1.

0 INTRODUCTION

A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way underneath such
as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. There
are many different designs that each serve a particular purpose and apply to different situations.
Designs of bridges vary depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where
the bridge is constructed and anchored, the material used to make it, and the funds available to
build. The bridges structures improve as the technology evolves. Early bridges were made from
local material such as woods, stones and fibers. Today's, there are many materials that suitable
to make bridges. Nevertheless, structures and the materials are the most important criteria to
successfully build the bridges.

Figure 1 : Old Bridge

The first bridges made by humans were probably spans of cut wooden logs or planks and
eventually stones, using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement. Some early Americans
used trees or bamboo poles to cross small caverns or wells to get from one place to another. A
common form of lashing sticks, logs, and deciduous branches together involved the use of long
reeds or other harvested fibers woven together to form a huge rope capable of binding and
holding together the materials used in early bridges. Most of these early bridges could not
support heavy weights or withstand strong currents. It was these inadequacies which led to the
development of better bridges.

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2.0 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

The aim of this project is to encourage students to use their structural knowledge and creativity
to solve practical problem in building small model bridge by using Satay Stick and encourage
effective communication between group members. The students are encouraged to test their
materials to find the tensile and compressive strength using Universal Testing Machine or other
appropriate methods. The bridge considered pass if the bridge supported at 15kilograms loaded.
Some calculations needed to obtain the suitable member size, internal forces of truss and
deflection using hand calculation and check using suitable computer programs.

3.0 OBJECTIVE

As a result of this project, student will able to do the following:

1. To design and build the lightest bridge with the highest structural efficiency that can
span a given opening meeting the requirements as specified in these rules.

2. To made a creative and buildable of a model bridge.

3. To test the strength and weakness of bridges that accommodate the load

4. Learn about planning and Constructions Bridge and how about teamwork and
working in groups.

5.To make a limited load applied model in 15kg (max) load.

4.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Students are required to complete the assessment as the following :

1. Part A: Layout and Design

The bridge layout and design are demonstrated.

2. Part B: Analysis
The bridge is loaded by 5 kg weight at two points. Analysis of the bridge is to determine
the internal force of the truss and the deflection of the truss. Calculations are done for
analysis of structure.
3. Part C: Model

The truss bridge is modelled and has been tested.

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5.0 METHODOLOGY

Fine Satay Stick is chosen and reject

stick is separated from being used.

The required dimension is marked

on satay stick using Pencil or Pen.

The satay stick is cut based on its

lengthand the member is combined
using the glue.

•
All members are joined according to the
design.

The bridge is completed.

Diagram 1 : Methodology

1) Design and construction ideas:

• Plan the total bridge design. Estimate the weight of each of the components, so
that you will not exceed the weight limit.
• Make a full-size pattern of your bridge. Build the bridge on this pattern. This
will ensure that all components will assemble properly.
• If a number of strands of spaghetti are to be used together as a single member,
do not glue their entire lengths. This will provide adequate strength without
adding excessive weight.

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2) Prepare materials and apparatus:

• Choose the connection type. The type of glue you use will make or break your
bridge. Regular craft glue is a poor choice, as it is water based, which causes
the pasta to soften when the glue is applied, and it takes a long time to dry.
Model airplane glue and hot glue from a glue gun are easy to apply, but are
slightly more flexible when they dry. This is not ideal for reinforcing the joints
of your bridge. Epoxy, although messy, is the ideal solution for maximizing
the strength of your bridge. Epoxy dries up firmly and will provide the best
support for your bridge joints. Choose brand and size of satay stick.

3) Build bridge strut.

• Trusses are triangle-shaped support beams that attach point-side down to the
roadbed of the bridge on either side. Attach the trusses to each other with glue.
Trusses distribute the forces of the weight you will add to the bridge.

4) Weigh the bridge.

• Rather than setting the bridge itself on the scale, set it on something stable like
a box and weigh both. Then, subtract the weight of the box. You can also use
2 scales, placing 1 underneath each edge of the bridge, and then add the weights
together.

• Weighing the bridge is optional. This is usually done as an instructive method.

It allows a teacher to show the relationship between the bridge's total weight
and the weight it can hold.

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5.1 Apparatus and material

Figure 2 : Cutter Figure 3 : Satay Stick

Figure 4 : Glue Figure 5 : 502 Glue

Figure 6 : Cable Tie

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6.0 LAYOUT AND DESIGN

Truss bridges are a type of bridge design that uses multiple triangles to support very heavy
loads. They are widely used and the most common with road traffic bridges due to their
heavy load capabilities. Along with the triangular formations, joints and other forms of
enforcement are used to further increase the bridge’s strengths. Therefore, three types of
bridge design have been considered based on aspects below:-

a) Lightest structure, lowest deflection and carry the most weight.

b) Concept and ease of construction.

c) Creative and buildable of a model bridge.

d) Economical to build.

6.1 TYPES OF TRUSS BRIDGES

A truss bridge is a bridge composed of connected elements (typically straight) which

may be stressed from tension, compression, or sometimes both in response to loads.
Truss bridges are one of the oldest types of modern bridges. The basic types of truss
bridges are shown below. There are over 27 different types of Truss Bridges but they
are the four most common used :

a) Warren Truss Bridge

The Warren Truss is a very common design for both real and model bridges. It’s
exact history and origination is a little muddled, however. James Warren patented
a design in 1848 (in England), which many attribute the name “Warren Truss”.
His patent was more about the methodology of building rather than a “design”.
Regardless, the Warren Truss has been around a while and has been very popular.
Examples of it can be found everywhere in the world.
The Warren Truss uses equilateral triangles to spread out the loads on the bridge.
The equilateral triangles minimize the forces to only compression and tension.
Interestingly, as a load (such as a car or train) moves across the bridge sometimes

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 the forces for a member switch from compression to tension. This happens
especially to the members near the center of the bridge.

b) Pratt Truss Bridge

A Pratt Truss has been used over the past two centuries as an effective truss
method. The vertical members are in compression, whilst the diagonal
members are in tension. This simplifies and produces a more efficient design
since the steel in the diagonal members (in tension) can be reduced. This has a
few effects - it reduces the cost of the structure due to more efficient members,
reduces the self weight and eases the constructability of the structure. This type
of truss is most appropriate for horizontal spans, where the force is
predominantly in the vertical direction.

c) Howe Truss Bridge

The Howe truss, a composite truss of wooden diagonal compression members,

iron junction boxes, and threaded vertical wrought-iron rods to carry tension, was
the dominant bridge type during the transition of bridge building materials from
wood to iron. As stated above, the Howe truss is considered the crowning
achievement of the wooden bridge era and the most profitable bridge patent ever
granted. The Howe truss also represents the beginning of the transition from wood
to iron. The Howe truss became the most popular bridge for railroads in American
until the appearance of the all-metal bridges in the 1840s and 1850s. Thousands
were built until the all-iron truss curtailed its popularity. Highly significant within
the context of this study are examples of the Howe truss railroad bridges from the
early development period, the 1840s and 1850s, as they are less common and are
significant in the evolution of bridge building technology associated with the
railroads and with the transition from timber to iron.

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d) Bowstring Arch Truss

The number of Whipple bowstring trusses is known, but the number of other
surviving bowstring arch trusses is not. The bowstring arch truss is one of the more
important nineteenth century bridge forms and dates primarily from the 1870s and
1880s. Bowstring bridges that retain their integrity (i.e., their character defining
features) are highly significant within the context of this study. Character defining
features include a relatively heavy arched top chord, a series of boxed “X” panels,
and an outer, basically triangular panel at each end. Character-defining elements
include the members that form the ‘X’s” within each panel and the end panels, the
slender vertical rods, the bottom chord, floor beams, and method of connection.
The small numbers of intact Whipple bowstring trusses that remain possess the
highest level of significance within this type.

6.2 COMPARISON TYPES OF BRIDGE

Descriptions Types of Bridges

Howe Pratt Truss Bowstring Warren
Truss (Half hip Arch Truss Vertical
pony truss) Truss
Material Suitability
Woods Yes No No Yes
Metals/steel/iron Vertical Yes Yes Yes
member
Length Span(m) <45 <45 <90 <45
Compression Diagonal Vertical Vertical and Vertical and
Diagonal Diagonal
Tension Vertical Diagonal Lower Vertical and
member Diagonal

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 Lightweights and Light and Heavy but Heavy arched Light and
Design simple easy erected top chord simple
Design Demands Cheaper Expensive Expensive Cheaper
Table 1: Comparison types of bridge to be considered

6.3 SELECTED TYPE OF BRIDGE FOR PROJECT

For this project, we are choosing Warren Truss Bridge. The Warren Truss was designed
by James Warren and Willoughby Theobald Monzani at 1848. Based to the project
requirement, Warren truss is fulfilled design meet to the project criteria which is
lightest, economical to build, concept and ease of construction, carry the most weight
and low deflection. Therefore, Warren truss bridge is selected as our project design.
The Warren truss is one of the simplest yet strong designs. This simple design already
existed, but what made the Warren unique is that it uses equilateral triangles. Each side
of the triangles is the same length.

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6.4 LAYOUT AND DESIGN SELECTED BRIDGE FOR PROJECT

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7.0 BRIDGE ANALYSIS CALCULATION

7.1 LinPro Data

a) Reaction

b) Deflection

7.2 Manual Data Calculation

a) Calculation Internal forces using Alternative method and the reaction on

pin/roller support using Equilibrium equation.
• The bridge only can support 80N during the experiment

*Note: 80N = 0.08KN

ƩMA = 0, (0.08KN) (0.6m) - RKy (1.2m) = 0

RKy = 0.04 KN (↑)

ƩFy = 0, RAy – 0.08 + 0.04 = 0

RAy = 0.04KN (↑)

ƩFx=0, RAx = 0 HA = 0

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12
Deflection data by using Virtual Work Method

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Member F (KN) µ L (m) F.µ.L

AB 0.037 0.46 0.12 0.002

BC 0.037 0.46 0.12 0.002
CD 0.111 1.38 0.12 0.018
DE 0.111 1.38 0.12 0.018
EF 0.185 2.3 0.12 0.051
FG 0.185 2.3 0.12 0.051
GH 0.111 1.38 0.12 0.018
HI 0.111 1.38 0.12 0.018
IJ 0.037 0.46 0.12 0.002
JK 0.037 0.46 0.12 0.002
KL -0.054 -0.68 0.177 0.006
LM -0.074 -0.92 0.12 0.008
MN -0.074 -0.92 0.12 0.008
NO -0.148 -1.84 0.12 0.033
OP -0.148 -1.84 0.12 0.033
PQ -0.148 -1.84 0.12 0.033
QR -0.148 -1.84 0.12 0.033
RS -0.074 -0.92 0.12 0.008
ST -0.074 -0.92 0.12 0.008
TA 0.150 0 0 0
TB 0.230 -0.116 -0.77 0.021
TC -0.054 -0.68 0.177 0.006
SC 0 0 0.13 0
RC -0.054 -0.68 0.177 0.006
RD 0 0 0.13 0
RE 0.054 0.68 0.177 0.006
EQ 0 0 0.13 0
EP -0.054 -0.68 0.177 0.006
PF 0.08 1 0.13 0.010
PG -0.054 -0.68 0.177 0.006
GO 0 0 0.13 0
GN 0.054 0.68 0.177 0.006
NH 0 0 0.13 0
NI -0.054 -0.68 0.177 0.006

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 IM 0 0 0.13 0
IL 0.054 0.68 0.177 0.006
LJ 0 0 0.13 0
Ʃ= 0.374

Where Modulus of Elasticity = 16.17x106KN/m²

Cross-sectional Area = 1.4x10-5m²

ΔF = (ƩFµL)/AE = 0.374/((1.4x10^-5m^2 )((16.17x10^6KN)/m^2 )) = 1.65x10⁻ 3 m @1.65mm

7.3 Comparison between Software Data and Manual Data

Description Linpro Software Data Manual Calculation
The Reaction on support VA=0.04KN,VG= 0.04KN VA=0.04KN,VG= 0.04KN
Internal forces Same Same
Deflection Diagram (m) 0.001984 0.001650

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8.0 DISCUSSION

The truss has been tested using the manual method. We expect our model which is using
Universal Machine Testing but unfortunately, the machine can only withstand a minimum 1kN
of load. The failure that caused it to happen is being discussed and we have concluded the
causes of the failure.

The failure is due to the stability and determinacy of the truss. According to the concept of the
truss, we have mention that trough the simple calculation to determine the stability and
determinacy of the truss, it state that the truss is statically unstable because the value of total
number of members and number of reaction is low from the value of double joints. That is why
the truss cannot support much higher load although from the external look, it is totally stable
and huge. It is a human error because we do not calculate it first in design the truss.

Our assumption that the structure will gain more strength if we used a large dimension of the
satay stick is not efficient. The strength of the structure is actually not depends on the dimension
of the structure, but there are also many factors that influence the strength of the structure such
as the type of stick, the number of joints, the number of members and many more.

The truss we made is being joined using the glue and also PVC as connector. It is not suitable
to use on joints because by using only glue and PVC, the joints of the structure do not connect
strongly and perfectly. The combination of 502 glue and hot glue should be used in joining the
joints because hot glue which is applied on the joints can help to increase the strength of the
joints and eventually the strength of the structure also will be increased.

Another factor that makes our model can’t withstand a larger load is our model is not totally
symmetry. The unsymmetrical shape of our model leads to the uneven distribution of loads to
all joints. The uneven distributions will cause some of the members exerted a larger force and
some were lesser and therefore the model will crack earlier than expected. From the result we
obtained from the analysis of structure, we found that the maximum load which is 0.08kN.

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9.0 CONCLUSION

Based on the result of the experiment that we tests, we can conclude that the bridge model that
we made can only afford low force which is not more than 0.075kN. The maximum force the
truss can afford is just only 0.15KN.

The structure cannot support larger force maybe because of the strut that we design not suitable
to bridge design. The structure tested by applying the force by hanging the load at the center of
structure. Since the structure that we made only focusing on the force center below the model,
so when the force applied on the structure, the structure at the end of the model will affected
more that make it breaks with a maximum load.

Lastly, it is because the structure was not exactly symmetry. When force is applied, the force
will not be divided equally to the other strut. So, the structure that affords more force will easily
break.

10.0 RECOMMENDATION

From the experiment, our bridge does not met the requirement of the experiment. It is because
our bridge collapse before 15 kg of weight is put on it which is only hold at 8.2kg (80N). This
might be because of the glue that we used and also because of the way we connect the satay
stick by using the joinery method that makes the bridge become less rigid than it should be.
Besides that, the type of truss that we used also plays an important role to the strength of the
bridge because different truss and joint gives different compression and tension to the internal
member of the truss. The factors that will affect the strength of a truss is the type of the truss
that we used, the connection of the joint, the length of each of the truss member and the cross
sectional area of the truss .Furthermore, the position of load also plays an important role when
conducting the experiment. With the weight of 0.9 kg ,this makes the bridge seems heavy but
poor in strength. Therefore this bridge design is not suitable enough to be built in real situation
to resist high load and is not economic to be built. As a recommendation or improvement that
our group can do is improving on the joint of the satay stick when connecting the joint. By
improving this, our group can improve the quality and the strength of our bridge in the future.
In conclusion, we did not met the requirement needed for the experiment because our bridge
failed before putting on 15 kg of load.

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REFERENCES

• Books

Static and Mechanics of Materials, R.C. Hibbeler, published in 2011 by Prentice Hall

Strutural Analysis, MenonDevdas, published by Oxford: Alpha Science in 2008.

• Websites

http://www.deldot.gov/archaeology/historic_pres/bridges/pdf/context/context_ch3_1.pdf

http://thenextgalaxy.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-truss-bridges/

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 APPENDIXES

APPENDIX 1
MINUTE OF MEETING 1/2017
BRIDGE ANALYSIS AND MODEL PROJECT
FACULTY OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
DATE : 10th April 2017 (Monday)
TIME : 8.00pm - 9.30pm
PLACE : Library UTHM
Presents:
1. Rasyiqah Binti Jahir (Chairman)
2. Shafie Bin Jurhar (Secretary)
3. Russell Dean Sungkilang
4. Ijlal Syahmi Bin Mohd Adenan
5. Mohamad Nadjmi Bin Sapuan

NO SUBJECT ACTION FEEDBACK

1.0 CHAIRPERSON ADRESS

a. Greetings to all members a. Analyze content of Go through
b. Project briefing on format and project required. design of bridge
term b. Dividing work
c. Appointing organization Chart

2.0 PAPER PRESENTATION

a. Types of bridge is briefly a. Brain-storming for Ideas accepted.
explore together with the type of bridge will
members be choosen.
b. The materials for bridge are b. Buy all material
listed listed
3.0 CLOSING
All members were reminded about their Members agreed Closing in
part and the next peogress will be satisfactionary.
present by next meeting that will be held
on 21th April 2017

Prepared by: Approved by:

(Shafie Bin Jurhar) (Rasyiqah Binti Jahir)

Secretary Chairman

19
 APPENDIX 2
MINUTE OF MEETING 2/2017
BRIDGE ANALYSIS AND MODEL PROJECT
FACULTY OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
DATE : 30th April 2017 (SUNDAY)
TIME : 2.00pm - 4.30pm
PLACE : Library UTHM
Presents:
1. Rasyiqah Binti Jahir (Chairman)
2. Shafie Bin Jurhar (Secretary)
3. Russell Dean Sungkilang
4. Ijlal Syahmi Bin Mohd Adenan
5. Mohamad Nadjmi Bin Sapuan

NO SUBJECT ACTION FEEDBACK

1.0 CHAIRPERSON ADRESS

a. Greetings to all members a. Dividing work Comparing Manual
b. Manual calculation vs b. Analyse truss using Calculation with
Linpro Software Linpro software Linpro Data Software

2.0 PAPER PRESENTATION

a. Methodology and Appratus a. Brain-storming for
making the bridge. the procedure
before making the
b. Model and Prototype bridge Ideas accepted.
b. Prototype made
first for determined
amount of loaded to
fail
3.0 CLOSING
All members were reminded about Members agreed Closing in
their part and the next peogress satisfactionary.
will be on 10th May 2016.

Prepared by: Approved by:

(Shafie Bin Jurhar) (Rasyiqah Binti Jahir)

Secretary Chairman

20
 APPENDIX 3
MINUTE OF MEETING 3/2017
BRIDGE ANALYSIS AND MODEL PROJECT
FACULTY OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
DATE : 16th May 2017 (TUESDAY)
TIME : 2.00pm - 4.30pm
PLACE : Library UTHM
Presents:
1. Rasyiqah Binti Jahir (Chairman)
2. Shafie Bin Jurhar (Secretary)
3. Russell Dean Sungkilang
4. Ijlal Syahmi Bin Mohd Adenan
5. Mohamad Nadjmi Bin Sapuan

NO SUBJECT ACTION FEEDBACK

1.0 CHAIRPERSON ADRESS
a. Greetings to all
members
b. Prototype bridge test
c. Making actual Model
d. Report
2.0 PAPER PRESENTATION
a. Making Actual Model
b. Prepare for report
3.0 CLOSING
All members were reminded
about their part and the
presentation will be held on
week 13.
a. Loaded test on prototype
has been determined--
4.5kg Ideas accepted
b. Making the actual bridge
c. Dividing works for report
a. Making the actual bridge-
4 pieces satay stick for
each members
b. Take all pictures of bridge Ideas accepted.
and all steps of procedure
are listed
Members agreed Closing in
satisfactionary.

Prepared by: Approved by:

(Shafie Bin Jurhar) (Rasyiqah Binti Jahir)

Secretary Chairman

21
PICTURES

Group member

Before the test

During the test

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