UNIT VIII

Language Use

It is important that a writer makes good choices when it comes to language use because how a writer uses language affects the readers
intellectually and emotionally. Before writing, a writer has to think about his or her target audience and consider them in the kind of
language that he or she uses in the text.

Objectives:

 Distinguish between formal and informal language.

 Differentiate familiar, direct, and simple language from a complicated one.
 Distinguish between biased and unbiased language

I. Formal vs. informal language

• Informal language is used in writing personal texts for family, friends, and colleagues. On the other hand, formal language is used
in writing academic, business, and official texts.

• One must be able to determine when it is appropriate to use formal language or when informal language is acceptable. Take a look at
the following examples:

Example 1: We asked the secretary to call the professor and get her permission to continue our research.
Example 2: We requested that the secretary contact the professor and obtain her permission to continue our research.

Notice the following differences:

FIRST SENTENCE SECOND SENTENCE

asked requested
call contact
get obtained
The words asked, call, and get in the first sentence sound informal. It is acceptable to write in such informal language to a colleague, a
friend, or a family member. On the other hand, the words requested, contact, and obtain in the first sentence sound formal. It is
appropriate to write in such formal manner to a person of authority in school or in the workplace.

• Below are two sample paragraphs.

Paragraph 1

Dear Ms. Cruz,

Greetings!

This is to report about our meeting with Mega Corporation in Singapore. It went as planned. The company has decided to accept our
offer. The client’s representative will be meeting you once she returns from her other business meeting. I will be sending a comprehensive
report about the agreements in a separate e-mail.

Respectfully yours,
Maria Santos
Paragraph 2

Nancy,

It’s a great day here in Singapore! The meeting with Mega Corporation has just ended. It went so well that they accepted our offer. I
can’t believe it! The company rep will meet you when she’s done with her other meeting. I still have a lot of things to tell you. Will be
sending a report soon.

Maria

Notice that Paragraph 1 uses formal language, while Paragraph 2 uses informal language. It is evident that the first paragraph is
addressed to a person of authority, while the second paragraph is addressed to a friend or a colleague of the same position. The use of
contractions it’s and can’t and the clipped word rep is also apparent in the second paragraph. It indicates informality. Also, it is
noticeable that the second letter sounds more like the spoken language, which is another indication of informality.
II. Familiar, direct, simple language vs. complicated language
• The writer has to make sure that he or she uses the appropriate language for the target audience. Choosing to write in a familiar, direct,
and simple language rather than in a complicated language would give the audience a better chance to understand the text easily.

• Read the following article.

Why Sunglasses Are a Must-Have for Kids (An Excerpt)

Most parents know how damaging the effects of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) can be to our skin, which is why they dutifully slather
sunscreen
on their kids during the summer. But one thing that often gets overlooked is protecting their children’s eyes.
According to vision-care experts, kids receive three times more UV exposure than adults annually, yet less than 30 percent of
parents currently protect their children’s eyes with sunglasses. The reason for concern is that children and adolescents are particularly
vulnerable to the sun’s rays because their ocular lenses are not mature enough to filter UV light as effectively as adults, causing damage
to the retina.
“Everyone buys into what happens to your skin when it comes to sun damage, but many parents are really surprised to learn
about the cumulative UV damage to the eyes,” Dawn Hartman, an optometrist at Columbus Ophthalmology Associates in Columbus,
Ohio, told the Wall Street Journal in an interview. But the right sunglasses can help, as parents become more aware that protection
from the sun is not just skin deep.

In general, the language of the text above is simple and familiar. A few technical scientific terms are used in the text like “ultraviolet
radiation,” “ocular lenses,” and “retina,” but they are necessary to mention. The ordinary language of the text allows its target readers
(parents) to understand the main idea of the text easily, which is the significance of letting children wear sunglasses.

• Study the following sentences. Notice the differences in the language use.
1. She had fever last night; that is why she could not go to school today. 2. She contracted pyrexia during the nocturnal hours, so she
was not able to attend to her academic obligations today.
The use of very formal vocabulary in the second sentence makes it complicated compared to the simple language used in the first
example

1. Submit your papers tomorrow.

2. Make sure you have your papers with you the next time we meet.
The first statement is a direct instruction compared to the second one. Given the context that a teacher is addressing his or her students,
the first statement will be more effective.

III. Biased versus unbiased language

• The writer has to be sensitive enough not to offend any individual or particular group of people by choosing to write in an unbiased
language. The text is free of any stereotype of ethnicity, religion, political interest, social class, and the like.

• Below are some points to consider in using unbiased language.

1. Use names or labels that individual or groups choose for themselves. Therefore, you must carefully assess your audience.

Example: The local school has accepted half-breeds for years now to increase its population.

Half-breed is an offensive word for a person whose parents are of different races. A more polite expression is “a person of mixed race.”

2. Do not mention group membership unnecessarily. If a person’s affiliation is not relevant to your writing, do not mention it.

Example: The Asian first-grade English teacher gave fewer assignments than my second grade English teacher did.
The use of the qualifier “Asian” is not necessary in the comparison of the two teachers. It suggests racial bias.

3. Be aware of words that certain groups of people find negative or offensive and avoid using them in writing.

Example: The government has opened a new clinic for the disabled.

Using the collective term “the disabled” to refer to handicapped people may be offensive. The word “disabled” should be used as an
adjective rather than a noun.

IV. The Gender-Neutral Language

• Another form of unbiased language is the gender-neutral language. A writer should be careful not to favor a certain gender when
constructing sentences.

• Study the following sentences. Notice the differences in the language use.
1. Each intern should record daily what he learns in the workplace.
2. Each intern should record daily what he or she learns in the workplace.

In the first sentence, the pronoun “he” is used even though an intern could also be female. The use of masculine pronoun to refer to a
common noun used to be a common practice. However, such usage is no longer acceptable at present as it shows bias toward the female
gender. On the other hand, the second sentence shows no bias in gender. The pronouns he and she are used to recognize both genders.

1. More unmarried women than ever before are having babies.

2. More unmarried couples than ever before are having babies.

The first sentence is biased toward unmarried women. It implies that the pregnancy is largely their fault. On the other hand, the second
sentence is neutral because of the use of the collective term couples.

1. Now, more than ever, mankind needs to take care of the Earth as it is slowly dying.
2. Now, more than ever, people need to take care of the Earth as it is slowly dying.

The usage of masculine terms like mankind as generic terms is considered biased. The terms should be replaced with humans, human
beings, humankind, or people.

Learning Tasks

Activity 1: Read the text closely. Determine whether it uses formal or informal language. Explain your answer in a five-sentence
paragraph.

How Drugs Can Destroy People’s Lives

Drug addiction is a serious health issue that affects addicts, their families, and society. First of all, drug addiction has severe physical
effects on the addict’s body. Drug users can experience many physical symptoms including sickness, fevers, sweats and shakes, loss of
appetite, and weight loss. They also face the danger of contracting serious diseases such as AIDS, hepatitis, and other communicable
diseases, not to mention the risk of overdose. Families and friends of drug addicts are inevitably also affected by their addiction.
Addiction can lead to serious financial problems, loss of trust, and eventually family breakup and divorce. Society as well pays a cost:
crime rates go up, and more security and hospital care is needed which are all paid for by taxpayers. Drug addiction is a destructive way
to live. Maybe more would be done about it if it were looked at not just as a problem that addicts face alone, but as something that
affects society as a whole.

Activity 2: Write some instructions on how to cook pancakes. This will serve as your script for a livelihood project in your barangay.
Your audience will be children aged 8 to 10 years old. Take note of your use of formal and informal language, and simple and
complicated language.

Activity 3: Evaluate the article if it is a well-written text in terms of language use. Below are some guide questions.
1. Does the writer use formal or informal language? Cite lines from the text to prove your answer.
2. Are there any sentences that use complicated language? If there are, cite those lines in your evaluation and explain why those sentences
are complicated.
3. Can you say that the article is written in a biased-free language? Cite lines from the text to support your answer.

5 Tips to Practice Good Public Hygiene

By News USA

It would seem that public hygiene protocol is not something easily forgotten since it is a standard taught since kindergarten, underscored
in middle school, and essential to get your college diploma. Yet there are times, more often than we’d like to admit, that we may know
the “do’s” and “don’ts” of social proprieties, but choose not to embrace them.
Stay classy and clean with these simple tips on how to display good hygiene when out in public.

Cover your mouth

This one is a no-brainer, but deserves to be first on the list. Hearing you sneeze or cough is one thing; feeling either of these is entirely
another. Cover your mouth when coughing or sneezing and keep your hands clean by using your upper arm as a shield.

One tissue does not conquer all

Feeling under the weather? Looking and feeling your best can be difficult when your sinuses and lungs are working against you. You
can do your best to show you care about public hygiene by following the rules of thumb such as washing your hands regularly, using
hand sanitizer, and pulling out clean tissues every time you need to use them in public.

Watch for bad habits

Bad habits like biting your nails, playing with your hair or touching your face can work against the image you’re trying to project. These
habits are also a way that unwanted grime, oils, and bacteria can spread from different areas on your body and eventually onto objects
you touch. Do yourself (and others) a favor by keeping your hands away from the top half of your body whenever possible.

Launder
Laundry is an arduous (and thankless) task, but there are few public hygiene no-no’s worse than dirty clothes. Designate one day of the
week as laundry day and stick to it. Invest in a dependable iron and ironing board, and carry a stain remover in your purse or briefcase.

Use FLASR
For smokeless tobacco users, a small, spill-proof spittoon is a necessity and the ultimate display of good public hygiene. Fortunately,
for these individuals, there’s FLASR, an Atlanta based company that specialize in exactly that. The FLASR spittoon has a chic design
that is pocket-size and features a secure locking mechanism to avoid messy mishaps.
 UNIT IX

Mechanics

The following can make a text unreadable: misspelled words; uncapitalized words that should begin with capitals; sentences that are
unpunctuated or poorly punctuated; and formatting styles that are overused. Therefore, besides choosing the right words in writing, one
should consider the mechanics of writing, too. Following certain conventions in spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and the use of
boldface, italics, and underline add to the effectiveness of one’s writing.

Objectives:

 Explain how mechanics affect the meaning of the text.

 Identify different spelling conventions and recognize misspellings.
 Apply the rules of capitalization and punctuation.
 Examine the use of boldface, italics, and underline in a given text.

I. Spelling

• The standard spelling of words is fundamental in learning a language. Misspelled words can easily create disorder; they distract the
reader from understanding the text. On the other hand, spelling words correctly avoids confusion. It makes communication and reading
easier.

• It is good to know the correct spelling of words by heart. Nonetheless, you can consult the dictionary to check the spelling of a particular
word.
• Below are some tips on spelling.

1. There are slight differences between the American English and the British English spellings. Below are a few examples:

AMERICAN SPELLING BRITISH SPELLING

color colour
labor labour
defense defence
organize organise
analyze Analyse
criticize criticize
learned learnt
airplane aeroplane
center centre
inquire, inquiry enquire, enquiry

Before writing, think of your target audience. Whether you write using the American or British spelling of words, it is important to be
consistent in spelling. If you are unsure of the spelling of a word, consult a dictionary or a spell checker.

2. There are English words that have variant or alternate spellings, which are acceptable. However, you should consult the dictionary to
help you decide which form to use. Usually, the main entry word in a dictionary shows the standard spelling, and the variant spellings
of the word are indicated. For convenience and consistency, use the spelling of the entry word.

Below are some words with variant spellings. They are listed in the Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary as entry words.

ENTRY WORD IN THE VARIANT SPELLING

DICTIONARY
acknowledgment acknowledgement
adviser advisor
among amongst
amid amidst
while whilst
 dialogue dialog
catalog catalogue
collectible Collectable
barbecue barbeque
disk disc
toward towards
onward onwards
backward backwards
judgment judgement
traveled, traveling travelled, travelling
theater theatre
aging ageing

3. Words with the letters i and e succeeding each other, such as receive, receipt, and deceive are commonly misspelled. Remember then
this simple rule: “I before E except after C.” This may help you remember the correct spelling of those words.

4. In adding prefixes to words, the spelling of the root word does not change. Examples: misspelled, unnecessary, dissatisfied

5. English words with double letters are often misspelled. Be aware of those words and remember their correct spellings.

Below are lists of some of words with double letters.

A. Words with a single pair of double letters

different personnel
harass profession
illegitimate questionnaire
occasion recommend

B. Words with two pairs of double letters

accommodate millennium
aggression occurrence
committed possession
embarrass success
happiness succeed

6. There are English words that contain silent letters, which are not pronounced when the words are read. Be aware of those words and
remember their correct spellings. Below are lists of some of words with silent consonants.
Silent b: doubt, debt, subtle
Silent c: ascend, descend, convalescent
Silent g: align, foreign, sign

II. Punctuation

• Punctuation is a system of symbols used to give structure to a text. It guides the reader on how the text should be read.

• Using correct punctuation adds clarity to a text. Read the examples below:
1. I love to paint portraits I would paint one every day if I had the time.
2. I love to paint portraits. I would paint one every day if I had the time.

The first sentence is a run-on sentence. There is no proper punctuation between the two independent clauses. An independent clause is
a clause with a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. On the other hand, the second sentence is the correct way of writing
the run-on sentence. A period is used to separate the independent clauses and turn them into full sentences.

1. This book is dedicated to my parents, Noel and Corazon.

2. This book is dedicated to my parents, Noel, and Corazon.

In the first example, one assumes that Noel and Corazon are the speaker’s parents. On the other hand, with the use a serial comma after
the name Noel, one can conclude that the book is dedicated to the speaker’s parents and to two people named Noel and Corazon.

• Below are commonly used punctuation marks and their uses.

1. Period

a. It indicates a full stop or an end of a statement. When a statement ends with a word or a group of words enclosed in quotation
marks, the period is placed within the quotation marks.
Examples: I studied last night. It was not a good day. He is known as “the hat maker.”

b. It is used in some abbreviations.

Examples: a.m. Dr. etc.

c. It is placed after numerals and letters in outlines and lists.

Example: I. Philippine Literature in English

A. Historical background
B. Well-known authors and their works
1. Poetry
2. Fiction
3. Nonfiction
4. Plays

2. Question mark

a. It ends a question.
Examples: What time is it? Did you study last night?

b. It ends a question that is part of a sentence.

Examples: “What was my mother’s name?” you ask. I wonder, How can I be a more effective leader?

c. It indicates uncertainty about a fact.

Examples:
Homer (9th or 8th century BCE?) is the Greek epic poet who presumably wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey.
Herodotus (born 484 BCE?), a Greek author, is believed to be born at Halicarnassus in southwest Asia Minor during the Persian
rule.
3. Exclamation point

a. It ends a sentence that expresses emotion or an interjection.

Examples: Goodness, it’s cold in here! Ouch! That hurts.

b. It replaces the question mark in interrogative sentences that expresses strong emotion.
Examples: Don’t you know who I am! Can’t you understand what I’m telling you!

Exclamation points are usually used in informal writing and should not be used in formal writing.

4. Apostrophe

a. It is used to indicate the possessive case of nouns.

Examples: We went to Carla’s party.
She was considered her children’s only hope.
All the girls’ things are kept in a locker.

b. It is used in place of the omitted letters in contractions.

Examples:
I am – I’m
did not - didn’t
I will - I’ll

c. It is used in some expressions like the following:

For goodness’ sake
For appearance’s sake
A month’s delay
In three days’ time

5. Comma

a. Commas are used to separate words or phrases in a list or series.

 Examples: You can see a lion, a tiger, and a bear in the zoo. My goals this year are to climb a mountain, to stay in a remote
island, and to learn how to drive.

b. A comma is used to separate clauses in sentences.

Examples: I heard about my friend’s problem, so I went to see him to offer my help. When she arrived home, the door was
locked.

c. Commas are used to set off words or phrases that introduce examples or explanations.
Examples:
My mother has just met three famous people, namely, the President, an Olympic gold medalist, and a veteran actor.
John thought of a very good plan to celebrate his birthday this year, that is, to volunteer as a reader at a day care center.

6. Colon

a. It introduces a list.
Examples:
The travel package includes the following: air fare, packed meals, hotel accommodation, and an island tour.
The school is currently hiring teachers for these courses: Mathematics in the Real World, Writing in the Sciences, and Healthy
Living.

b. It is used to introduce a quotation.

Examples:
The post on the door reads: “Please gather at the lobby at 3 P.M.” In her speech, the senator said: “I have never felt alone in my
fight against discrimination.
My family, close friends, and faithful allies are standing right by me, and they urge me to continue.”

c. It introduces a clause or a phrase that explains what comes before it.

Examples:
The night was extraordinarily bright: the moon was full, a hundred stars twinkling, and the bonfire blazing.
Maria’s room was delightfully surprising: its walls covered with a thousand pictures of her travels around the country.

7. Semicolon
 a. It is used to indicate a stop or break that is more grounded than a comma but not as strong as a period.
Examples:
I never demanded for him to come today; he did it anyway.
She was his only hope; she would take him far away from the hands of his captors.

b. It separates two clauses, one of which is introduced by a conjunctive adverb or a phrase acting like one.
Examples:
The house has been in the market for a year now; however, no buyer has expressed interest in the property.
Our team thinks it is better to work outside the classroom; on the other hand, the principal thinks we will be safer in the laboratory
with a teacher watching over us.

c. It separates items in series if they themselves are set off by commas.

Examples:
Our company needs three key persons: a chief accountant who is energetic enough to go through mountains of unidentified
receipts; a cook who has enough stamina to feed fifty hungry employees during lunchtime; and a resourceful janitor who can
clean up any kind of mess.
The theater group is going to perform in San Fernando, La Union; Vigan City, Ilocos Sur; and Laoag City, Ilocos Norte.

8. The common dash or em dash

a. It can be used in place of a colon or a semicolon to connect clauses, the second of which explains or expands the first clause.
Example:
The couple will not see their loved ones for a while—they resolved to make their new house in a new country their second home.

b. It can be used in place of a comma before words and phrases that introduce examples or explanations.
Examples:
In the last hour, we have seen three amazing animals—namely, a baboon, a platypus, and a beluga whale.
We are taking the next step in the process—that is, the taste test.

c. It may introduce a summary statement after a series of words or phrases.

Examples: A bed, a telephone, a refrigerator, a television—these are the things you need in your new place. On a regular day,
John prepares breakfast for his family, cleans the house, fixes broken things, buys grocery, and cooks dinner—an all-around
stay-at-home father.
III. Capitalization

• Capitalization is writing the first letter of a word in upper case while the rest of the letters of the word are in lower case. It helps in
deciphering the meaning of the words. If proper nouns are not capitalized, for instance, their meanings can change; they can lead to
misunderstanding.

• The following are always capitalized in text:

1. proper nouns: Alex, Manila

2. proper adjectives: Philippine, Canadian
3. days of the week: Monday, Sunday
4. months of the year: January, December
5. specific course titles: English 11, Theater 101
6. kinship names used in place of personal names and if they are followed by personal names: Grandma, Dad, Aunt Paz,
Uncle Alvin
7. Names of historical periods, events, and documents:
the Great Depression, the Renaissance, the Constitution

• Adjectives, verbs, adverbs, nouns, and pronouns are capitalized in a title. Do not capitalize conjunctions, prepositions, and articles,
except when they are the first or last word in a title.

Examples:
Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There (title of a book)
And I Am Telling You I’m Not Going (title of a song)
The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants (title of a movie)

IV. The Use of Boldface, Italics, and Underline

Using word processors, one can have many ways to emphasize words in writing; three of those are the boldface, the italics, and the
underline.
1. The boldface is commonly used on the following:
a. Important words in a sentence or a paragraph
Example:
Punctuation refers to the marks used in writing to make its meaning clear to the reader. A punctuation mark like a period can end a
sentence. Also, a mark like a comma can connect words, phrases, and clauses.

In the short paragraph, the word being defined is emphasized by setting it in boldface.

b. News headlines and titles of news and magazine articles

Example:

Wellness Travel Is on the Rise (Excerpt)

By NewsUSA

So, what is wellness travel? The trend covers all aspects of health, including nutritious menu options spa offerings and fitness activities.
Across the globe tourism professionals are responding to growing demands by introducing whole food vegetarian and vegan menus,
spa packages and active excursions. Hiking, cycling, paddle boarding, and kayaking continue to gain popularity.

c. Headings of paragraphs, tables, and charts

Sample heading of a paragraph:

90s again? Fashion Is Looking Back for Inspiration

By Jennifer Varela

Remember the grunge days? Or our Spice Girls inspiration? Let’s take a look at today’s biggest trends that are totally a flashback 15
years ago.

Crop tops
The ones that started all. From the beginning of 2015, this has been a really important piece of wardrobe in every scenario: since couture
to fast fashion, crop tops have now invaded our closet in every way possible. Back in the 90s, we wore them without any concern
(probably because our abs were a lot flatter), but in this era, there have to be some boundaries. First of all, it is time for us to admit that
they’re not good to take everywhere (this means they’re not office appropriate) and they don’t go with everything. A crop top is a sexy
and a subtle way of showing skin if you wear it with high-waist items, like shorts, pants or skirts. Go for a cropped t-shirt when going
to the beach or for a silk one for your party outfit. But in any case, use it wisely.

2. The italics are frequently used on the following:

a. Titles of books
Examples: I love the book Through the Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll because it tells Alice’s additional adventures in
Wonderland.
Harry Potter and he Prisoner of Azkaban is my favorite Harry Potter book.

b. Foreign words
Examples:
The bayanihan is a Filipino concept.
Say po or opo to show respect to elders.

c. Important words in a sentence or a paragraph

Example: The Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality (YAFS) Study is a series of national surveys on the Filipino youth, conducted
since 1982 by the University of the Philippines Population Institute (UPPI) and the Demographic Research and Development
Foundation. It gathers data from Filipino youth aged 15–24 years old. It is one of the sources of information on sexual and
nonsexual risk behaviors and their determinants in the country.

d. Inner thoughts or memory flashbacks in literary texts

Example: She stared at the moon and said to herself: Am I really alone today? Why did this happen to me? Will I forever be
alone? A sudden burst of tears came. She cannot calm herself down. All the while she thought: Who cares anyway?

3. Before word processors were invented, underlining used to be the most common form of emphasis for written texts. Today, the most
common underlined text in a paragraph is a Web address, the location of a Web site on the Internet. Because it is a hyperlink, the reader
can access the Web site by clicking on the Web address.
Examples:
You can find a list of local ALA-member fan retailers online at americanlightingassoc.com.
Visit www.quipper.com for more information.

Learning Tasks

Activity 1. Put a check on the line beside the correct spelling. If both spellings are acceptable, write acceptable on the long line.

1. ___ align ___ aline ___________

2. ___ ascend ___ assend ___________
3. ___ embarass ___ embarrass ___________
4. ___ harass ___ harrass ___________
5. ___ inquire ___ enquire ___________
6. ___ misspelled ___ misspelled ___________
7. ___ occasion ___ occasion ___________
8. ___ profession ___ proffesion ___________
9. ___ receive ___ recieve ___________
10. ___ traveling ___ travelling ___________

Activity 2. Improve the following text by capitalizing some words and inserting punctuation marks.

What You don’t Know About the Impact of Vision in your Child’s Life (An Excerpt)
By News USA

Just when you are getting used to having your children home for the summer, you realize it’s already almost time to send them back to
school. You then schedule appointments and checkup but one thing that often goes unchecked is a childs vision.
Did you know 80 percent of a childs learning is done through their eyes And yet according to the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, 35 percent of children have never seen an eye care professional, making vision impairment one of the most prevalent
disabling conditions among children in the US this is one reason why experts agree it is imperative to get a child’s eyes checked yearly
and equip them with glasses as needed.
 for those who already wear glasses, seeing your eyecare professional is a necessity. childrens lenses encounter everything from
fingerprints to scratches, and even harsh glare. these issues can make it harder for kids to see the world and more challenging for them
to keep their glasses clean. looking through obstructed lenses can cause tired, strained eyes.

Activity 3. Find a magazine article that features any of these three styles: boldface, italics, and underline. Then identify the words,
phrases, or sentences that are set in boldface or italics or that are underlined. After that, write a short paragraph explaining the purpose
of the use of the styles in the text.

UNIT X

Claims of Fact, Value, and Policy

A piece of writing, especially the persuasive or argumentative kind, is filled with propositions or claims. Identifying such claims, either
the obvious or the subtle ones, is essential to understanding the purpose of the text as well as its main ideas. This unit provides
information regarding the different types of claims, which would greatly help you improve your skills in reading and writing.

Objectives:

 Distinguish claims of fact, value, and policy in a written text.

 Identify explicit and implicit claims in a text.
 Write and defend claims of fact, value, and policy.

I. Claims of Fact

• A claim is a statement that an author discusses, explains, or proves in his writing. In persuasive or argumentative writing, the central
claim made is called the thesis, which determines and limits the scope of the topic.
Take a look at following examples:

A B
Good education is one of the keys The Philippine government
to success. should implement a program that
would enable all children
belonging to families in the
poverty level to finish their high
school education.
It is not advisable for children to Children who are younger than
watch too much television. two years should not be allowed
to watch television, while those
who are two years to 12 years old
should only watch educational
television programs for one to
two hours each day.

The claims in A are either broad or vague, while the ones in B are specific and clearly debatable.

• A claim of fact is a type of claim that affirms or asserts that a statement is true or untrue. It argues that the statement is indeed a fact,
or it defines a particular term.

Examples:
Cyberbullying has profound effects on young children.
“Making friends” online is not the same as making friends in person. People are becoming more dependent on technology.

• A claim of fact often takes an objective position. Take a look at the following text.
Example:
People in general are becoming more dependent on technology. In Philippines alone, for instance, there were 114.6 million mobile
subscriptions and 44.2 million active Internet users according to the global Web statistics released by a global agency called We Are
Social Singapore. Since January 2014, the number of active Internet users has grown 18 percent, while the number of mobile
subscriptions has grown 7 percent.

The first sentence states a claim of fact. The writer supports the claim by statistics.

• In persuasive or argumentative writing, a writer defends the thesis or central claim in order to make it convincing. Below are some
steps you may follow to defend a claim of fact.
1. State your claim clearly.
2. Provide a brief explanation or definition for words that may be unfamiliar to some readers.
3. Cite recent, accurate, and sufficient evidence. It should come from reliable sources or experts.
4. Organize the evidence in a logical way. The arrangement of evidence highlights the most important points.
5. To conclude your writing, reiterate the thesis.

II. Claims of Value

• A claim of value is a type of claim that evaluates, appraises, or judges an idea.

Examples:
It is important that children learn how to use social media responsibly. Learning another language other than English is necessary in the
21st century.
Spending quality time with your family is better than spending time alone.
• A claim of value is subjective. In writing, the author can tell whether the idea is important or relevant based on some criteria or
standards, which may be influenced by the author’s religious, cultural, and social values. Also, he or she can express approval or
disapproval of the idea; he or she can state whether the idea is good or bad, right or wrong, ethical or unethical, or just or unjust.

Example:
It is very important that children learn how to use social media responsibly. One reason is that the social media poses danger to their
security. Experts say that 75 percent of teens have profiles on a social networking site. Such profiles mostly contain their photos, real
names, birthdates, interests, and even their town and school. Online advertisers and predators can easily take the children’s information
and use it for illegal activities.

Beginning with the phrase “It is very important...” the first sentence states a claim of value: the idea of children learning how to use
social media responsibly is of utmost importance to the writer. He or she then cites a reason and explains it.

• You can defend a claim of value by doing the following:

1. Clearly state the principle or value you are promoting. You can say that it rates higher on a scale of values than any other principle or
value. 2. Present the good results or effects of adhering to the principle in contrast with other principles.
3. Present real-life examples to give readers a concrete idea of how the values work in particular situations.
4. Include relevant statistics as well as the testimonies and points of view of highly regarded individuals or experts who share the same
value or principle as you do.

III. Claims of Policy

• A claim of policy is a statement proposing an action that should be undertaken as a solution to a particular problem. This claim makes
use of words such as should, ought to, and must.
a. Smoking must be banned in all public places.
b. In general, women should be given equal job opportunities as men.
c. There should be a course for students who would like to learn Ilocano, Cebuano, or any Philippine dialect.

• A claim of policy may argue against an already established policy or solution. In writing, the author aims to convince readers that the
proposed solution would indeed solve the given problem and that it is better than the current or any other proposed course of action.

Example:
Learning a foreign language remains a requirement in most colleges; students must take a certain number of units to fulfill such
requirement. However, after graduation, most of them will work in the country and never get the chance to use the foreign language in
the workplace. For them, there should be an alternative course, that is, a course teaching a widely spoken local dialect like Ilocano
or Cebuano. Learning a local language not only increases their chance of finding work in the major cities in the country but also allows
them to connect with other Filipinos speaking a different language.
In the text above, the writer proposes a new language course for those students who will remain in the country to work. He or she says
that it is an alternative course to foreign language course.

• Follow the guidelines below in defending a claim of policy.

1. State your proposal clearly. If you are to argue that a current policy or any other solution is not effective, state your proposal in
contrast with that policy or solution.
2. State the arguments for your proposed solution. Express why it is the best action to take. If you are to compare it with a current policy
or any other solution, highlight the positive effects of your proposal. You can downplay its flaws by comparing those flaws with those
of the current policy or other solution.
3. Support your claim with enough evidence. This evidence should show that the solution is going to be a success and that it is attainable.

IV. Identifying Claims Explicitly and Implicitly Made in a Written Text

• Identifying claims in a given text is important in critical reading, which involves a deeper examination of the ideas presented in the
text. Knowing the central claim or thesis as well as the other claims made in a text, a reader then understands the writer’s purpose and
follows his or her arguments with ease.
• Claims are often explicitly or directly stated in the text. They are explained and justified using evidence.
Below is an excerpt from the article “Cutting the Corporate Cord: How the Desk Phone Is Meeting Its Demise” by NewsUSA.
Notice the claim made explicitly right in the beginning of the text and the evidence that follows to support it.
It was bound to happen sooner or later: the desk phone, once an icon in any office, is now officially on its deathbed.
According to a recent survey by Dialpad, a San Francisco-based communications technology company, the trend of
telecommuting and employees who would rather work anywhere but the office, is rendering the desk phone all but obsolete.
“Our survey reveals that while the slow and painful death of the desk phone has clearly begun, it cannot happen fast enough for
many workers,” Craig Walker, CEO of Dialpad, told VoIP Monitoring in an interview earlier this summer. “The anywhere worker
movement is now evident in every segment of every industry. This significant trend will only accelerate over the next few years.”

• Claims can be implicit, too; they are only implied in a text. Such claims are often made in narrative or descriptive texts. Take a look
at the following examples:
Example 1:
In 2016, the local government of Batangas launched five new projects, organized three seminars, and provided job opportunities for
young people in the community. Also, political authorities recognized the achievements of the youth and granted rewards to young
people who had a significant impact on society and on other youth.

In the text above, it is only implied that the local government of Batangas is empowering young people and that their welfare is the local
government’s priority.

Example 2:
It was market-morning. The ground was covered nearly ankle-deep with filth and mire; and a thick steam perpetually rising from the
reeking bodies of the cattle, and mingling with the fog, which seemed to rest upon the chimney-tops, hung heavily above. All the pens in
the centre of the large area, and as many temporary ones as could be crowded into the vacant space, were filled with sheep; and tied
up to posts by the gutter side were long lines of beasts and oxen three or four deep. Countrymen, butchers, drovers, hawkers, boys,
thieves, idlers, and vagabonds of every low grade, were mingled together in a dense mass; the whistling of drovers, the barking of dogs,
the bellowing and plunging of beasts, the bleating of sheep, and grunting and squeaking of pigs; the cries of hawkers, the shouts, oaths,
and quarrelling on all sides; the ringing of bells and roar of voices that issued from every public-house; the crowding, pushing, driving,
beating, whooping, and yelling; the hideous and discordant din that resounded from every corner of the market; and the unwashed,
unshaven, squalid, and dirty figures constantly running to and fro, and bursting in and out of the throng, rendered it a stunning and
bewildering scene, which quite confounded the senses.

The text above is an excerpt from Chapter 21 of the novel “Oliver Twist” by Charles Dickens. Through description, Dickens presents
the 19th century London. As implied in the text, London was a very harsh and unpleasant city back then.

Leaning Tasks

Activity 1. Read each of the statements below. Identify whether it is a claim of fact, value, or policy.
1. Computer games promote violence among young children.
2. Having to do homework teaches students critical thinking and discipline.
3. It is unfair for students to be given so many projects and homework all at once.
4. The government should bring back the death penalty in order to lower the crime rate in the country.
5. Children who are younger than 12 years should not be allowed to have their own smartphone or any other electronic gadget.
6. Children should be allowed to play outside with their peers, as playing helps them develop interpersonal skills and strengthens their
bodies as well.

Activity 2. Read the passage below. Identify two claims made in the text, one that is made explicitly and the other, implicitly. State the
claim made implicitly in the text in your own words.

Welcome to El Salvador: We’ve Been Expecting You (An Excerpt)

By NewsUSA

When travelers think of El Salvador, it is not often that visions of pristine beaches, luxury hotels or centuries-old cobble stone streets
would be top of mind. But this small, yet beautiful country in Central America (roughly the size of Massachusetts) has done much to
reinvent itself and is positioned to be the next trendy hot spot for travel. Renowned for its Pacific Ocean beaches, surfing, lush landscapes
and unspoiled natural habitats, El Salvador is an eco-traveler’s paradise that is also known as the Land of Volcanoes with 25 active
volcanoes, which, with their beautiful mountain ridges, are eye-catching as they rise stark and majestic against the background of blue
skies. Looking out from high above while standing on one of the many natural overlooks within the ridges, visitors can see monster
waves crashing against soft, black sand beaches, which are a haven for surf enthusiasts.

Activity 3: Think of a social issue you feel strongly about. Write an essay that proposes a solution to a problem related to that social
issue. Make sure to support your claim with substantial evidence.