
manifested itself in the longitudinal expansion ratio through
the ST*SS and ST*FC*SP*SS interactions. This could be
explained by observing the decrease of the shear strain, which
was the product of the shear rate and the residence time
during the screw rotation (Grilffin et al., 1984; Hayter et al.,
1986; Bhatnagar and Hanna, 1995).
(4) Bulk density
The maximum value of the bulk density was obtained with
a double screw thread, food grade corn grit, narrow screw
pitch and 50 rpm (Table 1). The minimum value was obtained
with single screw thread, food grade corn grit, narrow screw
pitch and 70 rpm (Table 1). Shogren and Willett (2002) stated
that bulk densities, which are dependent on sample geometry
and reflect the space-filling properties of these shapes, were
approximately one-half the magnitude of the foam densities
for all formulations.
The screw thread (ST) had no significant effect on the bulk
density of the extrudates.
The feed compositions (FC) had a very significant
influence in the bulk density (Table 2). Shogren and Willett
(2002) reported that the contraction between the polymers
resulted in increased densities and reduced expansions. The
observed contraction was probably due to a cooling rate,
which was not rapid enough to prevent collapse. The presence
of the resin phase was the dominant factor in determining
foam properties.
The screw pitch (SP) had no effect on the bulk density at
5% level. In this study, the results in table 2 may have been
due to the short barrel length (165mm only) of the extruder
without any heat control system. The heat control system was
only at the surrounding of the die, so the heat energy cannot
evenly spread through the barrel during the screw rotation.
Thus, the SP had no significant effect on the radial expansion
 LUI, PENG: Effects of Feed Compositions and Screw Configurations
on the Properties of Biodegradable Loose-Fill Extruded Foams
ratio.
The screw speed (SS) had no significant influence in the
bulk density (Table 2). This could be explained by observing
the decrease of the shear strain, which was the product of the
shear rate and the residence time. Therefore, the bulk density
increased (Grilffin et al., 1984; Hayter et al., 1986; Bhatnagar
and Hanna, 1995).
(5) Water solubility index
The maximum value of the water solubility index was
obtained with a single screw thread, food grade corn grit,
narrow screw pitch and 60 rpm (Table 1). The minimum value
was obtained with double screw thread, feeding grade corn
grit, narrow screw pitch and 70 rpm (Table 1). Shogren and
Willett (2002) mentioned that one of the advantages of using
extruded starch foams for loose-fill packaging applications is
their water solubility. In certain applications, some degree of
water resistance may have been desirable. Therefore, the
water solubility index characteristics were determined.
Table 2 indicates the significance of process variables to
extrudate’s experimental results. The screw thread (ST) had
no significant effect on the water solubility index of the
extrudates. This may have been due to reformation resulting
in some form of grafting of corn starches polymers and the
plastics (PVA) polymers (Lenk and Merrall, 1981; Moore et
al., 1990; Chinnaswamy and Hanna, 1991; George, 1994).
The feed compositions (FC) had a significant influence in
the water solubility index (Table 2). Shogren and Willett
(2002) reported that the weight loss was greater for the
starch/PVA foam, consistent with the water solubility of PVA.
Foams with the lowest weight loss had the greatest water
absorption. Weight loss also decreased with increasing
polymer surface concentration.
The screw pitch (SP) had no effect on the water solution
index at 5% level. In this study, the results in table 2 may
have been due to the short barrel length (165mm only) of the
extruder without any heat control system. The heat control
system was only at the surrounding of the die, so the heat
energy cannot evenly spread through the barrel during the
screw rotation. Thus, the SP had no significant effect on the
water solubility index.
The screw speed (SS) had no significant influence in the
water solubility index (Table 2). This could be explained by
observing the decrease of the shear strain during the screw
rotation, which was the product of the shear rate and the
residence time. Therefore, the water solubility index increased
(Grilffin et al., 1984; Hayter et al., 1986; Bhatnagar and
Hanna, 1995).
29
(6) Water absorption index
The maximum value of the water absorption index was
obtained with a double screw thread, food grade corn grit,
intermediate screw pitch and 50 rpm (Table 1). The minimum
value was obtained with double screw thread, feeding grade
corn grit, intermediate screw pitch and 50 rpm (Table 1).
Shogren and Willett (2002) reported that one of the
advantages of using extruded starch foams for loose-fill
packaging applications is their water solubility. In certain
applications, some degree of water resistance may have been
desirable. Therefore, the water absorption index
characteristics were determined.
The screw thread (ST) had no significant effect on the
water absorption index of the extrudates. This may have been
due to reformation resulting in some form of grafting of corn
starches polymers and the plastics (PVA) polymers during the
screw rotation (Lenk and Merrall, 1981; Moore et al., 1990;
Chinnaswamy and Hanna, 1991; George, 1994). The effect of
ST also manifested itself in the water absorption index
through the ST*FC, ST*SS and ST*FC*SP*SS interactions.
The feed compositions (FC) had a significant influence in
the water absorption index (Table 2). The influence of FC also
manifested itself in the water absorption index through the
ST*FC, FC*SP and ST*FC*SP*SS interactions. This could
be explained by observing the decrease of the shear strain
during the screw rotation, which was the product of the shear
rate and the residence time (Grilffin et al., 1984; Hayter et al.,
1986; Bhatnagar and Hanna, 1995). Shogren and Willett
(2002) stated that resins which gave the lowest density foams
tended to absorb less water. In general, the water absorption
index decreased as the polymer surface concentration
increased.
The screw pitch (SP) had no effect on the water absorption
index at 5% level. In this study, the results in table 2 may
have been due to the short barrel length (165mm only) of the
extruder without any heat control system. The heat control
system was only at the surrounding of the die, so the heat
energy cannot evenly spread through the barrel during the
screw rotation. Thus, the SP had no significant effect on the
water absorption index. The influence of SP also manifested
itself in the water absorption index through the FC*SP and
ST*FC*SP*SS interactions.
The screw speed (SS) had a most significant influence in
the water absorption index (Table 2). The water absorption
index increased with the increase in the screw speed. The
influence of SS also manifested itself in the water absorption
index through the ST*SS and ST*FC*SP*SS interactions.
30 Engineering in Agriculture, Environment and Food Vol. 1, No. 1 (2008)
This could be explained by observing the decrease of the
shear strain, which was the product of the shear rate and the
residence time. Therefore, the water absorption index
increased (Grilffin et al., 1984; Hayter et al., 1986; Bhatnagar
and Hanna, 1995).
2. Mechanical properties
(1) Compressibility
The maximum value of the compressibility was obtained
with a double screw thread, feeding grade corn grit, wide
screw pitch and 50 rpm (Table 1). The minimum value was
obtained with single screw thread, food grade corn grit,
intermediate screw pitch and 70 rpm (Table 1). Shogren and
Willett (2002) mentioned that compressibility is a measure of
foam’s ability to deform under load. Denser foams tend to
have thicker cell walls and hence resist deformation better
than lower density foams with thinner cell walls.
The screw thread (ST) had a very significant effect on the
compressibility of the extrudates. This may have been due to
reformation resulting in some form of grafting of corn starch
polymers and the plastics (PVA) polymers during the screw
rotation (Lenk and Merrall, 1981; Moore et al., 1990;
Chinnaswamy and Hanna, 1991; George, 1994). The effect of
ST also manifested itself in the compressibility through the
ST*FC, ST*SS and ST*FC*SP*SS interactions.
The feed compositions (FC) had a most significant
influence in the compressibility (Table 2). This may have
been due to the breaking of hydrogen bonds in starch and
plastics. Their reformation results in some form of grafting of
starch with plastics (Warburton et al., 1990; Chinnaswamy
and Hanna, 1991; George, 1994; Lenk and Merrall, 1981).
The influence of FC also manifested itself in the
compressibility through the ST*FC, FC*SP and
ST*FC*SP*SS interactions. This could be explained by
observing the decrease of the shear strain during the screw
rotation, which was the product of the shear rate and the
residence time (Grilffin et al., 1984; Hayter et al., 1986;
Bhatnagar and Hanna, 1995).
Table 2 shows that the screw pitch (SP) had a very
significant effect on the compressibility at 5% level. The
effect of SP also manifested itself in the compressibility
through the FC*SP, SP*SS and ST*FC*SP*SS interactions.
The screw speed (SS) had a most significant influence in
the compressibility (Table 2). The influence of SS also
manifested itself in the compressibility through the ST*SS,
SP*SS and ST*FC*SP*SS interactions. This could be
explained by observing the decrease of the shear strain during
the screw rotation, which was the product of the shear rate
and the residence time (Grilffin et al., 1984; Hayter et al.,
1986; Bhatnagar and Hanna, 1995).
(2) Spring index
The maximum value of the spring index was obtained with
a double screw thread, food grade corn grit, wide screw pitch
and 60 rpm (Table 1). Whereas, the minimum value was
obtained at double screw thread, feeding grade corn grit,
narrow screw pitch and 50 rpm (Table 1). Bhatnagar and
Hanna (1995) reported that for all purposes, a perfect spring is
an ideal elastic body, which will deform upon application of a
load and regain its original shape after removal of the load.
Further, a spring will bear the same load upon repeated
application. Therefore, all foams produced were compared to
an ideal spring by comparing their spring indices.
The screw thread (ST) had a significant effect on the spring
index of the extrudates. This may have been due to
reformation resulting in some form of grafting of corn
starches polymers and the plastics (PVA) polymers during the
screw rotation (Lenk and Merrall, 1981; Moore et al., 1990;
Chinnaswamy and Hanna, 1991; George, 1994). The effect of
ST also manifested itself in the spring index through the
ST*SS interactions.
The feed compositions (FC) had no significant influence in
the spring index (Table 2).
The screw pitch (SP) had no effect on the spring index at
5% level.
The screw speed (SS) had a significant influence in the
spring index (Table 2). The influence of SS also manifested
itself in the spring index through the ST*SS interactions.
3. Biodegradability
The maximum value of the biodegradability was reached
with a single screw thread, food grade corn grit, wide screw
pitch and 70 rpm (Table 1). Whereas, the minimum value was
obtained with double screw thread, food grade corn grit, wide
screw pitch and 50 rpm (Table 1).
4. The correlation coefficients among the experimental
properties
Table 3 indicates that the moisture content negatively
correlated with the water solubility index and very
significantly.
On the other hand, the radial expansion ratio negatively
correlated with the compressibility and significantly.
Furthermore, the longitudinal expansion positively
correlated with the water solubility index and most
significantly.
 LUI, PENG: Effects of Feed Compositions and Screw Configurations 31
on the Properties of Biodegradable Loose-Fill Extruded Foams

Meanwhile, the bulk density positively correlated with the
compressibility and very significantly. The bulk density
negatively correlated with the spring index and most
significantly.
IV Summary and Conclusions
The results of the physical, mechanical and the
biodegradable properties of the extrudates demonstrated the
suitability of the experimental extrudates as cushioning
material from the point of view of their physical, mechanical
behavior, water solubility and high bulk densities. The results
of the test of biodegradability showed that the experimental
extrudates were biodegradable (BOD5/COD > 0.4). Therefore,
the corn grit/PVA extruded foams developed in this study
were suitable for use as biodegradable packaging loose fill
materials. Finally, the experimental results indicated that:
1. Screw thread had a most significant effect on the
radial expansion ratio, longitudinal expansion
compressibility, but had no significant effect on the moisture
content, bulk density, water solubility index and water
absorption index of the extrudates.
2. Feed composition had a most significant effect on the
radial expansion ratio, bulk density and compressibility, but
had no effect on the moisture content, longitudinal expansion,
spring index and biodegradability properties of the extrudates.
3. Screw pitch had a most significant effect on the radial
expansion ratio and compressibility, but had no effect on the
longitudinal expansion, bulk density, water solubility index,
water absorption index, spring index and biodegradable
properties of the extrudates.
4. Screw speed had a most significant effect on the
longitudinal expansion, water absorption index and
compressibility, but had no effect on the moisture content,
radial expansion ratio, bulk density, water solubility index and
biodegradable properties of the extrudates.
Acknowledgements
This study is part of the project sponsored by the National
Science Council of the Republic of China (project number
NSC 88-2313-B-005-078). The financial support is greatly
appreciated. Assistances from classmates for this study are
also greatly appreciated.
and
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Table 3 The correlation among the extrudate’s properties.

MO RE LE BD WSI WAI COMP SI BOD
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2 0 0.9943 0.0914 0.4282 0.0006 0.7867 0.2661 0.2971 0.653
3 NS NS NS ** NS NS NS NS
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2 0.9943 0 0.2832 0.0564 0.4886 0.5115 0.0193 0.8167 0.9452
3 NS NS NS NS * NS NS
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different (Pr < 0.01) ； *: means significant different (0.01 <Pr <0.05) ；NS: means no significant different (Pr > 0.05)
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(Accepted : 6. February. 2008)