Evolution Notes

Topic 1- The Debate in Evolutionary Rate

-Charles Lyell’s Contribution to Evolutionary Theory

• Theory of Uniformitarianism: based off the previous ideas of geologist James Hutton, who
believed that the Earth must be very old and that geological and environmental changes
must occur gradually over long periods of time and conform to natural scientific laws
• Phyletic Gradualism:
• Species evolve at a slow and gradual rate
• Process known as anagenesis (gradual genetic modification of a species
within one lineage)
-Evidence of Uniformitarianism
• He found evidence in sea levels rising and falling over time, that new layers
of rock build over older ones, and that valleys were formed slowly by erosion
• Darwin concluded from his theory that you can observe present geology to
infer past geological formation

-Thomas Robert Malthus’s Contribution to Evolutionary Theory

• Population Theory: Malthus states that given the limited resources and space,
Population outnumbers food sources, so members must compete with one
another over resources in order to survive
-Relation to Darwin
• Darwin extended Malthus’ theory and people in a society to include members
in a species to explain natural selection

-Gould an Eldredge’s Contribution to Evolutionary Theory

• Punctuated Equilibrium:
• States that most species spent most of their evolutionary history in an
unchanging state called stasis, and that significant changes in their evolution
occur rapidly in event of speciation called cladogenesis- the process by which
a species splits into two new ones. The species then return to stasis state
-Relation to Darwin
• Darwin articulate punctuated equilibrium by contrasting it with Phyletic Gradualism

-It has been argued which theory is more accurate- gradualism or punctuated equilibrium,
scientists have now arrived at the conclusion that both processes are valid and many species
show a combination of gradualism and punctuated equilibrium together
Topic 2- Factors that cause evolution

• Allele Frequency:
• How often a gene variant (allele) occurs in a population.
• The allele frequency of any gene in the population determines the genetic
characteristics of that population
• Mutation
• An unprepared change that occurs in a specie’s DNA sequence
• Occurs during mistakes in DNA replication in cell division or by chemicals and
radiation that can break down DNA
• Mutations can be Harmful, neutral, or beneficial
• Natural selection
• Decides which mutation will die out and which mutation will live on.
• Beneficial mutations are more likely to survive than harmful
• Types of Mutations
• Somatic mutations: Occur in non-reproductive cells and are not passed on to other
generations
• Gene line mutations: occurs in gametes and can be passed onto offspring.
• Genetic Drift
• The change in allele frequency in a population due to chance alone, rather than natural
selection
• It occurs mostly in small populations:
• if the population is small, it is less likely for the parent gene pool to be reflected in
the next generation
• Within a population, some individuals in each generation will create more offsprings while
some ill not
•Over several generations, this causes a rapid loss of alleles intel eventually there is
just one allele left for a particular gene. This is called fixation
• Effects of genetic drift on evolution
•Reduces genetic diversity
•Negatively impacts rare and endangered species, since they are a smaller population
•Contributes to speciation; the emergences of new species

•Gene Flow (Migration)

• The transfer of genetic variation from one population to another
• Introduces new alleles, and variation in the next generations
• Greater genetic diversity helps a populations survive during natural selection
• Natural Selection
• Contributes to evolution through the assimilation of advantageous traits
• Involves higher survival and reproduction rates of certain organisms in a population,
causing their genetic features to become more prevalent
Hardy-Weinberg Principle (or equilibrium): States that allele and genotype frequencies in a
population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of other
evolutionary influences.

• The equilibrium is an opposite to evolution, due to the lack of change that happens to the
population (maintaining the gene pool) 


• -Rarely occurs in reality, and mostly portrays the ideal state while being used to
measure genetic variations as a change from the equilibrium

•Population bottlenecks: an event that causes the population of a species to drastically

decreases. This can be due to natural disasters, habitat destruction, or hunting a species
to extinction

•Founder effect: the loss of genetic variation when a new, smaller population is created from a
larger, more diverse population

•Happens naturally and can cause the increase of rare alleles in species or the loss of
other important traits. Traits found in the founder population can be passed onto
the entire population

Topic 3- Types of selection

• Stabilizing selection
• When average characteristics of a species prevails over those that lie in two different
extremes

• Ex: Babies that are born too small can lose heat too easily and may die, while babies
born too large can lead to complication during childbirth

• Too extreme is not good while too little is not good too. Being solidly mediocre is
preferable

• Directional
• Deals with the favouring of one extreme phenotype over the general; phenotype. This
causes the general phenotypic trait to move toward the favourable conditions of the
environment, resulting in an increases of adaptation

• Example would be the peppered moths

• Disruptive
• When species’ traits that are vastly different from each other are favoured during
natural selection

• These opposite traits are wedged apart due to serval factors that eliminate any
species in the middle of these traits

Topic 4- Sexual selection

•Inter-sexual selection (sexual dimorphism)
•The differences in physical appearance of males and females

•Females in some species choose mates based on physical appearances or through

song

•Intra-Sexual Selection( male-male competition)

•The competition between members of the the same sex for a desirable mate

•Individuals who can fight off competitors easier have a higher chance of producing
offspring

• Sexual Arms Race

• Females and males do not have the same interests in reproductive success and this
concludes in sexual conflict

• Females have a limited supply of eggs while males have an unlimited supply of
sperm

• Females become selective with their mates and only want to be impregnated by
males with the best genes

• Males can use different approaches to force the female to mate such as using brute
force, following the female, plugging the females reproductive system with a fluid
after sex, or producing a chemical that reactivates other seems and kills the females
future sex drive

• Females have a different approach to avoid offsprings with males they do not desire
such as; developing maze like reproductive systems, learning to unplug their
reproductive system, or getting rid of unwanted sperm

Topic 5- Altruism

•Altruism is when a species behaviour benefits another species, at a cost to itself

•Altruistic behaviour is common in the animal kingdom, particularly in species with complex
social structure

•Kin Selection
•Created by William Hamilton and inspired by Darwin’s work on evolutionary theory

•Based on the concept of inclusive genetic fitness, which states that altruism with
species that are related/genetically similar, enhances the genetic fitness of both the
recipient of the act

•Occurs when an species engages in self-sacrificial behaviour that benefits the genetic
fitness of its relatives

•Natural selection favours genes that increase the reproductive success of their carriers

•Reciprocal Altruism
•In where, a species will temporarily reduce its own fitness for the sake of another’s

•The species has the expectation that the currently benefitting species will later
reciprocate the same helpful actions

Topic 6- Speciation
•The formation of new species due to physical, anatomical, geographical, or
behavioural

•New species are formed from two main mechanisms

•Allopatric speciation: the formation of new species because of geographical

barriers. When organisms of the same species are separated physically, they
can evolve separately and form new gene pools, creating new species.

•Sympatric speciation: the formation of new species due to reproductive

barriers.

•There are two sub categories within reproductive barriers

•Pre-zygotic isolation Mechanisms:

•Behavioural isolating system: Two species with ecosystems that overlap but are
differentiated by behaviour

•Habitat Isolating System: Two species that live within the same region but are
separated by habitat

•Temporal Isolating System: Two species that live in the same area but are
separated by timing barriers

•Mechanical Isolating System: Two species that could be closely related but
cannot achieve fertilization due to anatomical differences

•Gametic Isolating System: Two species gametes meet but do not likely form a
fertile zygote

•Post-zygotic Isolating Mechanisms

•Hybrid Inviability: Interbred species may stop development of the fertile zygote

•Hybrid Sterility: Interbred species are born successfully but is born sterile
(unable to reproduce)

•Hybrid Breakdown: Interbred species born successfully and can reproduce with
other hybrids but the offspring of two hybrids are weak and die

Topic 7- Pathways of Evolution

• Divergent Evolution

• When species from one common ancestor evolve increasingly different due to varying
environments or selective forces

• Divergent evolution is when the same common ancestor evolve and accumulate
differences, resulting in the formation of new species

• A type of macroevolution that creates more diversity in species

• Causes

• May occur as a response to changes in abiotic factors- changes in environmental

conditions, or when a new niche becomes available

• May occur due to changes in biotic factors-increased or decreased pressure from

competition or predation

• Separation of a species, forcing the same species to adapt differently called adaptive
radiation

 • Can be due to natural disasters

• Convergent Evolution

• When two or more species become increasingly similar because of similar selective
and environmental pressures INDEPENDENTLY

• Traits that are similar in appearance, but different in evolutionary ancestors are called
homoplasies

• Causes

• Occurs when the environment they inhabit favour certain traits that make them evolve
similarly

• These evolved traits may be colour, analogous bone structure, behaviour. And
adaptations

• Coevolution

• Also known as reciprocal adaptation

• When two species’ evolution is linked together because they depend on one another
to survive

• Causes

• If one species evolves, the other must as well as they are dependent one each
other to survive

• This close relationship includes:

• Mutualistic:
• two species depend on each other

• Each benefit from helloing the other

• Must coevolve to continue relationship

• Predator/Prey:
• Predator eats another prey and As prey evolves, predator must evolve as well
to continue to hunt them

• Parasite/Host:
• Parasite benefits at the expense of the host

• Parasite must coevolve with the host to continue using it

Topic 8- Evidence of Evolution: Fossil Record

• Evolution and the Fossil Record: The fossil record provides evidence for evolution. Here are
the key ways it does:

• Fossils that are closer to the surface in young layers of rock are more similar to species
alive today than fossils found in deeper layers of rock

• It shows that not all organisms appear at the same time. The fossil history of
vertebrates begins with fish then amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds

• The fossil record follows the branches in the tree of life

• Transitional Fossils

• Fossils or organisms that show intermediate states between an ancestral form and that
of its descendants and share characteristics common to two separate groups of
organisms

 • The “Missing links”

• They share traits from both the ancestral organism as well as the descendant organism

• The most important evidence of evolution from the fossil record

• They visually capture the evolution of one type of animal to another

• Limitations of the Fossil Record

• Organisms need to die at the right time and place for burial conditions to favour
fossilization

• The rock layer containing the fossils must avoid process that severely destroys rocks

• Many species that lives have probably no fossils, a fair amount of the fossils actually
formed have been destroyed, and only a small amount of existing fossils have been
discovered

• The fossil record is in favour of species that have existed for a long time, were
abundant and widespread, and had shells or hard skeletons

• Fossil Record Timeline:

• Oldest fossils of microorganisms from Archean period 4 billion years ago

• Great Oxygenation event: 1-3 billion years ago the atmosphere became oxygenated (life
could flourish on Earth)

• Cambrian Explosion: 540 million years ago, sudden appearance of most major animal
phyla appear in the fossil record

• BY the end of the Devonian period, Earth was covered in plants

• 397 million years ago tetrapods first move onto land leading to every species today

• Anti-evolutionist Argument
• The record is incomplete and there isn’t enough evidence to the theory

• Many important links are missing, like the first transitional fossil into all phyla

• Large gaps in the record can be used to support other less scientific theories

• Evolutionist Argument

• The fossil record is only one piece of the puzzle, there is other evidence to support the
theory

• There is enough evidence to support the theory even with the gaps

• Fossils are rare and transitional fossils are still being uncovered today as the layer of
rock surrounding the fossils erodes in river banks

• How the fossil record contributes to the understanding of human evolution

• Shows steps of human evolution from our ancient ancestors

• Preserved DNA helps show more connections to our various ancestors

• Allows researchers to study the changes in our brain and body size and important
traits throughout our ancestry

• How fossils are formed

• Can be created from hard substances such as bone and shell (no fossils exist of
soft species- jellyfish or worms)

• Fossils are formed in watery environments when an animal dies and is buried
under mud and silt. The animal’s soft tissues decompose and leaves only the
bones or hard shell. The bones decay while being replaced by the surrounding
minerals, a process called petrification

 • The bones and shells may deteriorate first, leaving an empty mould of the animal’s
skeleton, which is then filled in by the surrounding minerals

• Fossils can be formed the insects become trapped in tree sap, hardening and
Turing it into amber which deserves the insect inside

Topic 9- Homologous, Analogous and Vestigial features

Homologous Features
An organ or bone that appears in different animals

Underlining anatomical commonalities demonstrating descent from a common ancestor

When very different animals have bones that appear very similar form or function and
seem to be related

Pentadactyl Limb
A limb that has five digits on the end of each limb

Has a specific pattern of bones

It is common in mammals, birds, reptiles. amphibians, and dinosaurs

Common in most four limbed creatures, which shows humans’ ancestry with
amphibians, mammals, and reptiles

Analogous features
Species that have different structures with similar functions and show no
common ancestors

Refers to the various structures in different species having the same

function but have evolved separately, thus do not share a common
ancestor

The term analogous structures is applied in the concept of convergent

evolution, which pertains to the evolutionary process where the
organisms evolve bodily parts that are analogous in terms structure and
function despite their ancestors that are unrelated

Wings in flying animals like bars, birds, insects- look similar in structure
but have evolved independently

Vestigial Features
Rudimentary and nonfunctioning structures that are homologous
to fully functioning structures in closet related species

Structures that have no us to the body but are still present

Wisdom teeth, tail bones, tonsils etc.

Reasons for vestigial Features

Changes to the environment

Changes in lifestyle and needs

Traits have become not resourceful and non-functional

• Importance to Evolution
• Proves that organism have changed and evolved

• Supports natural selection

Topic 10!!- Evidence for Evolution: Biogeography

• Continuous Distribution
• Describes the probabilities of the possible values of a continuous random variable

 • Wide-ranging animals are adapted to a large variety of environmental conditions

• Not specific to any particular type of food or may be able to cross barriers by flight, rafting
or swimming and adapt to new environment conditions

• Many eurytopic animals have become companions with man and have travelled long
distance with him

• Discontinuous Distribution
• Populations of related organisms are found in widely separated parts of the world

• There are four main reasons for this

• Animals reach distant areas by sweepstake routes, by rafting, floating, swimming, or

flight

• These species were distributed continuously but the land in the intermediate areas
submerged, breaking the species into separate populations

• Continental drift separated the continents and carried them to long distances,
isolating the animals from other areas

• Widely distributed species can become extinct due to climate change in which
species cannot adapt

• Types of Distribution

• Cosmopolitan

• Animals that can adapt very easily and are found all over the world

• Can survive in many different environmental conditions

• Endemic

• Animals restricted to one area, due to climate, food sources etc

• Disjunctive

• Occurs when in two very different areas of the world, the same family or
genus member are found in each

• Happens due to land formations- mountains, continental drift, etc.

• Biogeographical rules

• Bergmann’s Rule

• States that populations of larger size are found in colder environments, and
those of smaller size are found in warmer environments

• Mostly applies to warm blooded species

• Application to Humans: humans who live closer to the north and south poles
tend to be heavier in size than those who live in more mid-latitudes

• Larger animals have a lower surface area to volume ratio which means they
radiate less heat per unit of mass which allows them to stay warmer in colder
conditions

• Allen’s Rule

• States that animals adapted to colder climates have shorter limbs and body
appendages

• Animals living in cold conditions need to reserve as much heat as possible

• Animals living in warm conditions need to have high surface are to volume
ratio to maximize the surfaces in which heat can released

• Gloger’s Rule

• Within a species endotherms the more heavily pigmented forms reside in

areas closer to the equator

 • Areas closer to the equator are exposed to higher degrees of UV radiation

which is damaging to the skin

• The species who live in these areas have more melanin which absorbs
harmful UV radiation and diverts it away from heathy cells

• Adaptive Radiation
• The rapid evolution of species into wide variety of forms

• Factors- Changes in the environment which causes:

• the creation of new resources available

• Creation of new challenges presented

• Formation of new environmental niches

• Island Biogeography

• A field in which examines the factors that affect species diversification in

isolated communities

• The species in an island are determined by immigration and extinction

• Example: Darwin Finches- they were examined in the Galapagos Islands, a

very isolated community

• Continental Drift

• A theory that explains hoe continent shift position on Earth’s surface

• In 1912 Alfred Wegner introduced continental drift

• Believed that all the continents were once together creating a supercontinent
that eventually broke apart

• His theory explains why similar looking animals, plant fossils, and rock
formations are found on different continents

• When continent drift apart they create new environments for the residing
species to adapt to

• The main facto in which species were forced to adapt was climate change
due to parts of Pangea moving closer and farther from the equator