Basic Electrical Engineering
Lecture NO. 1
The Nature of Electricity
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies
space. Matter is composed of very small particles
called atoms. All matter can be classified into
either one of two groups: elements or
compounds. In an element, all the atoms are the
same. Examples of elements are aluminum,
copper, carbon, germanium, and silicon. A
compound is a combination of elements.
Water,for example, is a compound consisting of
the elements hydrogen and oxygen. The smallest
particle of any compound that retains the
original characteristics of that compound is
called a molecule.
Atoms are composed of subatomic particles of
electrons, protons, and neutrons in various
combinations. The electron is the fundamental
negative charge (-) of electricity. Electrons
revolve about the nucleus or center of the atom
in paths of concentric “shells,” or orbits (Fig.1-1).
The proton is the fundamental positive (+)
charge of electricity. Protons are found in the
nucleus. The number of protons within the
nucleus of any particular atom specifies the
atomic number of that atom. For example, the
silicon atom has 14 protons in its nucleus so the
atomic number of silicon is 14. The neutron,
which is the fundamental neutral charge of
electricity, is also found in the nucleus.
Atoms of different elements differ from one
another in the number of electrons and protons
they contain .In its natural state, an atom of any
element contains an equal number of electrons
and protons. Since the negative (-) charge of
each electron is equal in magnitude to the
positive (+) charge of each proton, the two
opposite charges cancel. An atom in this
condition is electrically neutral, or in balance .
Example 1.1 Describe the two simplest atoms.
Example 1.2 Describe what happens to the
copper atom when it loses an electron from its
outermost shell.
THE ELECTRIC CHARGE
Since some atoms can lose electrons and other
atoms can gain electrons, it is possible to cause a
transfer of electrons from one object to another.
When this takes place, the equal distribution of
the positive and negative charges in each object
no longer exists. Therefore, one object will
contain an excess number of electrons and its
charge must have a negative, or minus (-),
electric polarity. The other object will contain an
excess number of protons and its charge must
have a positive, or plus (+), polarity.
When a pair of objects contains the same
charge, that is, both positive (+) or both
negative(-), the objects are said to have like
charges. When a pair of bodies contains different
charges, that is, one body is positive (+) while the
other body is negative (-), they are said to have
unlike or opposite charges. The law of electric
charges may be stated as follows:
Like charges repel each other; unlike charges
attract each other.
If a negative (-) charge is placed next to another
negative (-) charge, the charges will repel each
other (Fig. 1-4a). If a positive (+) charge is placed
next to a negative (-) charge, they will be drawn
together (Fig. 1-4c).
THE COULOMB
The magnitude of electric charge a body
possesses is determined by the number of
electrons compared with the number of protons
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within the body. The symbol for the magnitude
of the electric charge is Q, expressed in units of
coulombs (C). A charge of one negative coulomb,
-Q, means a body contains a charge of 6.25 x
10^18 more electrons than protons.
Example 1.4 What is the meaning of +Q?
Example 1.5 A dielectric material has a negative
charge of 12.5 X 10^18 electrons. What is its
charge in coulombs?
THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD
The fundamental characteristic of an electric
charge is its ability to exert a force. This force is
present within the electrostatic field surrounding
every charged object. When two objects of
opposite polarity are brought near each other,
the electrostatic field is concentrated in the area
between them (Fig. 1-5). The electric field is
indicated by lines of force drawn between the
two objects. If an electron is released at point A
in this field, it will be repelled by the negative
charge and will be attracted to the positive one.
Thus both charges will tend to move the electron
in the direction of the lines of force between the
two objects. The arrowheads in Fig. 1-5 indicate
the direction of motion that would be taken by
the electron if it were in different areas of the
electrostatic field.
Example 1.6 Draw the electrostatic field that
would exist between two negatively charged
objects
A charged object will retain its charge
temporarily if there is no immediate transfer of
electrons to or from it. In this condition, the
charge is said to be at rest. Electricity at rest is
called static electricity.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
In general, every source of voltage is
established by simply creating a separation of
positive and negative charges.
Because of the force of its electrostatic field, an
electric charge has the ability to do the work of
moving another charge by attraction or
repulsion. The ability of a charge to do work is
called its potential. When one charge is different
from the other, there must be a difference in
potential between them. The sum of the
differences of potential of all the charges in the
electrostatic field is referred to as electromotive
force (emf). The basic unit of potential difference
is the volt (V). The symbol for potential
difference is V, indicating the ability to do the
work of forcing electrons to move. Because the
volt unit is used, potential difference is called
voltage.
Formula:
V=W/Q
Where W is the Work(joules) and Q is coulumbs
Example 1.7 What is the meaning of a battery
voltage output of 6 V?
Example Find the voltage between two points if
60 J of energy are required to move a charge of
20 C between the two points.
CURRENT
The applied voltage is the starting
mechanism—the current is a reaction to the
applied voltage.
The movement or the flow of electrons is called
current. To produce current, the electrons must
be moved by a potential difference. Current is
represented by the letter symbol I. The basic unit
in which current is measured is the ampere (A).
One ampere of current is defined as the
movement of one coulomb past any point of a
conductor during one second of time.
Example 1.8 If a current of 2 A flows through a
meter for 1 minute (min), how many coulombs
pass through the meter?
The definition of current can be expressed as an
equation:
I = Q/t (A)
where I = current (A) Q = charge(C) T = time (s)
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CURRENT FLOW
In a conductor, such as copper wire, the free
electrons are charges that can be forced to move
with relative ease by a potential difference. If a
potential difference is connected across two
ends of a copper wire (Fig. 1-6), the applied
voltage (1.5 V) forces the free electrons to move.
This current is a drift of electrons from the point
of negative charge, -Q, at one end of the wire,
moving through the wire, and returning to the
positive charge, +Q, at the other end. The
direction of the electron drift is from the
negative side of the battery, through the wire,
and back to the positive side of the battery. The
direction of electron flow is from a point of
negative potential to a point of positive
potential. The solid arrow (Fig. 1-6) indicates the
direction of current in terms of electron flow.
The direction of moving positive charges,
opposite from electron flow, is considered the
conventional flow of current and is indicated by
the dashed arrow (Fig. 1-6). In basic electricity,
circuits are usually analyzed in terms of
conventional current because a positive
potential is considered before a negative
potential. Therefore, the direction of
conventional current is the direction of positive
charges in motion. Any circuit can be analyzed by
either electron flow or conventional flow in the
opposite direction.
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
Chemical Battery
A voltaic chemical cell is a combination of
materials which are used for converting chemical
energy into electric energy. A battery is formed
when two or more cells are connected. A
chemical reaction produces opposite charges on
two dissimilar metals, which serve as the
negative and positive terminals (Fig. 1-7). The
metals are in contact with an electrolyte.
Generator
The generator is a machine in which
electromagnetic inductance is used to produce a
voltage by rotating coils of wire through a
stationary magnetic field or by rotating a
magnetic field through stationary coils of wire.
Today more than 95 percent of the world's
energy is produced by generators.
Thermal Energy
The production of most electric energy begins
with the formation of heat energy. Coal, oil, or
natural gas can be burned to release large
quantities of heat. Once heat energy is available,
conversion to mechanical energy is the next
step. Water is heated to produce steam, which is
then used to turn the turbines that drive the
electric generators. A direct conversion from
heat energy to electric energy will increase
efficiency and reduce thermal pollution of water
resources and the
atmosphere.
Magnetohydrodynamic(MHD)Conversion
In an MHD converter, gases are ionized by very
high temperatures, approximately 3000 degrees
Fahrenheit (3000°F), or 1650 degrees Celsius
(1650'C). The hot gases pass through a strong
magnetic field with current resulting. The
exhausted gases are then moved back to the
heat source to form a complete cycle (Fig. 1-8).
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MHD converters have no mechanical moving
parts.
Thermionic Emission
The thermionic energy converter is a device that
consists of two electrodes in a vacuum. The
emitter electrode is heated and produces free
electrons. The collector electrode is maintained
at a much lower temperature and receives the
electrons released at the emitter.
Solar Cells
that voltage sources such as cells and batteries
maintain the same polarity of output voltage
(Fig.1-9b). The voltage supplied by these sources
is called direct-current voltage, or simply dc
uoltage. A dc voltage source can change the
amount of its output voltage, but if the same
polarity is maintained, direct current will flow in
one direction only.
Example 1.10 Assuming the polarity of the
battery were reversed in Fig. 1-9b,draw the new
curves of current and voltage.

Solar cells convert light energy directly into

electric energy. They consist of semiconductor
material like silicon and are used in large arrays
in spacecraft to recharge batteries. Solar cells are
also used in home heating.

Piezoelectric Effect

Certain crystals, such as quartz and Rochelle

salts, generate a voltage when they are vibrated
mechanically. This action is known as the
piezoelectric efect. One example is the crystal
phonograph cartridge, which contains a Rochelle
salt crystal to which a needle is fastened. As the AC
needle moves in the grooves of a record, it
swings from side to side. This mechanical motion An alternating-current voltage (ac voltage)
is applied to the crystal, and a voltage is then source periodically reverses or alternates in
generated. polarity (Fig. 1-10a). Therefore, the resulting
alternating current also periodically reverses
Photoelectric Effect direction (Fig. 1-l0b). In terms of conventional
flow, the current flows from the positive
Some materials, such as zinc, potassium, and
terminal of the voltage source, through the
cesium oxide, emit electrons when light strikes
circuit, and back to the negative terminal, but
their surfaces. This action is known as the
when the generator alternates in polarity, the
photoelectric efect. Common applications of
current must reverse its direction. The ac power
photoelectricity are television camera tubes and
line used in most homes is a common example.
photoelectric cells.
The voltage and current direction go through
Thermocouples many reversals each second in these systems.
If wires of two different metals, such as iron and
copper, are welded together and the joint is
heated, the difference in electron activity in the
two metals produces an emf across the joint.
Thermocouple junctions can be used to measure
the amount of current because current acts to
heat the junction.

DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENTS AND

VOLTAGES

DC
Direct current (dc) is current that moves through
a conductor or circuit in one direction only (Fig.1-
90). The reason for the unidirectional current is

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Exercise No.1

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