Handling and

Size reduction of Food

Sorting and Grading of foods

Size reductions & Emulsification
Sorting and Grading
 Traditionally done by hand, sorting
and grading is a very labor-
intensive aspect
 Labor shortages and a lack of overall
consistency
 value-adding food facilities
 avoid products whose appearance
is inconsistent with the norm
Sorting and Grading
 Sorting applications are generally
based on geometric property
analysis: size and shape
 Grading applications generally

entail separating based on

photometric properties:
appearance, color, surface
properties and in some cases
internal properties
Sorting and Grading

Criteria for Sorting

Sorting and Grading
 Manual or machine
 High-tech automation e.g machine

vision based-system; image acquisition

and processing
Equipment for Sorting of Fruits and Vegetables
Multi-lane sorters for high-speed fruit and vegetable sorting

Fruit and vegetable sorting by size, shape, colour and blemishes

Near infrared fruit sorting solutions

Fruit handling equipment for picking and packing

Suggestion video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LfQ98p9BgyM

Sorting and Grading
Sorting and Grading
HYPERSPECTRAL SORTING OF POTATOES
To detect clods of soil and stones between potatoes
Sorting and Grading
GRADING OF BEEF
Standard Grading for Almonds
Food Sorting and Grading Videos
French Fries sorting
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xf7jaxwnyso

Potato sorting
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tCwMt2sngnM

Food sorting and grading

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XY3vKATg8EY

Food Safety Using Hyperspectral Sensing!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=liV61mqZsyA

Bread inspection
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dEDbyg9xMeU
Size Reduction
 Raw materials often occur in sizes
that are too large to be used and,
therefore, must be reduced in size
using shearing forces
 For solid, the operations are called

grinding and cutting

 For liquid- emulsification or

atomization
GRINDING AND CUTTING
 solid sizes reduced by mechanical
action, into smaller particles
 E.g milling grains into flour, grinding of

corn into corn starch, grinding sugar &

milling of dried foods, such as
vegetables
 Cutting - to break down large pieces of

food into smaller pieces suitable for

further processing. E.g. meat slicing
GRINDING AND CUTTING
 In grinding process, materials are
reduced in size by fracturing them
 achieved by mechanical stress

followed by rupture (fracture) and

the energy (strain) required
depends:
 upon the hardness of the material
 upon the tendency of the material to
crack - its friability.
GRINDING AND CUTTING
 F = compression, impact, or shear
 Factors of grinding: both the

magnitude of the force and the

time
 Efficiency of grinding from:

 minimum energy needed to rupture

 Low excess energy which lost as heat
Energy Used in Grinding
 Study of grinding process are the amount of
energy used and the amount of new surface
formed by grinding
 Basis = the energy required to produce a
change dL in a particle of a typical size
dimension L is a simple power function of L:

n
dE / dL KL
where dE is the differential energy required, dL is the
change in a typical dimension, L is the magnitude of a
typical length dimension and K, n, are constants
Models 1. Kick’s law
(n = -1 )
 Kick’s Theory: energy required to
reduce a material in size was directly
proportional to the size reduction ratio
dL/L K KK fC ;dE / dL KK fC L
1

 If

 KK is called Kick's constant and fc is called the

crushing strength of the material

 Integration: E KK fC loge (L1 / L2 )---(1)

2. Rittinger’s Law (n = - 2)
 energy required for size reduction is
directly proportional, not to the change
in length dimensions, but to the change
in surface area
 area is proportional to length squared
E K R fC (1/ L2 1/ L1 )

 KR is called Rittinger's constant,

Bond’s Law (n = - 3/2)

 Bond suggested an intermediate course, he postulates

that n is -3/2 leads to:
E Ei (100 / L2 ) 1/ 2
(1 / q ) ----------(3)
1 1/ 2

 Bond defines the quantity Ei by this equation:

L is measured in microns and so Ei is the amount of
energy required to reduce unit mass of the material
from an infinitely large particle size down to a
particle size of 100 mm.

It is expressed in terms of q, the reduction ratio where

q = L1/L2
 if L is expressed in microns, this
defines Ei and Bond calls this the
Work Index.

 Bond’s equation is useful in making

comparisons between power
requirements for various degrees
of reduction.
 It appears that Kick's results apply
better to coarser particles,
Rittinger's to fine ones with Bond's
being intermediate.
New Surface Formed by
Grinding

 The surface area per unit mass is

called the specific surface.
 To calculate this in a known mass
of material, necessary to know the
particle-size distribution and, the
shape factor of the particles
 New Surface Formed by
Grinding
The total surface area of a powder

is important and can be estimated
from

At 6 m/ p Dp
where At is the total area of the mass of particles, l (lambda) is
a shape factor (for a cube or a sphere l = 1), m is mass of
particles, rp is density and Dp is the typical dimension of the
particle
Grinding Equipment

Crushers: (a) jaw, (b) gyratory

Grinders: (a) hammer mill, (b) plate mill
Others: Fixed head mills , Roller mills, ball mills,
edge runner mill
Cutters
Videos on Grinding

Spice Chili Powder Grinding Milling machine

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FAYNTT9mYk4

Baked Bread: how flour is made

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y8vLjPctrcU

Hammer Mill (Feed Mill Sector)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IGnu9H3jZXk
Sorting and grinding

Single Kernel Characterization System Satake STR-100AU test roller

4100 (Perten Instruments USA) mill
 Size Reduction Equipment
Equipment Description Size of final
product /
particle
Crushers Heavy work involve compressive Coarse size
force, breaking large pieces of solid
material into small lumps
Grinders Combine shear and impact with Intermediate
compressive force, reduce crushed (<40 mm) and
feed to powder. Fine size (<74
Fine grinders will produce fine size mm)
particles
Ultrafine Accept feed particles not more than Ultrafine size
grinder 6mm (1 to 5mm)

Cutters Give particles of definite size and Slices, 2-10 mm

shape length
 Size Reduction Equipment
A. Crushers (coarse and fine)
Crushing rolls
Jaw crushers

Gyratory crushers
 Size Reduction Equipment
B. Grinders (intermediate and fine)
Hammer mills Rolling-compression mills

Attrition mills Tumbling mills

 Size Reduction Equipment
C. Ultrafine grinders
Fluid-energy mills

Agitated mills
 Size Reduction Equipment
D. Cutting machines
Knife cutters; dicers; slitters

Ultrasonic slicing
 Problems faced in conventional
grinding process

 High heat generation

 Introduction of tensile residual stress
 Less tool life
 Oxidation
 Clogging and gumming of the mill
 Loss of enteric oil in spice grinding
 CRYOGENIC GRINDING

 Cryogenics is the study of low

temperatures and behaviour of
materials under these low temperatures
 Low temperature as low as -150C or
123 K to absolute zero
 Low T produced by substances called
cryogens e.g. liquid nitrogen and liquid
helium
 Cryogenic liquids are gases at normal
temperatures and pressures – must be
cooled below room T to liquefy them
 Boiling points below -150C
 Cryogens are stored in vessels called Dewar
flask which has good insulation

Dewar flask
 CRYOGENIC GRINDING PROCESS

PRECOOLING UNIT

GRINDING UNIT

Schematic diagram of cryogenic grinding process

 Advantages of Cryogenic Grinding
 Prevention of oxidation and rancidity
 Increase throughput and power saving
 Finer particle size
 Reduction in microbial load
 Possibility of fine grinding of difficult food
product (such as fibrous (e.g. ginger) and
oily food (e.g nutmeg) materials)
 Requires no pre-drying of food materials
 Can retain the original food colour and
flavour
 Disadvantages of Cryogenic
Grinding
 The application of cryogen in moist
atmosphere may cause formation of ice
around the delivery nozzle and the piping
carrying the cryogen. This may cause a
possible blockage in the delivery system
of liquid nitrogen
 Economic considerations
 Involves hazardous chemicals – must
take precautions
Tutorial
EXAMPLE 1 : Grinding of sugar

Sugar is ground from crystals of which it is

acceptable that 80% pass a 500 mm sieve (US
Standard Sieve No.35), down to a size in which it
is acceptable that 80% passes a 88 mm (No.170)
sieve, and a 5-horsepower motor is found just
sufficient for the required throughput. If the
requirements are changed such that the grinding
is only down to 80% through a 125 mm (No.120)
sieve but the throughput is to be increased by
50% would the existing motor have sufficient
power to operate the grinder? Assume Bond's
equation.
SOLUTION:
Bond’s Law Equation:

1/ 2 1/ 2
E Ei (100 / L2) (1 1 / q )
q = L1/L2
Using the subscripts 1 for the first condition and 2 for the
second, and letting m kg h-1 be the initial throughput, then if
x is the required power;

Now L2 = 88mm = 8.8 x 10-6m; L2 = 125 mm = 125 x 10-6m;

L1 = 500mm = 500 x 10-6m

E1 = 5/m = Ei (100/88 x 10-6)1/2 [1 – (88/500)1/2]

E2 = x/1.5m = Ei(100/125 x 10-6)1/2 [1 - (125/500)1/2]

SOLUTION:
E2/E1 = x/(1.5 x 5) = (88 x 10-6)1/2[1 - (125/500)1/2]
(125 x 10-6)1/2[1 – (88/500)1/2]

x/(7.5) = 0.84 x (0.500/0.58)

= 0.72

x = 5.4 horsepower.

So the motor would be expected to have insufficient

power to pass the 50% increased throughput, though
it should be able to handle an increase of 40%.
EXAMPLE 2. Surface area of salt crystals

In an analysis of ground salt using Tyler sieves, it

was found that 38% of the total salt passed
through a 7 mesh sieve and was caught on a 9
mesh sieve. For one of the finer fractions, 5%
passed an 80 mesh sieve but was retained on a
115 mesh sieve. Estimate the surface areas of
these two fractions in a 5 kg sample of the salt, if
the density of salt is 1050 kg m-3 and the shape
factor (l) is 1.75.
SOLUTION:
Aperture of Tyler sieves,
7 mesh = 2.83 mm, 9 mesh = 2.00 mm,
80 mesh = 0.177 mm, 115 mesh = 0.125 mm
Mean aperture 7 and 9 mesh = 2.41mm = 2.41x10-3m
Mean aperture 80 and 115 mesh = 0.151mm = 0.151x10-3m

Eqn. for surface area: At 6 m/ p Dp

A1 = (6 x 1.75 x 0.38 x 5kg)
(1050 kg m-3 x 2.41 x 10-3 m)
= 7.88 m2
A2 = (6 x 1.75 x 0.05 x 5kg)
(1050 kg m-3 x 0.151 x 10-3 m)
= 16.6 m2
HOMEWORK-
1. Tutorial: Do problems on Size Reduction
(in e-learning)

2. Read: Function of each size reduction

equipment (crushers, grinders, ultrafine
grinders and cutters) and its advantages
and disadvantages
(objective: can differentiate between
different size reduction process)

Submit hardcopy – 16 April 2018

SIZE REDUCTION (cont'd)

EMULSIFICATION
Definition
 Unit operation in which two
normally immiscible liquids are
intimately mixed, one liquid
becoming dispersed in the form of
small droplet or globules in the
other
Two Types of Emulsion
 Stability of Emulsion

Stability of the emulsion is

obtained by dispersion of
very fine droplets of one
liquid, called the disperse
phase, through the other
liquid, which is called the
continuous phase.
Physical and Chemical Stability
Physical Stability of Emulsion
Physical Stability of Emulsion
Chemical Stability of Emulsion
Resistance against chemical changes.
e.g. oxidation of fats and oils

The addition of antioxidants and protection

against external influences such as light or
excessive heat, as well as suitable diffusion
barriers on the surfaces between the different
liquid phases, improve the chemical stability.
The stability of an
emulsion is controlled by
 interfacial surface forces,
 size of the disperse phase droplets,
 viscous properties of the
continuous phase and
 density difference between the
two phases.
Emulsifying Agent / Emulsifier

 The dispersed particles in the emulsion

have a very large surface area, which is
created in the process of emulsification.

 Surface effects depend upon the

properties of the materials of the two
phases, but very often a third
component is added which is absorbed
at the interface and which helps to
prevent the droplets from coalescing.
 Function of Emulsifier
 To promote emulsion stability,
stabilize aerated system, control
agglomeration of fat globules
 To modify texture, shelf life and
rheological properties by complexing
starch and protein components
 To improve the texture of fat based
food by controlling the polymorphism
or crystallization of fats
How Does Emulsifier Works?
 How Does Emulsifier Works?

 Emulsifier reduces surface tension

between two immiscible phases (have
both polar and non-polar)
 Polar – consists of anionic, cationic,
amphoteric, or nonionic functional
groups (hydrophilic head)
 Lipophilic (non-polar) – compost of
C16 or longer fatty acid (hydrophobic
tail)
 Surface-active agents or surfactants
Effect of addition of emulsifier
Stability of Emulsion
 Stokes' Law gives a qualitative
indication of the physical factors
that influence the stability of an
emulsion.

 v = D2g( p - f)/18

diameter density viscosity

HOW?
 The essential feature of an
emulsion is the small size of the
disperse phase droplets. This can
be achieved by imposing very high
shearing stresses upon the liquid
that is to be dispersed and the
shearing forces break the material
into the multitude of fine particles.
Shearing
 In a homogenizer: very large shear
forces are exerted on the liquid
 Centrifugal forces
 Existing emulsions can be given
increased stability by decreasing
the size of the droplets either by
impact or shearing the emulsion
still further; the process is called
homogenization.
 Emulsification Process

High pressure homogenization

Fine emulsion
Particle size range
High speed homogenization
Coarse emulsion
Particle size range mm
EMULSIFICATION TECHNOLOGIES
Rotor-stator, high-pressure homogenization, ultrasonic
emulsification, membrane and micro-structured systems,
non-mechanical processes (phase inversion method)
EMULSIFICATION TECHNOLOGIES
Membrane and micro-structured systems
Milk Homogenizer
Milk Pasteurization vs Homogenization?
References
 E-learning at:
http://www.nzifst.org.nz/unitoperation
s/sizereduction
 http://www.nzifst.org.nz/unitoperation
s/sizereduction2.htm
 Or chapter Size Reduction in
R.L Earle Unit Operations in Food
Processing, Pergamon Books, Oxford
HOMEWORK
Read:
Particle size distributions
Emulsifier

Discuss in next class