CHAPTER – 4
EDUCATIONAL ELEMENTS AND VEDA
4.1. Background of Vedic Education -
It is the opinion of the scholors that the Vedic age starts from the begining of
Indus civilization upto the birth of Budha. Vedic literature is so vast with the
inclusion of Veda-s, Vednga-s and Upaniada-s. In Vedic age, Education (ik) was
an eternal tradition which existed in India .It (Education) had a practical link with the
scientific theory. The four different catagories of castes were created by Brahm
– the
creator, along with the Universe. It is clearly said in Puruaskta of gveda, that
Brhmaas were took birth from the mouth, Katriyas were from the hand, Vaiyas
were from thais, udras were from the leg of the supreme Brahm
.1 They all had a
specific intention of their own birth2 .A Brhmaas was highly dedicated for the sake
of learning and teaching. A Katriya was sustaining his life for war and victory, by
which they held the post of Rulers. A Vaiya was maintaining his life by business. At
the end, the duty of a udra was allotted to serve all the super groups of the people
(Brhmaas, Katriyas and Vaiyas). Again it is proclaimed that as per the action
(karma) of the Individual being he may get noble place. By birth itself, a man can not
be called as Brhmaas as long he has not gone the process of
purification(Samskra)3. A boy belongs to a Brhmaa family because of his action
(Karma) he may take the position of a Katriya, Vaiya and udra4. Even though a
udra can be also occupied the position of a Brhmaas. It was the tradition of Vedic
age, as per the qualifications and his action, man used to hold the higher post. As a
result, the complete caste system of Vedic age was regulated by the action of the
individual beings not merely from his birth.5
Apart from the caste system; Varramavyavasth was so tough in ancient
India. Under this Varramavyavasth , four different life style of individual being
was recognized. As per the line of Sage Vaiha in his Vai hadharmastra, the four
different
rama-s are mentioned i.e. Brahmacarya, Ghastha, Vnaprastha and
Sanysa.6 Gautamadhamastra of Mahari Gautama also declares these four
rama-
s in a chronological order as Brahmac
ri, G hastha, Bhiku and Vaikh
nasa.7
It is believed that the whole
ramavyavasth was completely meant for a
better life of a man for hundred years. Each
rama was equally divided into twenty
five years. After a successful completion of four
rama, Individual soul (
tm)




through a cyclic process of birth (Janma) and death (Mtyu) attains (Moka) salvation.
In the stage of Brahmacaryrama, Man used to spent time with Gurukula for
learning or practice of Vidy. In Ghasthrama he used to take the responsibility as a
house holder by performing his social duty in connection to the family. After the
completion of Ghasthrama he enters into Vnaprastha by leaving all short of
family bondages. At the ends, he puts his life as Sanysi by casting off all attachments
and persuing the path to merge with Supreme Brahman to get Moka8. It is
understood that, Indian culture was so specific and purified in its nature where from
the beginning of the life of an individual being starts with some sorts of Samskras.
At the age of five, a boy used to learn and practice the alphabets in the presence of the
senior member of the family. That was known as Vidyrambha - one among the
odaa Samskras. With all seniors he used to learn the code of conduct, noble
attitudes and moral Behaviour from the family. Father used to act as his teacher
(Guru)9.
In this context, Taittiriyaprtikhyam has extended a remarkable view that,
with the help and guidance of seniors of the family, a boy used to know the alphabets
in relation to long sound (Guru) and short sound (Laghu) and also the pronunciation
of Udtta, Anudtta, Svarita sounds. Then only the boy is completely eligible to enter
the house of
crya for study10.This particular ceremony (Samskras) was not only
meant fsor Br
hmaas alone but also applied for the son of royal family who belongs
to the group of Katriyas. It is already highlighted as Vidyrambha Samskra by
name. This Samskras used to take place in the age of five years11 as narrated in
Viudharmottara Puras.
4.2. Philosophy of Human life in connection to Veda-s :-
The Vedas, regarded as the oldest among the literatures of the world, are the
original sources of the philosophy of life in ancient India. A study of these Veda-s will
enable one to get a thorough knowledge not only of the philosophy of life but also of
the whole structure of ancient Indian culture. These Veda-s verily constitute the chief
glory and the vital force of Indian life. Consequently, the entire literature and
philosophy of India, the Upaniads, Smtis and the Puras, all acknowledge the
superiority of the Vedas. The various elements of religion have been exhaustively
treated and the glory of human life and thought, ever since the beginning of this




universe, is well preserved. Hence to understand the ancient Indian philosophy of life,
it is essential to know the meaning of the word Veda.
As for the derivation of the word Veda it is found in the four roots; Vid
Sattym12, Vidl Lbhe13, Vid Vicrae14and Vid Jñne15. The root Vid Sattym is
connotative of all those attributes and virtues which are necessary to cultivate in
oneself, for the procurement of the means requisite for the satisfaction of the prime
material and physical needs of human life as also for the full development of the
human personality. The real greatness (glory) of human life consists in the cultivation
of individual power. Hence among the
rama-s (stages or periods of life),
Brahmacarya (celibacy of student-life) was installed as the first and foremost one.
During this first stage of life an individual amasses - through physical, mental and
spiritual sufferance, endurance and devotion - material useful for the next stage of
life, the Ghasthrama or the life of the house holder. The first stage of life contains
the keynote of human life and on it is based the dignity and the glory of future life of
the individual. As such, it has been regarded as the key-apparatus for the building up
of life. It is all this that the root Vid Sattym denotes.
The other root Vidl Lbhe connotes that element in the universe through
which the individual is enabled to meet his temporal life with the beatitude and
supreme energy of benevolent and ultrmundance existence. With the help of the
enlightenment gained during the first stage of life the individual is capacitated in his
second stage of the householder (Ghasthrama) to develop a sort of emotional
attachment with the world and thereby obtain a glimpse of the divine cosmic soul, that
is why the wise and the learned while acknowledging the supremacy of the
Ghasthrama over all others have regarded it as the scientific ordination of Nature.
In the Mahbhrata, the sacred epic of Indian culture, the nuptial sentiment of an
individual who has passed through the Brahmacarya phase, has been called as an
enlightened resolve or a holy vow. Consequently, the individual in the
Ghasthrama is seen striving particularly for material gains, which can also be
dubbed as desire for riches. But this desire, begotten of righteousness, is instrumental
in his accomplishing not selfish ends only but beatitude or salvation also. It is because
of this that the Ghasthrama is regarded as the key-pin or fulcrum of all the

ramas. In the Veda-s also the individual, the householder, is bidden to earn and
spend like a lord. In fine, the Ghasthrama implies the life of systematic and
harmonious development of all the faculties of the individual.





The root Vid Vicrae is indicative of the intellectual and mental development
of the individual. When an individual, tired and weary of the enjoyment of material
comforts gained through the cultivated iner power of the Brahmacarya state, begins to
feel himself depleted of strength during the state of the householder, he needs to be
replenished with power. During this state he is helped by his thoughts and ideas in the
cultivation of power. Hence he has been bidden to go with the sacrificial fuel in his
hands to the Guru, preceptor, for the purpose of prudently redevoting himself to the
rigorous life of the Brahmacarya and to attain self-realisation on the basis of his
collected experience. The preceptor discharges his duties by enlightening the
devotee’s path of self-contemplation and by directing his intellectual and mental
development by means of the experiences gained in his own life of dedicated
seclusion. The word Veda with its root Vid Vicrae has this particular utility in
human life.
The root Vid Jñne gives to the human being knowledge of his inherent
supreme perfections and of his redemption. On being initiated into the fourth stage of
the recluse, an individual can by his enlarged vision and by the realization of the fact
that God is Love, gain unbounded love of the Almighty and thereby succeed in
attaining the greatest heights of the final Beatitude. The significance of the term Veda
with its root Vid Jñne, in human life consists in this all-round development and
sublimation of the human personality.
Hence it transpires from the above discussion of the implications of the word
Veda, that the Veda-s themselves have ordained the four
rama-s of human life. It
also becomes evident that by a complete observance of the obligatios imposed by four

rama-s, an individual can succeed in realizing his ultimate goal.
4.3. Outstanding Characteristics of Vedic Education :-
The main characteristics, among others of the Indian educational system of
Vedic period, are the inculcation of the spirit of plain living and high thinking, of
brotherhood, equality, universal kinship; of cow-worship, social and public weal and
the development of the sense of the constant omnipresence of Brahma, the Great
Universal Being. The resident student during his stay at the preceptor’s hermitabe,
situated in the very lap of nature; far away from the madding world’s ignoble strifes
and invested with the fragrance of beauty, got education not only in the abstract
principles but also in their practical application to life. The beauteious nature with its




grandeur and the sweet, soothing atmosphere of the green herbiage impressed his
tender mind so much that he attached no value to the grandeur of majestic nature
around human habitations. The vast canopy of the blue sky, the soft sonorous music
of the rippling streams, the colourful sylvan heaths and the companionship with the
silly innocent fawns, all this instilled into his heart such a happiness that all the lesser
passions were totally purged out and in addition to this the umbrageous protection of
the preceptor tended to make his infant mind even forget the love of his mother and to
follow the path of duty. Apart from impressing the mind of the young student with the
sweetness of his temperament, the preceptor also paid attention towards the general
movements and conduct of the student. The parents of those days had implicit faith in
the benign goodness of the preceptor. After six months of the Student’s residence, the
preceptor carefully studied his actions and strivings. By this time such a strong
intellectual tie used to develop between the student and the preceptor that the former
did not care at all for the finger of scorn raised by anyone and regarded the due
observance of and obedience to the precepts of his teacher as his prime duty.
The Gurukulas, ikulas and
cryakulas of ancient days did not depend upon
guidance from society, as is the case with the modern educational institutions. For the
students the civic, social and political upheavals had no meaning. The divine rays of
enlightenment were diffused not by the government officers or the secretariat but by
the hermitages of preceptors and ascetics.
The human beings of the ancient days gained knowledge of the principles of
life and of education for self-development at the holy feet of the Brhmaas of India
who had purged and purified themselves through sincere penance. The preceptor, who
had attained the bliss of inward glory and happiness, had instructed even those who
lived in royal palaces.
4.4. Aim of Vedic Education -
Each and every effort must have its appropriate result. It is clearly said in
scriptures that, even a wicked man never use to engage himself in any sort of action
without having its positive result16. If we have a glance to the history of world, we
may have many civilizations which came across in contact with the life of human
being. Amongst all the civilizations, Indian civilization became oldest and richest
because of its Education system. Moreover, Education system of India was so older
than others. Ancient Education system of India was vast and wide in its nature.





Especially in Vedic period, Education system was quite remarkable and the aim of
Education was highly focused on.
4.4.1.Attainment of Salvation -
In the Vedic period, there was a great influence of Caturvarga viz. Dharma,
Artha, Kma and Moka and all four were strictly followed by the people. Among
these four principal aspects, the last one viz. Moka played a vital role particularly in
Education system of Vedic period. It was one of the principal aims in Education of
ancient India. In case the Education (ik), we used to have the word Vidy as its
synonyms. In the Viupura, it is clearly denotes the significance of the Education.
It proclaims that knowledge which can be gained through Education leads to the
Salvation (Moka)17. To get salvation the paths had been directed in various texts of
Vedic literature. Chndogya Upaniad 18 strongly declares that, by getting salvation
man used to get
nanda (Happiness). As per the doctrines of Vednta, there are two
paths for Mukti . viz 1) Jivanmukta 2) Videhamukta . A Mukti can be obtained to a life
through the bondage of birth. Atharvaveda19 clearly supports this views. Mahbhrata
also proclaims that a person who knows Brahman only eligible to get Moka20. As a
whole it can be said Vidy is the sole cause for Moka, which can be gathered through
proper Education. That’s why Manusmti says that, to acquire knowledge, it is the
first and foremost duty for a Brahmin by which the sin can be destroyed.21
4.4.2.Virtuous Behaviour –
In Vedic age, Education stood with the foundation of Dharma. Particularly the
Vedic Education followed the path of Dharma. As Manusmti rightly says “Vedokhilo
dharmamlam”.
There are ten characteristics or definitions of Dharma22 as described in text
viz. 1) Dhti 2) Kam 3)Dama 4) Asteyam 5) aucam 6) Indriyanigraha 7) Dh 8)
Vidy 9) Satyam 10) Akrodha.
Combination of all the characteristics of Dharma and their practice was the
goal of Education of Vedic age, which was deeply followed by both the teacher
(Guru) and student (iya)
Mah
bh
rata proclaims the definitions of Dharma as Dhrat
Dharmamityhu 23 means which sustain or uphold that is Dharma. Moreover,
acquiring knowledge or Vidy was only possible through Dharma. As
atapathabrhmaa 24 declares that Vidy is the only means which can make man free
from the debts of a seer.




In Vedic Education, oblation to the Almighty was the essential quality of the
students through the Educational curriculum. In Gurukula, students were taught in
such a manner where each and every activities of them were completely dedicated to
the Almighty without having expecting any result in lieu of it. Students were trained
to achieve the spiritual knowledge. By attaining the spiritual knowledge they used to
create their own familiarity. That’s why Bhagavatgt says - Spiritual Knowledge is
the supreme knowledge among all.25 As a whole, it is understood that every activities
of the Gurukula were dedicated to the God.
4.4.3.Character Development -
Character had its great significance in Vedic age. In the system of Vedic
Education, Character played a vital role. We have come across through the various
references of Vedic texts. Yajurveda26 clearly proclaims about the purification of
Character.
It is clearly instructed that to get the prominent place and positions, there must
have a perfect Character which makes the man renowned. It is the sole cause of the
Character by which a man used to get reward and honored by all. Even though, a
person having rich in property and excellent in knowledge may not be rewarded if he
does not possess an ideal character.27
The great diplomat C
akya admits the greatness of Character. By giving
emphasis on Character he says, an ideal Character of an individual can defeat the
enemy also28.
Again the same Nitistra declares that, by the proper maintenance of
Character, a man used to have strong life (yu) and better fame (Krti)29.Ê The
Character of a man is more powerful than the wealth, what he has possesses. In this
respect, the great epic Mahbhrata announces that money used to come and used to
go but Character is not like money which can be returned back if once it lost. So
Character must be properly protected with great care30.
Truth, helping others, kindness, donation are the good qualities which are all
together come under Character. Tradition says “
cra Paramo Dharma” it means
the Behaviour or Character is the utmost virtue of human life. In Vedic age, the
Character of Guru (Teacher) was so noble and ideal where he always tried to bring
the same in the student’s behaviour and character, which projects always towards
perfection. At the end of the Education, particularly at the ceremony of Convocation
(Samvartanotsva) teacher used to give advice to the pupil about the development of
character and good behaviour. The section of ikvalli of Taittiriyopaniad 31 clearly




stated that, the duties which will be conducive to life of the student that only can be
accepted not others.
Again it is also said that the wise man never accept the person who is
Characterless. A famous line says-
crahinam na Punanti Ved.
In the whole Vedic literature, we may go through the various evidences or
episodes directly or indirectly which represents the development of Character of
human beings. The Behaviour of students to his teacher, the Behaviour of teacher to
his student, the approach of a son to his father, the way of a father to behave his son,
Relation between a husband and wife and brother and sister, all the activities which
are come under the Character of a human being. Based on the character or Behaviour,
man creates a healthy environment within the society where he resides. Such things
were only taken up in a noble manner with the contact of an ideal teacher during the
learning period of a student. Apart from this, a man can learn many more when he
goes through the various texts or literature. The epic poem Rmyaa only denotes
the message of Character development. It strongly addresses that, behave like R
ma
not like R
vaa. 32
Manusm ti also strongly supports the Vedic commands. It says, an intelligent
can be disrespected if he is Characterless. 33
Further it strongly says, the Seers with their austerities, and character taught
the whole world.34
The same concept has also been clearly reflected in Bhagavatgt, that the
common man always follows the path of noble man in which way he proceeds.35
It is also understood from the Vedic literature that, A Brhmaa who has lost
his Character never enjoys the fruits of Vedic deeds.36This is the significance of
Character which has been discussed is Vedic literature in connection to the aim of
Education.
4.4.4.Physical growth-
In Vedic age Physical growth was well maintained through the regular routine
work and diet. Through the self- restraint, the regular diet, the physical growth of both
teacher (Guru) and pupil (iya) was well protected. To procure a sound physical
growth both the teacher and student used to have the obligation to the God.37
In Vedic age, people used to offer their prayer to the God in the Sacrifice
through different limbs and by that they used to get strong life. The exact references




we may come across in the line of Atharvaveda. Through a prayer it is asked that the
force ( Balam) and energy (Ojas) should circulate within the body .38
Again, there was a prayer in Yajurveda that lets the body should growth with
great force and power.39 The Physical strength was maintained by regular Yogic
postures and mind was properly controlled by the help of Pryma. It is clearly
said in Bhagavadgt that the self development or growth is only possible with own
efforts.40
In Ancient days, more importance was given to the health where a sound
health was the cause of all positive result of human life. The great Poet K
lid
sa also
understood the importance of health where he says in Kumrasambhavam that health
is the first and foremost element for any activities and it should be taken care of by
the individuals41.
By performing austerities, man use to get physical growth. In Vedic age
particularly in Gurukulas, there were different mode of purification of body which
was adopted by both the teacher and student. Outer part of physical body was purified
by regular bathing. Inner part of the body was purified by chanting of the Mantras.
This was the regular practice of the teacher (Guru) as well as the student (iya) while
they were living in Gurukulas together. There was a great significance in the
Gurukulas where much more emphasis was given on maintaining Brahmacarya. By
maintaining Brahmacarya man possesses a sound health. There are certain causes
which can responsible for the growth of body. In this respect, gveda denotes through
a Mantra that, by physical growth, by dancing, by laughing, long life can be
maintained. 42 It is believed that the body of a human being is considered as a temple
where gods are always residing there in. Atharvaveda 43 strongly supports and says
that, the wise always believes the person as Brahman.
Not only Atharvaveda alone, there were many references of such kind where
human body is considered as the place of Brahman.44
No doubt it is clear that for the better development or growth of physical body,
there were certain activities like Pryma, Yogsana, austerities which can be
performed. In Vedic age, both the teachers and students were the strong follower of
these activities for their proper development of physical growth.
4.4.5.Acquisition of Wealth-
In Vedic age, it was the aim of Education to acquire wealth. The great Sages
like Yjñavalkya and others those who have received plenty of wealth by giving their




expertness in different field of learning towards their disciple like Janaka and others.
The great disciple Janaka has given all of his properties and wealth to the great
Mahari Yjñavalkya. This concept was strongly recorded in the lines of
Bhadrayaka Upaniad . 45
Moreover, in some of the rare cases, acquisition of wealth in lieu of providing
Education to somebody was not highly accepted by the teachers (Brhamaa).
This
reference we may get in Kurma Pura.46
It means the life is fruitless, if somebody learns (knowledge) for the purpose
of teaching profession. But the tradition accepts that, through knowledge or learning
money can be gained. Hitopadea remarks on this and says, Learning (Education)
gives modesty, from modesty man gets reputation, through reputation he earns
money, through money he does religious activities, by that he gets happiness.47
Even though acquisition of wealth was not only the main purpose of learning,
but for the maintenance of life, money was required in ancient age. For that purpose
the four groups of people (Brhmaa, Katriya, Vaiya, udra) were maintaining their
life through Vidy (knowledge). Through self-learning and teaching to other,
Brhmaas were maintaining their life. Katriyas were maintaining the life and
getting money by protecting the things and showing their power, Vaiyas were
maintaining the life and getting money by business and udras were getting money
through architecture and other art work. Kmastra of Vtsyyana gives a clear
messege regarding the duties and responsibilities in a very sytematic manner.48
In Ancient India teaching was considered as donation (Vidydna). Teachers
were taking much more care of the students by providing knowledge to them. It is
clear that wealth was the ultimate aim of the teachers those who have gone through
the profession of teaching. In Mahbhrata Dro
c
rya, who acquired money by
teaching Kauravas and P
avas. But such type of the teacher of Ancient days was
highly criticized by the scholars in later period. The great poet K
lid
sa says, by
criticizing the teachers, who asked money for their teaching, are called as
businessmen in his drama Mlavikgnimitram 49 .
From these references we may conclude that the aim of Education particularly
in Vedic period was so systematic to build an all round development personality of
the child, where it is highly lack in present system of Education. In this juncture, the
present Educationist must have a glance to the past and frame a better platform to
have an easy and smooth walk for future.




4.5. Upanayana SamskƗra of a Child :-

Before entering to the Gurukula for learning, Upanayana Samskra used to
perform in Vedic age to a child. It differs from caste to caste. To a Brhmaa, it is in
the age of eight. To a Katriya, it is in the age of eleven and to a Vaiya, it is in the
age of twelve,50 from Garbhdhna. This particular Samskra used to take place in
different seasons. In this respect,
pasthamba Dharmastra declares the appropriate
time for Upanayana Samskra. For a Br
hmaa, in the spring season (Vasanta) , for a
Katriya, in summer (Grima) and for Vaiya, in Autumn (arata) are ideal to
perform.51 This Upanayana Samskra is considered as the second birth to a particular
child.52 After Upanayana , a child can be called as Dvija. Then only a child will be
eligible to know Veda Mantras by which he will be purified.
The term Upanayana is the combination of two words Upa means near and

nayanam means to bring. Literary Upanayana means “bring the child near to Guru”.
In another word it also said that bringing the child near to Brahmajñna. At the end of
the whole process of Upanayana ceremony the child learnt Gyatrimantra53, by
which his life is being protected54. To highlight the significance of Gyatrimantra,
Manusmti also directs that a Brahmacri must utter Gyatri everyday55.
Mun
akopaniad says that , after the Upanayana ceremony , the child having kua
(Grass) in his hand enter to the Gurukulas for acquiring knowledge56. From that day
onwords the Guru is considered as the father and Gyatri is considered as the mother
to the pupil 57. In !"#$% age, more emphasis has given to the character of a child or a
iya. As a result, teacher was keeping time upto six months to test the character of a
iya58. It is also clearly said that a student holding bad character was very difficult to
rectify it as described in Manusmti59. As Pranopaniad says, to rectify or to modify
the character of the student may also take more than six months time60. Learning was
only meant for the child who was capable to receive from the teacher. As it is said that
Vidy or knowledge, in form a iya comes to the teacher and said I should be given
to the student who is noble61 (mahyam suiyyaiva dadyt). Again it is believed that,
through the testing or modifying the character of the student, teacher can also judge
the learning capability of the student, by which Inner capability of the student can be
only strengthen or developed. If a child is lack of inherent quality, it is highly
impossible to make him noble. In other word if a child is not properly purified
through Samskras, it will be fruitless by putting all efforts to make an intelligent. As




a saying goes that eventhough a bamboo of the mountain Malaya is always as a

bamboo of that region, can not be sandle wood 62. Again it is said that intellect of a
child can be developed through the stric knowledge but can not be originated. A
mirror to a blind and the stric knowledge for a non-intellect person are similarly
useless63. That why, it was the first and foremost duty of a teacher to test his iya
before providing knowledge. The examination of intellectual ability was tested to his
iya and his own son also by the teacher64 in Vedic Age.

4.6. Educational Institutions of Vedic Age-

4.6.1.Gurukulas:-
It is place of learning where the iyas were staying in the family of Guru.
There were some rules and regulations which were adopted by the teacher for students
to follow. iyas used to get up early in the morning before Guru. Every day the
lesson will be given by the teacher particularly in Brhmamuhurta. Before starting the
lesson iya used to touch the feet of Guru as morning salutation. In this context
Baudhyana Dharmastra says about the salutation of students to the teacher as “ a
student should hold the right feet of teacher in his right hand and left feet of the
teacher in his left hand65. The regard and respect as it was given to the teacher by the
students, the same regard and respect was also given to the son of the teacher by the
students66. There was a great significance in Vedic Education system that, the wife of
the teacher was similarly given respect and regard just after Guru (teacher)67.
The manner of salutation was also very refinely said in our Ancient Scriptures.
A student while saluting teacher used to utter that “I myself down before you.”68
Moreover the resiprocation from the part of the teacher was so systematic, the teacher
used to bless the student by uttering long life.(
yumna Bhava). There was some
other code of conducts which was adopted in Gurukulas. Such as-
(1) Students used to obey the order of teacher.
(2) Students used to engaged himself in the service of Guru (teacher) .
(3) Students used to stand down the sitting place of teacher.
(4) Students used to maintain a pious life at Gurukulas.
(5) Students used to tie their hair and maintain ikh on their head.
(6) Students used to perform their duties without tied and hesitation.
(7) Students should humble before Guru and also inside the Gurukulas.

 


(8) He should not posseses anger.

(9) He should not jelous to his fellow students.
(10) He should collect fuel from forest and bring them to Gurukulas.
(11) He should arrange the water facility of Gurukulas every day and night.69
(12) He should not engage himself in useless talk.
(13) He used listen the command of Guru very carefully.
(14) He should sit neither very near to the Guru nor very far from the Guru.
(15)He should not sit just exactly paralal to the seat of Guru .
(16) He should not occupy the seat which has used by Guru.
(17) He should not use any kind of fragnance object.
(18) He should not have sleep in day time.
(19)He should not play in water at the time of bath.
(20) He should not plauk the leaves and flowers from the trees or plants without any
reason.
(21)He should not use pillow, bed, umbrella and chariot etc70.
(22) He should not smile, if smile he should smile by covering a cloth.
(23)He should not praise for own and tount anybody.
(24) He should acknowledge with noble qualities71.
(25)He should posses staff, sacred thread ( Upavitam) and Ka istram72.
(26) He should always think the noble of Guru by his thought, word and action73.
(27) He should invite Guru to have lesson everyday74.
(28) He should hold the left hand of Guru by his right hand before starting the lesson
by inviting75.
(29) He should speak politely Guru to start lesson.
(30)He should posses the quality of charity.
(31) He should always sit near to the right hand of Guru.
From these abovesaid guidelines, we may have an idea that the regulation of
Gurukulas was so strict and tough in its condition. Apart from this few conditional
regulations were also followed by the students in Gurukulas. For examples, if
somebody passes through Guru and iya while teaching the lesson, again a special
puj should be performed for Guru. Even if the animals like dog, snake, frog and cat
cross through Guru and iya , a three days vow ( vratam ) or three days
travelling(Ytr) should be maintained by the students. Again, any animal apart from





these, enters in middle of Guru and iya, the iya should stop his breathing for three
times and eat ghee rice to make him purify76.
All these evidences are very systematically described in the text Purtani
ik
by Lokamanya Mishra77.
4.6.2. ৙ৢikula:-
The Educational institutions of Vedic age were situated in the village of i78.
The whole village was completely surrounded by the deep forest. Learning considered
as Yajña79, which took place in the house of i. In the same house, along with the
other iyas , i also tought his own childrens. It is also observed that the houses of
is and
cryas were situated in the bank of a river or near to a mountain80. iyas
were getting knowledge from Guru or c
rya by staying with them. Some
cryas
were providing knowledge to their students (iyas) by moving one place to
another81.It means students were following Guru, by not staying in a particular place
during their period of learning.
4.6.3. િĞramas :-
The third catagory of Educational centre of Vedic age was named as
rama.
Naturally the
rama of i or
crya was ultimately known as Educational centre.
The atmosphere of
rama was quite beautiful and highly spiritualized in their nature.
In this connection, evidence can be noted from the first orenate poem of India-
Rmyaa. The
rama of Agastya which was beautifully depicted in Ayodhykn
a
of Rmyaa. The
rama was surrounded with different types of flowers, creepers
the trees and the group of deers82. In ancient India, as per scriptures, we may
understand that the
ramas of ancient Guru were situated either in the bank of river
or near to the mountain. As tradition says, the
rama of Mahari Vlmiki was
situated in the bank of river Tamas
, Vaistha
rama was in the mountain Upameru,
Sage Bharadvja’s
rama was in the river Ganga of Haridv
ra. Again the
rama of
Paraurma was also situated in Mahendraparvata. Apart from this, we may come
across with many more study centres (
ramas) in Mahbhrata also where the

rama of Kava was situated in the bank of Mlini,
rama of Vysa was in
Himlaya83, and the
rama of aunaka was in the bank of Gomati of Naimiraya
and all the
crya-s were the Kulapati of
rama-s.
4.6.4.AgrahƗra:-
In ancient India, there was a system of providing land as donation and it had
its great significance84. By reflecting this idea, the term Agrahra used to came in





connection to the donation of land. A piece of land was given to the Brhmaa for his
livilhood in liue of his teaching profession. It was meant for the teacher (Brhmaa)
for his noble profession and also for the king of his name and fame. In Upaniad, we
may have its solid example that the King Janaka has donated some land to the i
Yjñavalkya as part of Agrahra. From this, it is understood that the Agrahra just
simply a donation to the Brhmaa, where the Brhmaas (teachers) were
establishing the place as study centre and teaching their student on the spot. In Vedic
period, the Education system was flourished through Agrahra. Sometimes such
institution was run completely under the assistant of King and sometimes self
dependant85. Finally it can be concluded that Agrahra was also considered as a
learning centre of Vedic age.
4.7. Role of the Teacher in Education System:-
We all know that the Education system stands with the support of three
different foundations. In other word it may say that, the process of Education moves
under the following points. such as-
1) Teacher (Guru)
2) Student (iya)
3) Knowledge (Jñna).
Here is the third foundation - Knowledge creats a bond or link between the
first and second foundations i.e. teacher and student. If we have a glance to the past
history of Education System it is to be observed that, such Education was visualized
in Gurukulas and
ramas, where as the organized Educational institutions were very
rare .In Gurukula or
ramas, the Education was only controlled by the teacher
(Guru). It was his sole responsible to take efforts to educate the children who have
enrolled their name in his Gurukulas. Here we may have a comprehensive discussion
about the character and significance of teacher as reflected in Ancient texts.
4.7.1.Definition of Teacher:-
The teacher is the knowledge giver, who posseses noble nature, commands
over different stras, keeps the austerity as his wealth and at last he makes himself
Devine as equal to Gods. A beautiful verse rendered in Vyupura stating the
definition of a teacher. It is said , a person, who is old both in age and knowledge, out
of passion, self realised, absence of pride, benovalent and maintaining well behaviour,
is called as a teacher (
crya).86 To explain the quality of a learned man (Padita) the






Udyogaparva of Mahbhrata87 also strongly accepts the views of Vyupura. So it

is understood that a teacher, by maintaining an ideal life with noble behaviour
according to the scriptures and explains the stric knowledge to his students is called
teacher (
crya).
The activities of the teacher are mainly divided into three different aspects.
1. What type of knowledge is to be given to the students, he should posseses
and follow the same before teaching to others.
2. He should train others for the noble behaviour .
3. He should practice regularly the knowledge of stras.
Because of these abovesaid points , the teacher is also called as Guru, who
advices to the students.(Gti Upadiati iti Guru).
A teacher, by adopting the noble duties and ideals within himself ,he should
enter to the prominent work in his life i.e. self reading (Svdhyya) and discourse the
lesson(Pravacan).
To prove this concept, ikvalli of Taittiriyopaniad explains that at any cost
of a teacher should not free from self learning and providing knowledge to others.88
There should not be any cause of harm towards the teachers. He should be properly
welcomed to gain knowledge from him. He should also be treated as the symbol of
truth. He is the man without alternation. This line is highly explained in Upaniada-s
like Kathoponiad 89 and Mu
akopaniad 90. To support this view, Nradasmti also
says - As an illegal child of a mother may not sustain in a assembly of learning like
this a person can not recognized by others as he posseses knowledge through the book
without attaining the blessing of learning from a teacher.91
The above said informations regarding the quality and definition of teacher are
found in different texts of Sanskrit literature even in the texts of ti and mti.
4.7.2.Teacher (Guru) of Vedic Age:-
There was a great respect and regard to the teacher (Guru) in Vedic age. The
teacher (Guru) considered as trideva such as Brahm, Viu, and Mahevara.92 By
signifying the glory of the Guru, it is said that, a person who has not educated without
the guidance of a teacher by sitting before him, he can not be regarded or respected by
others. To know the Brahmajñana, a person should take shelter of a Guru.93
We may observe that, in Ancicnt India, teachers were catagorised into three.
Such as 1)
crya 2) Guru 3) Updhyya. First in list, the
crya, who, by fulfilling
all sorts of Samkras or Sacraments gives the knowledge of Veda to the students





(iyas) and he himself also mentains Brahmacarya life. In this respect, Manusmti
says that, “A Brhmana, who performed the Upanayana Samskra of the student and
tought the secret of Vedic knowledge along with the note on Vednga-s (limbs to
Veda-s), he is considered as
crya94. According to Vyupura, it is also said, by
getting the knowledge from stras and adopting by himself and extends the same to
the student, that person should be named as
crya95. In Ancient India the
Significance of Guru and iya was same and uniquic. Mahari Y
ska, the writer of
Nirukta has given a beautiful derivation of the term
crya by signifying of his
nature.96 He is called Acarya, he who follows the code of conduct and explains the
meaning and strengthens the intellect of the child.
The teacher had a great role to create confidence amoung the student. In this
respect Atharvaveda says, the teacher, by teaching nobal code of conduct, improves
the control upon the sense organs of the students97. The teacher should take care of the
students to fulfill their all sorts of desires. Again Atharvaveda says, teacher behaves
like Yamadeva as the symbol of rules, regulation and justice, he beheaves like
Varuadeva as he is impartial in his nature and also he beheaves like Somadeva as he
is the giver of happyness and pleasure by providing the Auadhi to eradicate the
deaseses like Ignorance (Ajñnavydhi)98. It was the sole intension of a teacher in
Upaniadic period as we observed that his students were tremendously efficient to
know stric knowledge more and more99. By that the teacher was getting atmost
satisfaction as he had cultivated the knowledge within his students100.
If we have a glance to the teachers (
cryas) of Vedic Age, we may notice
that, they had performed the Upanayana Samskra of the students and tought them
Veda-s and also the secret knowledge of Veda-s101. Again the beauty of the teacher of
Vedic age is that, they were not greedy in their nature. Vyapura, the prominent
pura among all, explains the teachers are old (mature) in their knowledge,
(jñnvdha), without greeding, salf realiser and a person of non prideness102.
There were prominent teacher of Vedic age who had contributed their
excellence to recognize themself as noble through their action or duties. They were
such as – Gtsamada, Vivmitra, Vmadeva, Budha, Bahusruta, Atri,
Satyarava, Bharadvja, Vai ha, Devtithi, Gautama, Apl, Jamadagni,
Meghtithi, Sunahepa, Kayapa, abha, Uan, Kava, Parara, Yayti,
Manu, Nrada, Gho, Bhaspati, Vk, Yami, Tva  and Vysa.





In Vedic age, the teachers were not only belonging to the community of
Brhmaa but also they were from other community. Eventhough the Kings were
belong to a Katriya community but they were prominent and expertise in various
sras-s and also by explaining Brahmavidy they themselves occupied the post of

crya. An excellent example we may get in the text of Bhadrayakopaniad,
where a King by name Pravahaa, who tought a Brhmaa disciple by named
Gautama and made him an excellent scholar. Another King by name Viv
mitra was
also a prominent teacher in Ancient India. If we have a glance to the text of Pura-s
other Katriyas Kings were also got highest respect as a teacher like Vivmitra.
Among them the King Janaka, Ajtasat were also famous teacher (
crya) of the
then period. It was the principles of the Education in Vedic age, where the mentality
and the living style of the teacher was so pious and refine by which students were
habituated with the nobility of the teacher and implemented the same in their
character and became noble.
In Vedic age, the teachers were not engaging themselves by utilizing
cosmatics and the decorative articles for them. They tought the students and made
them engaged in self study and also spent time for their own development by reading
defferent stras. The teachers were engaged with the students, those who were
capable to grasp the knowledge and also desirosus to spent time with them.
Uncivilized and uncultured people were highly abandoned by the teacher. In Ancient
days, particularly in Vedic priod, teaching of the teacher was not professional in its
nature by which they were able to earn money. The teaching profession was
considered as greater rituals (Brahmayajña or Mahyajña)103. The Profession of
teaching before the teacher was an extraordinary activity, by which the teacher used to
gain devotion, respect, diginity and ideality from the side of the students, because it
was a charity of knowledge from the teacher to the student.104
In Vedic period, a teacher (ikaka) named as Updhyya, who learns to
undergo the profession of teacher. It is also observed that the same teacher used to
learn a part or sub parts of particular Veda or sometimes he used to learn Vednga-s
also to teach the students105. His teaching profession was meant to a particular branch
of knowledge106. He was teaching his disciple (iya) within the specific knowledge
of him107. Such teacher (Updhyya) was named with the epithet of
crya according
to the N yastra of Bharata108. The epithet Updhyya takes place in various works
of the Poets and Dramatists through their writtings. If we have a glance to the drama





of Abhijñnakuntalam, in which Poet Kalidasa has uttered the word Updhyya for
Mahari Kava109. Again, in the Drama of Mudrrakasa of Vi
khadatta where we
found the word Updhyya for C
akya110.
4.7.3.Teacher (Guru) in Manusm৚ti:-
The term Guru is denotes the similar term of ikaka. In very ancient India,
the term Guru was used .The term Guru conveys the meaning that who destroys the
darkness of ignorance through his noble advice111. It is also observed the Guru who
himself performed the Samskras like Garbhdhanam, Nmakaraam, Vedrambha
etc. for his students and also provided food and shelter for them112.
4.7.4.Teacher in PƗ৆ini and Patañjali period :-
To identify the quality and nobility of a teacher we may come across many
more references, by which the work of a teacher is catagorised. As per the guidline of
Mahari Pini 113teachers are classified in to four. Such as –
(1) Among all the classifications, the place of ߥcƗrya is the highest one. By
the name of the teacher students were named. For example the student of Pini are
called as Pinya .
(2) Next to c
rya, the second place is made for PravaktƗ. The Pravakt with
the headship of
crya he used to teach Veda-s, Vednga-s and Upaniada-s .
(3) Third in list, the teacher is named as ĝrotriya, who teaches how to read
Veda-s and their rules. It was the work of rotriya who gives technical knowledge to
read Veda (Vedapryaa) to the students.
(4) The last category is named as AdhyƗpaka who teaches Dhanurvidy
(Science of Archery) and other laukika stras like
yurveda, Gndharvaveda,
Sthpatyaveda, to their student. The above said classification may be notified in
different texts, particularly in Mahbhrat also.
The great Sage Patañjali also has highlighted the classification of the teacher
in his text Mahbhya114.The teachers are named as -
1) Pr
c
rya
2) ikaka
3) Up
dhy
ya
4) Guru.
The first category of the teacher is the superior than
crya. It denotes that
who over passes the
crya through his knowledge is called Prcrya (Pragata

crya Prcrya). He is Prcrya, who have qualified and having command over





Brahmavidy (knowledge on Supreme) and he holds highest name and fame. The
second category of teacher is called ikaka , who teaches Dhanurveda,
yurveda,
Gndharvaveda etc to the student. Next to ikaka, the third classification is
Updhyya, who expertise in the sacrifice (Yajña and its regulation) and also acted as
director of Vedic ultar. The exact reference we may get in N yastra of Bharata
Muni, where the term Updhyya is used.115
4.7.5.Teacher in MahƗbhƗrata :-
The teachers who have engaged for teaching Veda-s are classified into three as
per the references of Mahbhrata116. Such as -
1) Chandovit
2) Vedavit
3) Vedyavit
By giving attention towards Pda, Ja  and Ghana etc. who teaches and
recites Veda is called Chandovit. He, who learns and teaches the sixth limbs of Veda
(Vednga-s) in perfect order to the student, is called Vedavit. He who teaches Veda-s
by knowing the secret knowledge of Veda and also provides the same to the students
is called Vedyavit.
The teachers were so affectionate towards the students. They used to act
before the students as their parents. In this respect Manusmti says the teacher was
never gone against the students and never made harm to them. He placed himself as
their father and mother117. The same idea is also reflected in Mahbhrata
particularly in Udyogaparva. The teacher used to provide the knowledge and never
harm to them. Simulteniously the students also used to show their respect and deep
regard to the teachers regularly and being engaged always for learning with the
guidance of the teacher.118
The teacher made understand the eternal truth to the students through prayers.
The concept of student-teacher relationship is highlighted in Mahbhrata in both the
direction of good and bad. It is said in Anusanaparva of Mahbhrata that, the life-
span of a student will decrease if the teacher is insulted by the students119. In case of
iya Arjuna and Guru Dro
c
rya , Arjuna approached his teacher Dro
c
rya not to
fight in war against him as he proclaimed that he is a son of him120. To answer the
question of Arjuna it said that, he engaged in war and fight against P
 ava-s,
because of Money (wealth). In Bhimaparva of Mahbhrata, Dro
c
rya spoke to
Yudhitira about the importance of wealth in human life in details121. Because of this





all the great personalities like Dro
c
rya and K p
c
rya are bound and controlled by
Kaurava. As we have noticed in Droaparva of Mahbhrata, Duryodhana with great
anger put harsh word to Dro
c
rya in the battle field122, because he is paid for the
protection of Kaurava. Dro
c
rya become silent and not responds to the word of
Duryodhana. Eventhough he was insulted by Duryodhana in war field before all but
he did not curse him because he is a teacher to a iya. In his answer to Duryodhana
he says you are my son as like Avatham
. I can not make you harm at any cost123.
The above said episode of Mahbhrata which deals with the nature of
teacher and student is highly remarkable. Vedavy
sa, with much more care elucidate
the character of Guru Dro
c
rya and iya Arjuna and Duryodhana in two different
directions. He has imphased on the greatness of the teacher and his role to moderate
and built the character of the students. Though it was not main intension of
Vedavy
sa to describe the teacher-student relationship but through his 
stric
knowledge he explained the quality of teacher and students while narrating the story
of P
 ava and Kaurava.
4.7.6.Prominent Teachers of Vedic period :
1.AjƗtaĞatru –
Aj
tasatru, a King of K

who instructs the proud Brahmin B
l
ki as to the real
nature of the self. It has been already stated how he became jealous of his
contemporary Janaka who collected in his court all the learned men of the times by
his lavish patronage. This reference we may get in Bhadrayakopaniad124. G
rgya
B
l
ki was himself “famous as a man of great reading” in the entire literary world of
the day , for “he lived among the U
naras, Satvat-Matsyas, Kuru- P
nch
las and
K
si-Videhas” and Aj
taatru was only honouring himself by honouring such a far-
famed scholar.
2.A৆Ưcin Mauna-
A
cin Mauna, an authority on ritual and contemporary of J
b
la and Chitra
Gaur
yani in the Kauitaki Br
hmaa. 125
3.Atidhanvan ĝaunaka-
Atidhanvan aunaka, the teacher of an udgitha of his pupil Udara-s
 ilya in
the Chhandogyopaniad.126





4.Atyamhas Aruni-
Atyamhas rui, a teacher in the Taittiriya Brhmaa127 who sent a pupil to
question Plakshya Dayy
mpati as to the S
vitra ( a form of Agni), for which his
people was severely rebuked.
5.AbhipratƗrin KƗkৢaseni-
Abhiprat
rin K
kaseni is mentioned in several works as engaged in
discussions on philosophical topics of Chhandogyopaniad 128(where he refuses alms
to a religious student).
6.Aru৆a AupaveĞi Gautama-
Arua Aupavei Gautama is the full name of a famous teacher whose son was
the more famous Udd
laka rui. He was himself the son of Upavea and a
contemporary of king Avapati Kaikeya whom he approached for instruction on a
particular spiritual topic. 129
7.AĞvapati Kaikeya-
Avapati Kaikeya a learned prince, and an ideal king who could boast: “ In my
kingdom there is no thief , no master , no drunkard, no man without an alter in his
house , no ignorant person, no adulterer, much less an adulterness.”He was prominent
in both politics and religion. Five great Brhmaa theologians, viz. Pr
c
na
la,
Satyayajña, Indradyumna, Jana, and Budila under the leadership of Udd
laka rui
approached him for instruction regarding the mystery of the Vav
nara self, which he
was the only man of his times to master.130 Regarding the Avapati’s special
knowledge of the doctrine of Vaiv
nara, the Brahmins said; “Venerable sir, thou
knowest Vaiv
nara thoroughly : teach us Him.131
8.AĞvala-
Avala, the Hotri priest of Janaka, king of Videha, who figures as an authority
at the sacrifice of Avamedha to which the king invited the Br
hmaas of the Kurus
and P
ñc
las . The king offered precious gifts to the Brahmin who was the “ best read
“ of them. Y
jñavalkya stepped forward , asserted his superiority , and asked his
pupils to carry away the gifts , where upon the other priests headed by Avala tested
his superiority by questions.132
9.AhinƗ િĞvatthya-
Ahin
vatthya , a sage( muni) who achieved immortality by knowledge of
the special rite called Savitram.133





10. િktƗkৢa-
kt
ka, the name of a teacher whose views are quoted on a point bearing on
the Agnichiti or pilling of the sacred fire, but are stated to be different from the “
settled practice”. 134
11.િru৆eya Svetaketu or AuddƗlaki-
rueya Svetaketu or Audd
laki, is mentioned repeatedly in the satapatha
Br
hmaa.135 As a student , he became known for his insistence on the eating of
honey which a Brahm
charin was not perimitted to take. He was to the contemporary
of the P
ñc
la king, Pravahaa Jaivali, who also gave him some instruction , He was
also a contemporary of the Videha king ,Janaka, whom he met while travelling about
with two other companions and participated in the discussion started by the king . One
of these companions was Y
jñavalkya with whom he had an another occasion a
discussion at which he was defeated136. At another time , he wnt to Samiti or Pariad
(assembly) of the P
ñc
las where he failed to answer any of the five questions put to
him by the king Pravahaa Jaivali. It is also recorded that his carreer as a student was
begun when he was twelve years old and ended when he was twenty-four and during
this perod through he studied all the Vedas under several teachers137 the study did not
produce the desired and expected effect on his character .for he returned home “
conceited, considering himself well-read and stern,” until his father brought his
ignorance home to him by questions he could not answer.Thus his entire intellectual
carreer was marked by a series of discomfitures.The Kauitaki Brhmaa refers to
him as an authority on the intricate subject of the duty of the seventeenth priest called
sadasya at the ritual of the Kauitakins , whose function was to exercise a general
superintendence over the ceremony and notify errors in its performance.
12.િsuri-
suri appears a ritual authority in the first four books of atapatha Brhmaa
and as an authority on dogmatics, specially noted for his insistence on truth in the last
book.138
13.Indrota DaivƗpa ĝaunaka-
Indrota Daivapa Saunaka is mentioned in the atapatha Brhmaa as the
priest who offciated at the Avamedha of Janmenjaya139 and in the Jaiminiya
Upaniad Brhmaa as a pupil of ruta.






14.Udaৄka ĝaulbƗyana-
Udaka Saulbayana, a contemporary of Janaka of Videha, who was tought by
him the doctrine that “ pra is Brahman”140. He was also known for his opinion that
the Daartra ceremony was the best part of the Sattra or sacrificial session.
15.UddƗlaka િru৆i-
Udd
laka rui, the son of no.6, Arua Aupavei Gautama and father of
No.11, vetaketu. His, therefore, was one of the most cultured families of the period
whose literary fame extended over several generations. He was a Kurup
ñc
la
Brahmin 141” whose son vetaketu attended the P
ñc
la Pariad. His teachers were
Arua, his father and Patañchala K
pya of Madra. His pupils were (1) proti
Kausurubindi of Kau
mbi142. (2) the famous Y
jñavalkya V
jasenaya143 who was
afterwards clever enough to beat his Guru (3) Kauitaki144. His opponents in academic
disputations whom he defeated were (1) Pr
cinayogya aucheya (2)Bhadrasena
j
taatrava ( apparently son of Aj
taatru, King of K
i, the contemporary of king
Janaka, the patron of Y
jñavalkya whom he be witched,) and (3) Svaid
yana aunak,
the champion of the northern Brahmins, challenged by Udd
laka to a disputation at
which Udd
laka had to yield to him a gold coin as token of his superiority and wanted
to become his pupil , but aunaka said he would teach him without his becoming his
pupil, His contemporaries were (1) Divod
sa Bhaimaseni and (2) V
iha
Chaikit
neya, his patron. He was chosen as the chief priest by Chitra Gangyayani for
the performance of a sacrifice to which he deputed his worthy son vetaketu.But
Chitra puts to him a question regarding future life which neither he nor his father to
whom it is referred can answer , and in the end both son and father go as pupils to
chitra for instruction which is at once given because “ they were worthy of Brahman,
being free from pride”145.To rui also is attributed the formula with which the
morning and evening sacrifice is celebrated and in several other Yajus formulae are
found traces of rui’s hand. His place in the history of Indian culture is thus
indicated by Oldenberg:” when the time shall have come for the inquiries which will
have to be made to create order out of the chotic mass of names of teachers and other
celebrities of the Br
hmaa period, it may turn out that the most important centre for
the formation and diffusion of the Br
hmaa doctrine will have to be looked for in
Aruni and in the circles which surrounded him.” Most of the important works of the
period constantly refer to him as a recognized authority on rituals and philosophy.146




16.Upakosala KƗmalƗyana-
Upakosala K
mal
yana, who was a student in the house of his teacher
Satyak
ma J
b
la for twelve years and then, instructed by Agni,became himself a
teacher. 147
17.Ushasti CƗkrƗyana-
Ushasti C
kr
yana was one of the disputants at the court of Janaka on the
occasion of his Avamedha ,Who tried to question the superiority asserted by
Y
jñavalkya and was forced to “ hold his peace.’’148 He is also mentioned as living as
a beggar with his wife at Ibhyagr
ma “ when the Kurus had been destroyed by
hailstones “ and the resulting famine, until he presented himself at the sacrifice of the
king where he is thought fit to “ take all the sacrificial offices.”149
18.Kahoঌa KauĞitaki or KauĞitakeya-
Kahoda Kauitaki or Kauitakeya is mentioned as a teacher contemporary with
Y
jñavalkya with whom he once disputes.150
19.KuĞri VƗjaĞravasa-
Kuri V
jaravasa is a teacher concerned with the lore of the sacred fire in the
atapatha Brhmaa.151
20.Kusurubinda AuddƗlaki-
Kusurubinda Audd
laki, probably a brother of vetaketu, mentioned as an
authority on rituals in several works.152
21.Kriৢ৆a Devakiputra-
Kria Devakiputra, mentioned in the Ch
ndogyopaniad153 as having learnt a
particular view of the sacrifice from Ghora ngirasa, is regarded as the person deified
later as the God Kria by both tradition and modern scholars like Weber, Grierson
and Grabe. In the Upaniad , he “ is but a scholar, eager in the pursuit of knowledge ,
belonging , perhaps, to the military caste”.
22.KauravyƗyani -Putra-
Kauravy
yani-Putra, is mentioned as a teacher to whom is attributed the
doctrine of
ka or ether in the Bhadrayakopaniad.154
23.Kraush৬uki-
Kraushuki is mentioned as a grammarian in the B haddevat
155 and Nirukta156
but as a astrologer in a parii a of the Atharvaveda.





24.Kha৆ঌika AudbhƗri-
Kha ika Audbh
ri is mentioned as a teacher of Kein in the atapatha
Brhmaa157 and as having been defeated by him as a sacrificer in Maitryai
Samhit158.
25.Gardabhi-VipƯta-
Gardabhi-Vip
ta, a Bh
radv
ja, was one of the teachers from whom king
Janaka learned a particular doctrine, viz that ”Srotra is Brahman” but whose
limitations are pointed out by Y
jñavalkya.159
26.GƗrgƯ VƗcaknavi-
G
rg
V
caknavi, a learned lady, was one of the circle of disputants who
questioned the superior knowledge claimed by Y
jñavalkya at the court of Janak on
the occasion of his Avamedha . In the end she admits :”No one , I believe , will
defeat him in any argument concerning Brahman.”160
27.Gotama RƗhnjga৆a-
Gotama R
hgaa, first mentioned in gveda161, figures in the atapatha
Brhmaa as the Purohita or family priest of King M
dhava Videha and as a bearer
of Vedic civilization in the famous passage in which Weber finds depicted three
successive stages of the eastward migration of the Br
hminical Hindus. At the time of
Himns of the gveda the ryan settlements extended over the Panjab as far as the
Sarasvati, the Yamun
, and the Gag
. Thence the ryans pushed forward , led by the
Videha M
dhava and his preceptor Gotama R
hgaa as far east as the river
Sadnir, i.e. Kharatoy (S
yaa), forming the boundary between the Koalas and
Videhas. The progress beyond this limit was stopped for sometime by the “very
uncultivated , very marshy “ land east of it, but at the time of the atapatha
Brhmaa, “there are many Br
hmaas to the east of it “ and the land was very
cultivated”.
28.GauĞala-
Gauala is a teacher represented as in disagreement with Bu ila Avatar
svi in
the Aittareya Brhmaa.162
29.GlƗva Maitreya-
Gl
va Maitreya, also known by the same of Vaka D
lbhya, is mentioned as
going out to repeat the Veda in a quit place in the Chndogyopaniad163 in connection
with the Udgitha of the dogs.He appears as pratistotri at the snake festival of the




Pancavima Brhmaa and is mentioned also in the Sa

vima Brhmaa. He is
defeated in a scholastic disputation with Maudgalya in the Gopatha Brhmaa164.
30.ChƗkra-
Ch
kra, whose full name is Revottaras Sthapati P
ava was the Sthapati [ a
royal official , a governor165 or a chief judge166 of the exiled Dushar
tu paums
yana, a
king of the S injayas and succeeded in restoring him to his royal dignity, despite the
opposition of the Kauravya king Balhika Pr
tip
ya by performing the Sautr
mani and
hence he must have been a sage rather than a warrior167
31. Chitra GƗৄgyƗyani-
Chitra G
gy
yani or G
gy
yani is mentioned as a contemporary of rui
and vetaketu in Kauitaki Upaniad.168
32.Chitra GauĞrƗya৆i-
Chitra Gaur
yai is mentioned as a teacher in the Kauitaki Brhmaa.169
33.Chelaka SƗ৆ঌilyƗyana-
Chelaka S
 ily
yana is mentioned as a teacher of one of the “ doctrines of
mystic imports” [Upaniadamde]” in the atapatha Brhmaa along with
tyyani.170
34, ChaikitƗneya Brahmadatta-
Chaikit
neya Brahmadatta is brought into connection with the Soma in
Bhadrayaka171 his patron is the Kuru King, Abhiprat
rin.
35.Chailaki Jivala-
Chailaki Jivala is a teacher in the atapatha Brhmaa172which quotes of his
views. He is represented as reproving Takshan.
36.Jana ĝƗrkarƗkৢa-
Jana 
rkar
ka is one of the five disputants who, under Udd
laka rui, went
to Avapati Kaikeya for instruction.173
37.Janaka-
Janaka, King of Videha, is one of the most prominent figures of the period,
whose court was practically the centre of Vedic culture and civilization. Though a
Videhan, he is always found to associate with the Br
hmins of the Kuru P
ñc
las, like
the sages Y
jñavalkya and vetaketu, which probably indicates that the seat of the
Upaniadic philosophy and Vedic learning was in the Kuru-P
ñc
la country rather
than in the east. Janaka is mentioned for his learning and encouragement of learned
men in several works.174 These references will show that discussion was the method




of instruction conveniently adopted by the King who could thus count quite a number
of teachers, viz .(1) Y
jñavalkya , though he was himself in his earlier years once
tought by the king (2) Jitvan Salini,(3) Udaka aulb
yana, (4) Barku V
ra, (5)
Gardabh
vip
ta Bh
radv
ja, (6) Satyak
ma J
b
la and (7)Vidagdha 
kalya.
38.Jala JƗtukar৆ya-
Jala J
tukarya achieved the pre- eminent position of the being the Purohita of
three different peoples and kings, viz, those of K
i, Videha and Koala 175.
39.JƗta ĝƗkƗyana-
J
ta 
k
yana is an authority on rituals in the Kthaka Samhit


40.JƗratkƗrava િrtabhƗga-
J
ratk
rava rtabh
ga is one of the disputants with Y
jñavalkya at the
Avamedha of Janaka.177
41.Jitvan Sailini-
Jitvan Sailini, a teacher who taught Janaka that Vk ( speech) was Brahman.178
Taponitya Pauru-ĝish৬i –
Taponitya Pauru-ishi, is the name of a teacher in the Taittiriya Upaniad179,
who believed in the supreme value of tapas or penance as contrasted with “ learning
and practicing the Veda”

43.TƗ৆ঌya-
T
 ya is the name of a teacher in the atapatha180 quoted on a point bearing
on the Agnichiti or piling of the sacred fire. The school of the T
 ins had the T
ya
Mah Brhmaa or Pancavisma Brhmaa or the Smaveda.
Tumiñja Aupoditi-
Tumiñja Aupoditi is mentioned in the Taittiriya Samhit181 as a Hotri priest at
a Sattra or sacrificial session and as having been engaged in a discussion with
Suravas .
45. Tura KƗvasheya-
Tura K
vasheya is the teacher of the doctrine regarding the fire-altar set forth
in the tenth book of the atapatha Brhmaa. S
 ilya refers to him also having
erected a fire altar on the K
roti and in that connection he makes the significant
remark:” Let there no bargaining as to sacrificial fees, for by bargaining the priests are
deprived of their place in heaven.” As a purohita, he consecrates as king Janmejaya




Parikita.182He is supposed to be mentioned in the Pancavimsa Brhmaa as Tura, the

deva-muni, the saint of the Gods.
46.Tura-ĝravas-
Tura-ravas is the name of a seer in the Pancavimsa Brhmaa183 as having ,
by the composition of two smans (chants), pleased Indra who in return gave him the
oblation of the P
r
vatas on the Yamun
.
47.Tri-ĝaৄku-
Tri-aku in the Taittiriya Upaniad184has his teaching of the Veda quoted
and is called a poet.
48.Dirgha-ĝravas-
Dirgha-ravas (far-famed) is the name of a royal seer mentioned in the
Pancavimsa Brhmaa185 as having been expelled from his kingdom and reduced to
starvation till be obtained succour from his being able to reveal or “see” a certain
S
man.
49.D৚ঌhachyut િgasti-
D hachyut gasti was the Udg
tri priest at the sattra ( sacrificial session) of
the Vibhindukiyas.186
50.Deva-bhƗga ĝrautarsha-
Deva-bh
ga rautarsha was the purohita of the two peoples, the S ñjayas and
Kurus. He is said to have taught Girija B
bhravya the science of the dissection of the
sacrificial animal (pasor vibhakti) in the Aiteriya Brhmaa187, while in the Taitteriya
Brhmaa188 he is deemed an authority on the S
vitra Agni.
51.Naka Maudgalya-
Naka Maudgalya is cited as a teacher in the atapatha189 in connection with
ceremonies concerning the death of the Agnihotrin and in the Taitteriya Upaniad190
for his view that learning and practicing the Veda are the true tapas or penance and
also in the Bhadrayaka191.
52.NƗrada-
N
rada, first mentioned as a seer in the Atharvaveda192 figures in the Aitteriya
Brhmaa as priest, with Parvata, of Harischandra, as a teacher of Somaka Sahadevya
and as anointing mbasthya and Yudh
mraushi. He mentioned as a teacher also in
the Maitryani Samhit193 and as a pupil of B haspati in the Smavidhna-
Brhmaa194 and of Sanatkumara in the Chndogya Upaniad.195




53.Patañcala KƗpya-
Patañcala K
pya , a famous teacher in the land of the Madras and a specialist
in a sacrificial lore whose reputation drew renowned pupils from the south like
Udd
laka rui and Bhujyu L
hy
yani.196
54.PippalƗda-
Pippal
da is a great sage in the Prana Upaniad197 whose instruction was
sought by six advanced students named Sukeas, Satyak
ma, Saury
yanin,Kausalya,
Vaidarbhi, and Kabandhin, who were themselves “ devoted to Brahman, firm in
Brahman”, but “ seeking for the Highest Brahman”, they “ thought that the venerable
Pipp
lada could tell them all that” and so approached him with fuel in their hands.
The, i, however, insisted on their years stay with him with penance, abstinence, and
faith as qualifying them for his instruction.
55.PravƗha৆a Jaivali-
Prav
haa Jaivali is one of the learned princes of the day whose instruction
was sought by noted Brahman scholars like vetaketu rueya and his father
Udd
laka.198 He was a leading figure in the Academy (Samiti, Pariad) of the
P
ñc
las. He was famed for his special knowledge of Udgitha (i,e. Om) along with
two other Br
hmaa scholars, Silaka 
l
vatya and Chaikit
yana D
lbhya, with
whom he had once a discussion in which he seems to have come out victorious. He
was also a specialist in the subjects connected with the mystery of life, death and
immortality of the soul, on which he put five questions which could not be answered
by vetaketu and his father.
56.PrƗti-bodhi-Putra-
Pr
ti-bodhi-Putra is the name of a teacher in the Aitteriya199 and kshyyana

rayakas.
57. Priyavrata SomƗpi or SaumƗpi-
Priyavrata Som
pi or Saum
pi is the name of a teacher in the Aitteriya
Brhmaa200 and khyyana
rayakas201. Priyavrata Rauhi
yana is the name of
a teacher in the atapatha.202
58.Babara PravƗha৆i-
Babara Prav
hai is the name of a person whose ambition was to become an
orator and by the use of the Pañcartra sacrifice he acquired rhetorical powers.203




59.Babhru Kaumbhya-
Babhru Kaumbhya is the name of a seer to whom a S
man or chant is
attributed in the Pancavimsa Brhmaa.204
60.Babhru DaivƗvridha-
Babhru Daiv
vridha is mentioned in the Aiteriya Brhmaa205 as a pupil of
Parvata and N
rada.
61.Barku VƗrৢ৆a-
Barku V
ra is a teacher in the Bhadrayaka Upaniad206who taught
Janaka Videha the doctrine that cakus ( sight) is Brahman. He is mentioned in the
atapatha Brhmaa where his views are regarded as wrong.
62.Basta RƗmakƗyana-
Basta R
mak
yana is a teacher in the Maitryai Samhit207.
63.BƗdhva-
B
dhva is the name of a teacher whose views are cited in the Aitteriya

rayaka208 on “ the four persons”, viz. those of the body , the metres, the Veda and
the great person.
64.Buঌila િĞvatarƗĞvi-
Bu ila vatar
vi is one of the six Brahmins who had a discussion with king
Avapati Kaikeya regarding “ that self called Vaivnara”.209 His views are cited in
another place in the atapatha as those of an authority on rituals. The Bhadrayaka
Upaniad makes him a contemporary of Janaka Videha who puts a question to him “
as knowing the Gyatr” .
65.Bhima Vaidarbha-
Bhima Vaidarbha is mentioned in the Aitteriya Brhmaa210 as having
received instruction regarding the substitute for the Soma juice through a succession
of teachers from Parvata and N
rada.
66.Bhujyu LƗhyƗyani-
Bhujyu L
hy
yani was one of the eight disputants who questioned the
intellectual superiority claimed by Y
jñavalkya at the Horse-sacrifice of Janaka
Videha.211
67.Madhuka Paiৄgya-
Madhuka Paigya is a teacher in the atapatha Brhmaa212 whose views are
quoted on a point regarding animal sacrifice.




68.MahƗĞƗla JƗbƗla-
Mah

la J
b
la is a teacher to whome Dh
ra 
tapareya repairs for
instruction and has a discussion with him on Agni. He himself goes along with five
other Brahmins including Udd
laka for instruction to the Katriya, King Avapati.213
69.MahidƗsa Aitteriya-
Mahid
sa Aitteriya (according to S
yaa, the son of Itar
) is the sage from
whom the Aitteriya Brhmaa and
rayaka take their names as being compiled by
him. The references to him and to his views in the
rayaka indicate that he was its
editor and not its author and was also a philosopher of distinction. His exceptional
longevity (of 116 years) is reffered to in the Chndogya Upaniad 214 as the result of
his special spiritual practices and also in the Jaiminiya Upaniad Brhamaa.
70.MƗkৢavya-
M
kavya is a teacher in the Aitteriya
rayaka215 who defines ka as the
union of earth and heaven.
71.MahƗcamasya-
Mah
camasya is the patronymic of a teacher to whom the Taitteriya

rayaka216 ascribes the addition of Mahas to the triad Bhur Bhuvas Svar.
72.MƗhitthi-
M
hitthi is the patronymic of a teacher mentioned in the atapatha Brhmaa
whose views are cited in several places217.
73.Maitreyi-
Maitreyi was the learned wife of Y
jñavalkya who“was conversant with
Brahman” while his other wife K
ty
yan
“ possessed such knowledge only as
women possess.” When Y
jñavalkya was about to renounce the life of a householder
for that of a hermit, Maitreyi insists on his giving her instruction in spiritual wisedom.
74.YƗjñavalkya-
Y
jñavalkya is a prominent authority on rituals in the atapatha Brhmaa
and on philosophy in the Bhadrayaka Upaniad. In the atapatha he, however,
appears exclusively and very frequently in the first five and the last four k
as as a
noted teacher whose opinion is appealed to as the decisive authority, although in one
place he is said to be in contradiction with the gveda218 and in another with the
Charaka-Adhvaryus, one of whom curses him. It may also be noted that these books
associated with him mention only the races settled in eastern or central Hindusthan
such as the Kuru-P
nc
las, Kosala-Videhas, viknas, and S ñjayas [with the

 


exception of the following peoples mentioned only once in them, viz. the V
hikas
(western tribes) as opposed to the Pr
cyas (eastern tribes ), Udicyas ( northern tribes),
and the Ni
dhas (southern tribes), alluded to in the name of their king, Nala
Naishadha]. While the other k
as recognize S
 ilya as the final authority and
mention only the north-western peoples, viz, the G
ndh
ras, with their king Nagnajit,
the Salvas, and the Kekayas. This shows which part of India Y
jñavalkya came from.
His association with the Kuru-p
ñc
la Brahmins, Udd
laka and his son vetaketu,
points more definitely to his place of origin. Udd
laka was one of his teachers from
whom he learnt the Mantha-doctrine219. vetaketu was one of his fellow- disciples
with whom, and another fellow- disciple, Soma ushma S
tyayajñi, he wonders about,
until he meets king Janaka of Videha, driving in a car, who stops and invites the party
to a discussion on Agnihotra. The king, dissatisfied with the Brahmins’ wisedom,
mounted hig car and drove away. The discomfited Brahmins, finding themselves out-
talked by a Katriya, wanted to challenge him to a disputation, but Y
jñavalkya,
preferring knowledge to rivalry, mounted his car, drove after the king, and overtook
him and made him teach the Agnihotra.220 Y
jñavalkya afterwords grows up to be one
of the most learned teachers of the times. His own Guru Udd
laka rui could not
hold his own in a disputation with him in a vast assembly or congress of scholars of
the entire Kuru-P
ñc
la country, which was summoned by king Janaka of Videha in
connection with his celebration of the horse-sacrifice. In that Assembly, Y
jñavalkya
asserted and maintainted his superiority in the knowledge of sacred write aganst all
the renowned scholars of the age such as (1) Avala, the Hotri priest of Janaka, who
puts to him no less than eight knotty questions regarding sacrifice;(2) J
ratk
rava
rtabh
ga, who put five questions; (3) Bhujyu L
hy
yani, who questioned him
regarding the destiny of the Parikitas who perpetrated the crime of Brahmahaty but
performed Avamedha; (4) Ushasta Ch
kr
yaa, regarding the self who is within all;
(5) Kahola Kaush
takeya, who puts a similar question;(6) G
rg
V
caknav
, the
learned lady, who engaged in repeated disputations at the end of which she publicly
declared before the Assembly; “ Venerable Brahmins, you may consider it a great
thing if you get off by bowing before him. No one, I believe, will defeat him in any
argument concerning Brahman “; (7) Vaidagdha S
kalya, who started a discussion on
the Gods at the end of which , for his impertinence, he lost his life. In conclusion,
Y
jñavalkya said: “Reverend Br
hmaas whosoever among you desires to do so, may
now question me or question me, all of you. Or whosoever among you desires it, I





shall question me, or I shall question all of you.”But those Br
hmaas durst not say
anything. Thus Y
jñavalkya justified his initial appropriation of the prize of victory
offered by the king, viz.1,000 cows to each pair of whose horns were festened ten
pdas of gold, when he said to his pupil; “Drive them away my dear”. His whilom
teacher, Janaka, also figures as his most important pupil later on. He learns from him
the Agnihotra for which he gives him 100 cows. On another occasion the king
descended from his throne to receive instruction from him as his formal pupil, for
otherwise he would not accept any reward which the king would fain give. Then
Y
jñavalkya, after tasting the knowledge previously imparted to the king by other
teachers, delivers his discourse on Brahman, at the end of which the king says; “ Sir I
gave you the Videhas, and also myself, to be together yourselves”221. Janaka also
recognized Y
jñavalkya’s special knowledge of the Mitravind
sacrifice. Y
jñavalkya
was also noted as an authority on the way in which the oblation is to be treated, on the
expiatory ceremonies in connection with the Agnihotra and on the offering of the
Omenta. He had two wives, Maitrey
and K
ty
yan
, the former being learned ,
conversant with Brahman, and the later like other women. He has a discourse on
Brahman with Maitrey
on her insistence, after which he bids a commencement
address to the world to spend the last days of his life in contemplation in the soltitude
of the forest after making a due settlement between the two wives. The concluding
passage of Bhadrayaka Upaniad 222 attributes to him the white Yajus [Suklani
yajumsi]. In the atapatha Brhmaa, Y
jñavalkya is represented as a somewhat
recalcitrant priest to whom are attributed some new views and doctrines. He protested
against the priest’s new demand that the benefit of the sacrifice should accrue in part
to the priest and said: “How can people have faith in this? Whatever be the blessing
for which the priests pray, this blessing is for the worshipper (sacrificer) alone”.His
comparative nobility of heart apparent from his prayer to the sun: “Give me light ,
varcho me dehi” instead of the usual “ Give me cows” .
75.Raikva-
Raikva is the name of the person whom the pious King Janaruti Pautr
yaa,
famed for his liberality in “ always keeping open house and building places of refuge
everywhere so that people should everywhrere eat of his food”, approached for
instruction with the present “ 600 cows, a necklace, and a carriage with mules “, But
Raikva replied : “ Fie, necklace and carriage be thine, O udra, together with the
cows”. Then the King” took again 1,000 cows, a necklace, a carriage with mules and




his own daughter”, Whereupon Raikva relented and gave him the instruction , viz,
that Vyu (air) and Pra ( breath) are to be meditated upon as Brahman223.
76.Vatsapri BhƗlandana-
Vatsapri Bh
landana is a seer to whom is attributed the V
tsapra S
man224.
77.VƗtavant-
V
tavant is a i in the Pañcavima Brhmaa225 who, commencing a certain
Sattra or sacrificial session, did not finish it and hence came to grief, while his
colleague , Dh ti carried it through, hence the D
rteyas were more prosperous than the
V
tavatas.
78.ĝilaka ĝƗlƗvatya-
ilaka 
l
vatya was a contemporary of Chaikat
yana D
lbhya and Prav
haa
Jaivali who were all well-versed in the Udgh
ta (om), on which they had a discussion
in which the Katriya proved his superiority to the Brahmins and taught them the
knowledge.226
79.ĝaunaka-
aunaka is a common patronymic. It is applied to Indrota and Svaidayana,
where Svaid
yana is champion of the northern Brahmins who were challenged to a
disputation by the famous Kuru-P
ñc
la scholar, Udd
laka rui. It is also applied to
Rauhi
yana, Atidhanvan, and K
peya while a aunaka appears as a great authority
on grammatical, ritual and other matters.227
80.SamĞravas Sauvarchanasa-
Samravas Sauvarchanasa is a teacher who has a discussion on a point of ritual
with Tumiñja.228
81.SatyakƗma JƗbƗla-
Satyak
ma J
b
la has an interesting history. Wishing to become Brahmac
rin
he asked his mother ; “ Of what family am I?”. The mother replied : “ I do not know ,
my child, of what family thou art. In my youth when I had to move about much as a
servant ( waiting on the guests in my father’s house). I concieved thee. I do not know
of what family thou art. I am Jab
l
by name, thou art Satyak
ma. Say that thou art
Satyak
ma.”. Say that thou art Satyak
ma.” The boy then approached for instruction
Gautama H
ridrumata who asked him, “ Of what family are you , my friend ?” He
reported fully what his mother had said and on this Gautama exclaimed : “ No one but
a true Br
hmaa would thus speak out.Go and fetch fuel, friend, I shall initiate you.
You have not swerved from the truth.” Thus his truthfulness dispelled all doubts as to





his origin and caste and admitted him to studentship. As a student he was equally true
and dutiful. The first duty prescribed for him by his teacher was to tend his cows, 400
lean and weak ones. But Satyak
ma resolved within himself : “ I shall not return
unless I bring back a thousand “ and so dwelt a number of years in the forest till the
number of cattle grew into his calculated figure. In the meanwhile, in the solitude of
the forest, he acquires a knowledge of o
aa-Kalvidy, the sixteen parts of
Brahman and on his return home , his teacher says to him : “ Friend, you shine like
one who knows Brahman. Who then has tought you?. Satyak
ma replied : Not men (it
is an offence to have instruction from any other man than his accepted teacher ). But
you only , Sir I wish, should teach me.” Then the teacher gave him full instruction “-
nothing was left out.” With his studentship thus nobly spent, Satyak
ma grew up to be
a famous teacher. One of his pupils mentioned is Upakosala K
mal
yana whom he
makes tend his fires for twelve years. To him is attributed the famous parable of the
rivalry of the organs in which the Pra proves its superiority to the other vital organs
( eye, ear, speech, manas,etc.) and thus doctrine ( Prasamvda) he communicated
to another pupil named Goruti Vaiy
ghrapadya.229 King Janaka Videha also seems to
have been one of his pupils to whom he imparted the doctrine that manas( mind) is
Brahman.230 One of his teachers was J
naki yastha from whom he learned the
Mantha- doctrine handed down from Udd
laka rui through a series of teachers and
pupils.
82.Satya-Vachas RƗthitara-
Satya-Vachas R
thitara is the name of a teacher who holds that truthfulness is
the one thing needful in a Brahm
c
rin231.
83.SukeĞin BhƗradvƗja-s
Sukein Bh
radv
ja, was one of a circle of six Brahmin students who
approached the i Pippal
da for instruction regarding the highest Brahman. The
reason of his seeking that instruction was his failure to answer the question on the
subject put to him by the prince of Koala ( Ayodhy
) named Hirayan
bha. The i
insisted on their staying with him for one full year in penance, obstinence and faith,
and then imparted the instruction.232
4.8. Social status of the teacher-
From Vedic period onwards, time to time the position of teacher (Guru) was
changing. As a result , the teaching profession of a Brahmin was transformed to other




community. In post-Vedic period, particularly in Mah
bh
rata stage, the role of

Brahmin which was prime nature to teach students has come to an end. In their place,
the teacher from Katriya and udra community took the same role and started
teaching. It is noticed that a hunter (Vydha) belongs to the state of Mithila advised
Kausika -A Brahmin by birth and dispelled his dark of ignorance. Rjari Janaka
taught ‘
tmatatva” to ukadeva –The son of Vedavy
sa.- In Upaniad , the
prominent scholars like Janaka and others , who belongs to Katriya community are
properly noticed. It is also observed that, the scholar Vidura – who born from a lower
caste lady , was a master in different stra. In Mah
bh
rata, more than seven
chapters are dedicated in the name of the great scholar Vidura and deals with
Viduraniti.233
Traditionally it is accepted that there are three prominent works allotted to a
Brhmaa i.e Yajana , Adhypana and accepting charity (Dna) 234. But in
Mahbhrata it is not mentioned anywhere that the teaching profession is given to
any Katriya , Vaiya and udra. Manu- the law giver has mentioned in his text
Manusmti ,that Brahmins are only responsible to teach.235To support the view of
Manusmti , Mahbhrata says the duties of Brahmin ends with teaching in
connection to Svdhyya and Adhypana.236It was a guideline for a Brahmin in the
light of Ancient Dharma stras, but in practical way this was very wide and vast
according to Mahbhrata. As per the Mahbhrata view , a person who is having
control over sense organs, righteous, attached to study of Vedas, pious, and having
control over desire and anger is called a Brhmaa.237
It is understood that for a teaching profession of a teacher does not depend
upon his cast or in which group he belongs to. Apart from that the Brahmin
community, a teacher belongs to other community also serves as a teacher. The social
status of a teacher depends upon his individual qualifications and strong reputations
among the society. Again his financial status depends upon his hard work, passion for
acquiring knowledge, expertness in all other activities and behaviour.
In Mahbhrata period, we may notice many references of ill financial status
of the teacher who belongs to Brahmin caste, even though they had a great position in
the society among other castes. Manusmti strongly supports this view for the greatest
respect of the teacher.238 By supporting the idea of Manusmti , Mahbhrata also
says the Brahmin teachers are as equal as the Gods. It is highly narrated in ntiparva
of Mahbhrata.239




In this context a beautiful anecdote we may get in Mahbhrata particularly in

Anusanaparva. The poor condition of teacher makes them to accept as the curse of
Gods or to accept as the fruit of previous birth. Once Upamanyu - the son of
Vy
ghrap
da and the elder brother of Dhaumya, in his childhood asked to get milk
rice from his mother. By getting his request, mother became upset and with great
unhappy answered him that, we are forest dweller, from where we will get milk rice
as our life is maintained with fruits and roots of the forest.240 To console him again
she said, to get milk rice and good dress you may please the Almighty Lord Siva.
With His grace only it may possible. That’s why you pray Lord Siva whole hearted to
get your desired object.241 From this instance we may conclude that even though with
the possession of Intelligence, the decency, teachers used to move through the
financial difficulties. By facing such difficulties within them they used to maintain
their life happily by accepting it as their result of previous birth.
It is also observed that the teacher (Guru) had no income at all particularly in
post Vedic period. Most probably they used to do Paurohitya karma to maintain their
life. By doing such activities what was gained by them, it was considered as their
income. Apart from this, through the dole (Daksina) which has given by the students
in the form of commodities, was the partial income to them. In Mahbhrata, we may
get many references in context to the same. Guru Dro
c
rya, K p
c
rya were the
teachers of the then period who had taken shelter to the Kings. It was the responsible
of the kings who had given all facilities to the teacher. From this concept, it is clear to
understand that by taking money from the students and in lieu of that teacher used to
teach, was considered as a nasty work for a teacher.242
By teaching Veda-s and Vednga-s to the students for the maintenance of the
life of a teacher particularly to a Brhmaa, the great law-maker Manu designates him
as an epithet of Updhyya.243
In the period of Mahbhrata, the duty of a teacher was highly regarded as a
noble profession without selfishness. Because of this, it was not a difficult task for the
students to achieve higher Education. It is also noticed that, the commodities or
money collected by the teachers for providing knowledge to the students, are
considered as udras.244 Later on, the same concept was carried out by the great poet
Kalidasa who has highlighted the attitude of the teacher as a businessman who
collects money for his teaching.245




Again it is also marked that in most of the royal family, to teach the royal
prince and princess, the king used to give appointment to a teacher permanently. In
some cases, the teachers were appointed by the king in his royal family not to teach
the royal children but to make discourse on different stras with learned scholars
before the king. Such types of teachers were known as court-poets. (Sabhpa
ita)
For an example, we may have a glance to the court of King Janaka of state
Pñcla. It is noticed that a great philosopher as well as an excellent scholar in
different stras by name Bandi who was residing as court-poet of King Janaka. His
scholarly acumen has expanded to the different parts of the country.246 The scholars
used to come to the palace of King Janaka for the discourse of different stras with
the great scholar Bandi. By getting defeat from c
rya Bandi many scholars emerged
into water and lost their life.247 It is also seen that the great Maharsi A
vakra in the
age of twelve years, came along with his uncle vetaketu, to the palace of the King
Janaka and stated strartha along with c
rya Bandi. At the end, Maharsi A
vakra
over passed upon c
rya Bandi and made him defeat through his depth knowledge
and finally earned many more honors from the King Janaka.248 This was the status of
the then teachers particularly in Vedic period.
From the above said discussion we may conclude that the position of the
teacher particularly in Vedic or Post Vedic period was so systematic. Without having
greediness in their mind to the profession of teaching, teachers used to make the
society educated through the noble teaching. Their path should be a milestone or a
guideline for the present teaching fraternity for a smooth and sound Education System
in India.
4.9.Dole (Gurudak‫܈‬i۬Ɨ) of the teacher:-
The dole of the teacher of the ancient India was not confined with a religious
or spiritual boundaries but it was meant for the dedication, commitment and
individuals attachment of the students. It is also noticed that even the teacher was not
willing to receive the Daki from the student, but sometime it was forced by the
student to receive the same by the teacher. In Avamedhikaparva of Mahbhrata we
may notice that, a student asks the teacher,” O” master, tell me, What is the dole to be
given by me for you.249 Sometime the same question may asked by the student to the
wife of the teacher also (Gurupatni).250




It is understood that, the proper guidance of the teacher was to make the
student into a perfect member of the society with adequate knowledge, by which
whatever was gained by the teacher was considered as Daki from the side of the
student.251
It was the ideal activities of the society particularly in post-Vedic period. It
was believed that without satisfying the teacher, acquiring the knowledge was highly
impossible. It was the duty of the student to get the blessing of the teacher after
completion of his learning. It is also said, there should not be any rivalry with the
teacher from the side of the student. The student should always try to keep him happy
and never give chance to get angry upon him. According to the texual evidences, it is
said that, the talk against the teacher (Gurunind) was the cause for the diminishing of
the (
yu) or life.252
For the acqusation of knowledge, the role of the teacher was prominent and
because of this reason, he was gaining utmost regard among the students. He was
getting highest respect and honour from the students. Sometime the relationship
between teacher and student was considered as the relationship like father and son. It
was also observed that after a long period of staying in Gurukulas along with teacher
and other students, there was a deep and sweet relation formed among them. In
Gurukula, the wife of the teacher was considered as mother and the daughter of the
teacher was considered as sister to the students. Therefore, it was against the law to
get marry to the daughter of the teacher by a student. In connection to this aspect, we
may come across through a beautiful evidence. A student by name Kaca, was learning
under the guidance of the Guru ukr
c
rya. When Sukr
c
rya put the proposal to
marry his daughter before Kaca, by the mean time Kaca denied to marry Devay
ni,
the daughter of Sukr
c
rya. Such type of marriage was not allowed or encouraged in
the society by considering as a sin.
It is also notice that, there was an unconditional love which was kept in the
mind of the teacher towards his students. Teacher used to feel utmost pleasure by
seeing the name and fame of his student. In post-Vedic period, particularly in
Mahbhrata age, Guru Dro
c
rya was showing utmost favour towards Arjuna as he
loved more than other prince. Even to make him incomparable to any other warriors
he took the thomb finger of Ekalavya in the form of Gurudaki who was more
powerful in archery and also equal to Arjuna. As a teacher, Guru Dro
c
rya was
thinking that, no body should be equal to Arjuna in Archery as he was so affectionate




by Guru Dro
c
rya. He was treating Arjuna as his own son. Therefore, Guru
Dro
c
rya became blind for the love and affection towards Arjuna by doing injustice
to Ekalavya –a tribal boy. It is clear that in one side it shows the deep love and
affection of Guru Dro
c
rya towards Arjuna and in other side it shows the weakness
of Guru Dro
c
rya’s character. Again it is noticed that, because of strong love and
affection towards his student, after completion of the study, teacher used to give his
daughter to his student by keeping them in marriage knot. In Upaniadic age it is also
observed that sage Udd
laka gave his daughter to his student Kahoda and sage
Gautama gave his daughter to his student Uttanka in marriage.253
As per the guidance of Manusmti 254, it is said that, the first birth of a child is
taken from his mother, second birth is made after Upanayana samskra of a Guru and
the third birth is made by listening the Veda mantras of JyotistomaYajña. By going
through these three types of birth , in second birth particularly in Upanayana
Samskra, when a child learn Veda mantras, at that time , Gyatri became mother
and
crya (Guru) became father to the child .
By showing deep surrendership towards the teacher, a student used to acheive
knowledge by going through different stras. Students were ready to do any kinds of
work of the teacher. Teacher also used to take more care for their all round
development.Sometime teacher used to take examination of the student by
considering his mental and physical abilities. In Upaniad it is said, Sage Dhaumya
had three students such as Upamanyu , rui and Veda. Once by sending rui to
check the water in farm, Sage Dhaumya took examination from rui. By pleasing
his Guru, rui became Udd
laka and got great name and fame.255 Sage Dhaumya
took examination from Upamanyu and Veda in form of Daki.256
From this discussion we may have an idea that the relationship between
teacher and student was so unique, where they stood in their part by taking the
assistant of each other. Wheather it may be a place of rama or King’s palace or at
the time of war or peace, student used to keep deep devotion to his teacher. After
completion of the learning also teacher used to accept his student as his own son and
feel proud for the name and fame of the Students. This learning system was made
strong, by providing knowledge to the student by the teacher and by giving back
something in form of Gurudaki by a student to his teacher.




4.10. Education for Women:-

If we have a glance to the world civilizations and try to know the merits and
demerits, we must know the position of the women and their educational, social,
physical, mental and psychological status. It is also to be understood in which
civilization, what sorts of changes have occured like their marriage, family life, social
rights, educational status & family atmosphere. As a result we may judge the nobility
of the civilization in connection to the socio-political status.
In Vedic age, like boys the girls were also permitted to learn by staying in
Gurukulas particularly in Vedic Education system, Even though there were no such
Educational institutions available which were meant for the girls. But they were
getting chance to learn along with boys in Gurukulas like present Co-education
system. In the then period, women particularly used to occupy the post of teacher as
well as student. The woman, who teaches others was named as Updhyy. Again the
wife of a i, was named as Updhyin. The Vedic system of Education has no root
to provide separate Educational institution to the women. It is understood the girls or
women use to get Co-ducation pattern during their learning. Such references, we may
get from Vedic period to classical period hither thither. Bhavabhuti, a prominent
dramatist, who has written the drama Uttararmacarita, where he has mentioned an
woman disciples in Valmiki rama. Again in Mlatimdhava also an woman
disciple named as K
mandak
who was staying in Gurukulas and studying along with
other disciples. Moreover, if we have a glance to the Education system of Ancient
day, we may find out, probably the wife and the daughter of the Guru, were also
studying along with other disciples. Again the daughter and the women were also
studying in their own house under the guidance of their father and senior member of
the family. As a whole we may say in both the side, particularly in mother’s house
and in mother-in-law’s house, women used to get Vedic lesson from their seniors.257
In Vedic age, the women were not only holding the responsibilities of house-
wife in their family but also she possessed the highest dignity of the society and
holding the post i by acquiring the highest knowledge. The idea has been reflected
in gveda258 and said that “ let you move to your husband’s house perform your duty
as a house wife and command over all your family members and servants politely.
From the Vedic to classical literature we may come across with many eminent
women scholars, who have contributed their excellence in the field of Education. In

 


this respect the text Bhadevat259has mentioned many eminent scholars, such as
Aditi, Ap
l
, Urva
, Godh
, Yami, Saci, Ghos
, K
ktvati, Vivav
r
, Indr
i,
Saram
, Lopamudr
, rilakmi, Medh
, Daki
, R
tri, Sry
and S
vitri. Therefore,
it is understood that there was no doubt about the women scholar, who have studied
Vedas and also gone through Upanayana Samskra. The scholar of the women, who
had the knowledge on Brahman and deep knowledge on Veda, is called
Brahmavdin. It is also observed that women had right to recite the mantras and read
Vedas. In a family, there was a time of amusement at the birth of a daughter as like a
son. Equal love and affection was bestowed upon the children both boys and girls by
the elders in their birth. To highlight the significance of women, F.E Keay says, “The
position of the women of the ryan invaders of India was infact one of authority and
honour and marriage sometimes took place by free choice of man and maid. The
customs of infant marriage and enforced windowhood were not prevalent among the
Aryan of Vedic times”.260
In Upaniadic age the Kings were the promoters as well as sustainers of
academic activities. Time to time they used to organize learned assembly by doing
“strrtha” (a debate on a particular subject) and promote the scholars by awarding
them. It is observed that there were hundred scholars who have expertised in their
field took shelter in royal palace of king Janaka and engaged for strrtha regularly.
Again it is also noticed that an eminent philosopher and great Smtikra Y
jñavalkya
also took part in the strrtha, organized by Janaka in his palace. Not only the
scholar Y
jñavalkya but also many other scholars like G
rgi and Maitreyi – the wife
of Y
jñavalkya participated in that assembly. By putting different questions on “
tm
& Paramtm” Scholar Maitreyi made astonished others and proved her intelligent.
Through the dialogue between Sulabh
and king Janaka261(Sulabh Janaka Samvda).
We may notice the scholarly acumen of women of the then period. But there after
some sort of changes had occurred in women Education because of the influence of
socio-cultural factors.
4.10.1. Education of Women in Post-Vedic Age:-
The position of women was not so good in post-Vedic period due to the
impact of social factor. Sometime they used to get torture by the enemies or sometime
a great fear they had that they may be kidnapped by the thieves. Because of these
major factors girls were not being sent to the Gurukulas which was situated in forest.
By staying at home they used to learn from their elders. There own house was





working place for them. There was no necessity to perform yajña, rdha and doing
fasting for them. Being a married woman it was her sole responsible to serve the
husband and that was considered as supreme virtue to her. As a result she used to a
attain salvation.262In this context Mah
bh
rata declares the code of conduct for
women to get a sound life. This shows the moral value of women in connection to the
social behaviours and status. As in the Vedic age Veddhyayanam was meant for girls
but later it became omitted for the girls to learn Veda. As a result it became useless to
go to Gurukulas for learning Veda for a long period of time. It was a belive of people
in the then period, particularly after Vedic period that women were less
knoweldgious. As they were not attach to Vedic studies, they were in a position of
security concerns and being kept in home with much more protection but in same
cases womens were became highly qualified by going through Vedas even though
much more obstacles were there for them. The exact references we may get in
Mah
bh
rata in many places. It is also recorded in the dialogue of Vinat
in a blessful
mode to Garu a at the time of his departure. Again in case of Kunti, while leaving her
son Kara she was praying the Gods to protect her child.263 akuntal
was also getting
the benefit to learn Veda as she was nurished by sage Kava in a
hermitage.264Through the contact of the Divine personages women used to get Vedic
knowledge. In home also, with the help of elder brothers, senior members or father,
girls used to get different 
stric knoweldge. As we may get a reference about
Draupad
, who get the knowledge of Bhaspatiniti stra from an old Brhmaa,
arranged by her brother Drupada in his palace.265
The prince and princes of G
ndh
ra - akuni and G
ndh
r
were well trained
with the knowledge of Arthastra.266 Again the princes Kunti also bestowed with
Atharvairasa mantra from sage Durv
sa and got three sons Yudhisthir, Bhima and
Arjuna by invoking Dharma, V
yu and Srya respectively. By receiving the same
mantra from Kunti with the request of King P
 u, M
dri also got two sons Nakula
and Sahadeva by chanting the mantra with the blessing of Avinikum
ra.267
From these above said references it may conclude that even though the girls of
post Vedic period were not allowed to go
rama for Vedic study but they became
trained inside the royal family with the help of guests, learned fathers and brothers on
Vedic study. Apart from this, girls were very much fond to listen stories by which
they developed their knowledge.




To teach the girls in royal family, teachers were being appointed by their
parents. We may get such reference in Mah
bh
rat, where B hannal
( the disguised
form of Arjuna) was appointed by Matsyarja to teach the girls of the royal harem in
Vir
t kingdom.268
Before marriage, the girls were trained by their mothers, fathers and brothers
and after marriage they used to get knowledge from the elders of the family. In
Mah
bh
rat we may get Kunti269 and G
ndh
ri270 as mother they tought their sister-
in-laws about the family decorum as well as spiritual thoughts.
So finally it is understood that the Education particularly in post Vedic period,
for girls was completely informal Education (Anaupacrikaik). Again it is also
noted that, the lady attendant of the royal family of King Yudhihira were expertised
in sixty four different kinds of Kal
-s, including K
mastras. An epithet “catuha hi
viradah” frequently used for them. All sorts of learnings they used to achieve
through informal Education system only.
4.10.2. Sixty four Kalas for women:-
In Ancient days the women were being provided different kinds of training on
Kal
-s (arts) by which they were enjoying a simple and gergious life after their
marriage. Prameyaratnamanjus a noted Jaina text declares about the sixty four arts
in connection to the women. These sixty four Kal
-s are completely different from the
Kmastra. All these Kal
-s are the part of women Education. As per the
Prameyaratnamajus it is said. Such as :
1.N tya 2. Aucitya
3.Ucitra 4. V
ditra (v
dya sangita)
5.Tantra 6.Mantra
7.Jñ
na 8.Vijñ
na
9.Dambha 10.Jalastambha
11.G
tam
na 12.T
lam
na
13.Meghav i 14.Phal
k i
15.r
maropana 16.k
ropana
17.Dharmavic
ra 18.Sakunas
ra
19.Kriyakalpa 20.Samk tajalpa
21.Pr
s
dan
ti 22.Dharmar
ti
23.Vaikv dhi 24.Svargasidhi
25.Surabhitailakaraa 26.Lil
sankaraa





27.Hayagajaparikaa 28.Purua-stri lakaa

29.Haimaratnabheda 30.A
daalipiparichheda
31.Tatk
labudhi 32.V
stusidhi
33.K
mavikriy
34.Vaidyakakriy

35.Kummamrama 36.S
rirama
37.Anjanayoga 38.Crnayoga
39.Hastral
ghava 40.Vacanap
ava
41.Bhojyavidhi 42.V
ijyavidhi
43.Mukhama ana 44.S
likha ana
45.Kath
kathana 46.Pupagrathana
47Vakrokti 48.K
vyaakti
49.Sph
ravidhivea 50.Sarvabh

viea
51.Abhidh
najñ
na 52.Bhuanaparid
najñ
na
53.Bh tyopac
ra 54.G h
c
ra
55.Vy
karaa 56.Paranir
karaa
57.Randhana 58.Keavandhana
59.V

n
da 60.Vita
v
da
61.Ankavic
ra 62.Lokavyavah
ra
63.Antyakarik
64.Pranaprahelik

It is also to be said that the women of rich family of the then period used to get
Education through their parents and elders. The women charecters like Damayanti and
G
ndh
ri who had acquired knowledge in their youth stage through the help of their
family members as depicted in Mah
bh
rata.
4.11. Vedic Education System- Past and Present-
As already we have discussed in the introduction that, from the beginning,
itself
ryabhumi Bhrata was teaching the religion (Dharma) and spiritually to the
whole world. India (Bhrata) was stood as the Vivaguru by preaching knowledge
related to religion and spirituality. Through the impact of the significance of culture
and noble thoughts, India became master in the world. Question arises in the mind of
the scholar, how it happens? What was the secret behind it? How such a strong system
of culture established? To answer all above questions it can be said, it is only possible
because of ancient Indian Education system. In ancient India, the nature of the
individual being particularly attitude, behaviour, thought are included within




surroundings of religion. Every activities of humanbeing became a part of religion.

Because of this reason, Education and religion became inseparable parts of human
life. Education system of India made the soul, body and mind of the individual being
pure, healthy and fertile. In this respect a great critics Thomas F.W says – “There has
been no country where the love of learning had so early as origin or has exercised so
lasting and powerful an influence. From the simple posts of Vedic age to Bengali
philosopher of the present day, there has been an interrupted succession of teachers
and scholars.”271
It is understood, in Ancient Indian Education system, nationalism took
prominent part, where it shows the attitude of nationality within the mind of Indians.
In this respect S.Radhakrishnan rightly says, “Nationalism is a modification of
gregariousness and a product of social and Educational factors.”272 From this, we may
say nationalism is wider than patriotism. There are many factors, we may come
across, while living in India , such as -
1) Thought of unity
2) Geographical boundary
3) General language
4) An unique religion
5) National and theoretical tradition and culture
6) Racial origin
These above said factors may change and develop time to time according to
the circumstances. Based on these factors, if Education established, this may be
named as national Education. The sole intention of the national Education is to create
an attitude, unit and promote for the service of the nation and society as well. Such
type of Education promotes and propogates for the upliftment and development of the
nation. It creats national integrity among the citizens of the state or country.
Education should create awareness among the people to discard the enemity. In this
regard, Pandit Nehru says,”the question of integration covers in a sense almost
everything in life. Above all covers Education. This is basic”.273There are few factors
which are the cause for the nationalism.
4.11.1.Education for all round development :-
It is the belive of all Indians that through Education only the thoughts and
ideas of individual being may be developed. It is also rightly said that, “knowledge is
the third eye of individual being”274. In other word, it is also proclaimed that, “There




was no such purity or pious other than the knowledge”275 In ancient India, Education
was not at all meant for the knowledge of book nor it was a means for livelyhood. The
influence of Education was providing the right path or direction to the people for their
better life. A.S Altekar says,”From the Vedic age onwards the central conception of
the Indians has been that it is a source of illumination, giving us a direct lead in
various spheres of life.”276 It is also explained in stras , “Education makes man to
achieve salvation .”277
In respect to the Education or knowledge, we may get many references which
are highly remarkable. Knoweldge is compared with Kalpavka.278The mental and
intellectual development used to get along with physical growth through Education. In
ancient India, particularly in Vedic period along with their regular studies, Students
used to give of training of Pryma, Srya namaskra, and other exercises to make
fit their body as well. The duties and responsibilities of the students are tought
through spirituality. As a result a student used to know that, Education is the utmost
wealth of his life by which he can attain Moka or salvation. Again, the Education
was also considered as a part of religion. In connection to the development of
religious thought, Education also helps the students for their character building,
personality development, acceptance of social duties and responsibilities, ability to
maintain their life to protect and propagate of the Indian culture etc. As rightly says
A.S Altekar ,” Infusion of spirit of piety, righteousness, formation of character ,
development of personality, inculcation of civic and social duties , promotion of
social efficiency and preservation of national culture may be described as chief aims
and ideals of Ancient Indian Education.”279 Therefore, Education plays a vital role for
the all round development of the personality of a child.
4.11.2. Education for Nationalism &Internationalism:-
Unity and co-existance are the basic aim of nationalism and Internationalism.
In Vedic Education, teacher and students used to chant the Mantra before starting the
lesson in every morning as their prayer. As it is said in Mantra, Let’s move (we both)
together, let’s have food together, let’s do the works with great courage.280 It was the
intension of the teachers and students in their mind to do think about the prosperity of
the nation. A teacher used to do prayer everyday for the benefit of his self and for the
wellbeing of the students.281The thoughts and deeds of the teacher and student were
auspicious and highly beneficial. At present, Nationalism and patriotism, these two
terms become an essential limbs to the Education system. If we have a glance in to the




Vedic Education system, these two concepts were highly reflected there in. Both the
teacher and the student used to chant the Mantras not only for their happiness and
prosperities alone but also they pray for the prosperities of the whole universe.282
Through the regular practice of the Mantra students used to achieve many
noble qualities within them. The nature of love, tolerance, forgiveness, acceptancy,
kindness, steady in thoughts etc. are the prominent of noble qualities, a student used
to create within himself and make himself fit for the society as a perfect citizen. It was
also observed that, by seing the nature of sovereignty and equality and the thought of
prosperity of the whole nation within the Education system of Vedic age, India was
termed as a nest of Indians.283 In other word, we may say the whole nation is a nest,
the citizens of India are the birds who took shelter within the nest with an intension of
unity and prosperity.
It shows the concept of nationalism & Internationalism in Vedic Education
system through the teaching learning process of Gurukulas.
4.11.3. Multidimensional Curriculum:-
To get a smooth and pleasurable life in future, in childhood particularly in
Gurukula, a systematic and multidimensional curriculum was designed for the
students to learn. Through such curriculum, a privilege has been given to the students
to understand the naturality of their own. In Ka hopaniad, there are two kinds of
knowledge explained. i,e Parvidy( Adhytmika) and Aparvidy (Laukika) . In the
first category of Parvidy , we may have spiritual and religious texts of the then
period such as Vedas , Vedngas, Upaniadas , Puras, Daranas and Nitistras
etc, which comes under this. An Aparvidy we may get epics (Itihsa) , Arthastra,
physics. (Bhautikastra) , zoology(Pranitra) , Metrology(Bhugarbhavidy) ,
Logic(Tarkastra) etc. The level of Education was so high, where as the scholars
from other country used to travel India to satisfy their doubts by acquiring the Indian
Knoweldge. In Art and craft and also in business, Vedic Education was so strong by
giving training of theoretical and practical knowledge to the students. With the
general subjects, teacher also used to give instruction to others deciplines where a
student can get more knowledge in more subjects. In Vedic age such system of
Education was prevailing by providing multidimensional curriculum for the benefits
of the students.




4.11.4. Methods of teaching:-

(i) Oral transmission of Knowledge:-
In Vedic time particularly in Education system, teaching method was made
purely direct and oral. The lesson was tought through talk (pravacana), speech
(Bhaa), listening (ravaa), memorizing(Manana) , thinking(cintana), by hearting
(ka hastha) etc. This teaching method was implemented in each and every
Gurukulas and other Educational institutions upto the Budhistic period.
(ii) Debate and Discussion:-
Inspite of oral talk or discourse there were many methods for teaching in
Vedic period. Through debate and discussion between the Guru and iya, other
methods were also adopted in Education system such as – Descriptive method,
Question-Answer method, Debate counter debate method etc.
(iii)Outings :-
Apart from the regular teaching in Gurukulas, more emphasis was also given
for agriculture, treatment for both man and animal. With regular teaching on Vedas
and Vedic related text, Practical knowledge was imparted related to nature study,
outings (Parya ana). Open and natural environment was another part of the
curriculum of Vedic Education.
(iv)Moniterial system:-
In Education system of Vedic age, monitorial scheme was also implemented.
In studentship period itself a student used to get exposure of teaching skill, as a result
in presence and absence of Guru or teacher, student took the class and managed the
Gurukulas in academic affairs. In this context, we may have the views of modern
Educationists in connection to the Vedic Education system. Andrew Bell and
Lanckuster, two prominent Educationists had studied this method and it was observed
that the same system was also implemented in Londan- a developed country
successfully in modern age. But after British rule, this method was declared unfruitful
in India.
(v)Resource person :-
Apart from the regular teaching in Vedic Educational institution, the experts or
scholars were invited by Kulapati - the head of the institution to organize the debate
in different disciplines for the benefit of the students. By organizing such type of
programmes, students used to get command over the subjects by repeatation of
listening the scholars. As we know, in present Education system, in each and every




institution, guest lectures, talks are arranged by inviting the resource person to
provide extra knowledge apart from the regular teaching practice of the students.
(vi) Seminars:-
In the past Education system, students used to get chance to gather in a
particular place along with the experts. Different issues related to the life and the
practical aspects of problem and solution were discussed through discourse
(strrtha). A platform was also created for the students to expose their views and
suggestions were given by the experts to the students to solve their problems. Such
types of discussion were helping a lot to understand the issues better. It is also
understood, such type of programme named as Vidvatpariad used to organize time to
time for the benefit of the students. As a result, students used to show case their talent
by participating in strrtha and get name and fame among the scholors.
(vii) Medium of teaching:-
The language of Sanskrit was the medium of teaching of Ancient Education
system. Starting from the Vedic period upto the birth of Buddha, the one and only
language - Sanskrit was prevailing in Vedic Gurukulas. The direct evidences we may
gather through the texts of Veda and Vedic related scriptures which were written in
Sanskrit language only. After the post-Vedic period other languages like Pali, prak ti,
thereafter Arabic and Parsi language came to the existence by Budhists and Muslim
rulers after a long gap of time. There was a time where people used to talk through the
medium of Sanskrit where Sanskrit as a common language of Vedic period.
4.11.5. Teacher-Taught Relationship:-
Teaching was considerd as a social work. Its nature was also social. From
Vedic period to modern, it had its own significance to move time to time. The Kings,
the rulers, the richmen were took the patronage of Educational institutions and
through their assistance Education was prevailing. As we said earlier Educational
institutions were established in forest named as Gurukulas, ikulas, where teacher
used to take care of the students in forest by giving training of all stric knowledge.
It is also noticed that some of the Educational institutions were running in temple
premises, Maths and somewhere in the palaces of kings, particularly in Vedic and
post-Vedic period. The salary of the teacher was not fixed, but their demands were
fulfilled by the students as well through the parents of the students .Guru-Daki
was also considered as one of the source of income of the teacher particularly in
Mah
bh
rat period. The purpose of the collection of Guru-Daki was made a token




of deep respect and regard to the teacher after completion of the study from the part of
the students. Whatever the Daki used to collect, it was spent not only for the
expenditure of Guru but it was utilised for the need and development of Gurukulas.
By this, the position of the teacher was very significant, respectful and glorious in past
Education system.
The relationship between teacher and student was so pious and perfect. That
relation was considered as the relation of a father and a son. It was the responsible and
honour of a student to receive the command and order of the teacher. For a student, it
was a pious duty at Gurukulas. A student used to accept his teacher as God
(
cryadevo Bhava) and a teacher also used to accept his student as his son by
providing food, cloth and shelter. It was the sole responsible of the teacher for the all
round development of the student particularly the physical, intellectual and spiritual
development of the student. Proper discipline was also maintained in Gurukulas by
the teacher to control the students.Violation of the rules and regulations of the
Gurukulas was turned towards regourous punishment and student also used to enter
for Pryacita sometime. Even though the position of the teacher was so high but
there was an equilibrium between the student and teacher in Educational institution.
In this respect, A.S. Altekar says, “ the relation between novice and his teacher were
final in character, they are united by mutual, confidence and affection”284
4.11.6. Examination and Diplomas:-
There was no examination system for the student in Vedic period as we have
at present. Even though there was no proper examination after the completion of the
study. The students who have completed their study, at the end they used to explain
the last lessen only in a better manner. Once a student complets his Education he used
to take to the assembly of wise by his teacher, where alk examination used to
conduct for him. This alk examination comes after the Samvartanotsava. It is
understood that a student may attend the Samvartanotsava when a teacher is
satisfied, not only the recommendation of assembly of wise.
If we have a glance of the Vedic Education system, particularly the
examination system, we may say the Education system was meant for achieving
knowledge only but not like the present system of Education to write the examination
and offer the degrees.
The student used to keep his knowledge in the tip of his tongue. Whenever and
where ever is required he used to expose his talent before the scholars by which he

 


gets appreciation of all. The identity of the student is recognized through his teacher
because it is understood that how far his teacher has tought him and imparted
knowledge to him. Again we may say, the student even in Gurukulas or after
Gurukula, used to do regular study and practice the lesson time to time.As a result,
gradually he gets master over the specific subjects. This was the Education system of
Vedic age in connection to the examination and getting the degree.
4.11.7.Universal and free Education:-
Universal Education system is made for the fulfillment of a Democracy at
present, but the same system was also available in ancient Education system. More
emphasis was also given to the universal Education in past, It is understood that
Education was considered only means for the development of the society. As much as
the people of the society get educated, the stability and prosperity of the society may
increase. In Vedic Education system, more emphasis and stress was given on that. By
which, each and every individual gets Education and become a responsible citizen of
the society. It was also the believe of the past Educationists that Education should
start from the childhood stage because the intellect, mind and memory power of the
students are more sharp to received the knowledge very fast. A.S. Altekar says in his
book Ancient Indian Education “Ancient Indians were convinced that so good results
would follow, if Education begun late in life.”285 So universal and free Education was
prevailing in ancient Gurukula system of Education to impart proper knowledge to the
students in their childhood as we notice the same in present Education system of
India. Sarvaik scheme of present Education system stresses on the universal and
free Education for the children.
4.11.8. Educational Institutions:-
As we discuss earlier that Educational institution is one of the prominent part
of Education system. There were few organizations which were considered as
Educational institutions of Vedic period.
i.)Home of the teacher as school-(Gurukula)
The teacher’s house was the Educational institution of Vedic age where
students were stayed with Guru and took lesson from him. That is why the students
were named as Antevsi. According to the view Radha Kumuda Mookerjee,”such
students improved their knowledge by mutual discussions or by instructions of
renowned specialists and celebrities in search of whom they wondered through out the
country”286.From this it is clearly understood that, a students used to get chance to





share, his thoughts or get his doubts clear as he was staying with Guru and having the
direct contact of him. For learning or achieving knowledge, he used to move from
place to place and rome here and there through out the country.
ii) Debating circles and Academy (Parishad)-
This is another category of Educational institution where student were took
part for higher knowledge particularly through the mode of debate and seminars
(strrthas). Those student whose knowledge was not at all restricted within the
Gurukulas and wanted to achieve more and took the vow of learning, such type of
students by attending the academy of Debate, satisfied themselves through their
discourse before the learned scholars. In this juncture, if we put the attention to the
Upaniad-s, we may get many references, where students of Gurukulas took
participation in Debate and got name and fame through their intellectual knowledge.
iii) Conferences (VidvatsabhƗ):-
Conferences were organized by the command of kings by inviting the scholars
from different parts of country to assemble for discourses. Once the scholars gathered
in such type of conferences they used to get explore to deliver their knowledge before
the learned scholars. Through these conferences, they had been sharing their
knowledge. As a result they used to creat their identity among the scholars through
their intellectual discourse.
Apart from these, we may get some sorts of references of Educational centres
which were regulated or controlled by stric or Vedic pandits.Vedapthi Brahmans
were established their own Educational centre according to their Vedic khs. Such
type of centres were called as caraa.287 There was also such provision for the
donation of villages to Br
hmins by the Kings, to establish the Educational centres.
They were named as Agrahra . These above said centres were established only for
the promotion and propogation of Vedic study of the then period with the patronage
of the Ancient Kings. At present, the sophisticated classroom with all sorts of advance
equipments as we are getting, it was highly absent in Vedic system of Education.
There was some remarkable significance we may observe in indigenous
Education system (Deiyaik). The nobilities and ideals of indigenous system of
Education had a great impact of the mind of scholars. The nature of such Education
system used to change time to time because of the influence of nationalism. It is true
to speak that indigenous Education system was not completely faultless. There were
some demerits within the Education method also. Such as:-




1. There was a great influence of religion.

2. There was no scope of attention towards the Education of family life
(smsrika ik).
3. More emphasis was given towards spirituality and Indian culture was
established on it.
4. Attention was given to all subjects to get command over; as a result
depth knowledge in a particular subject was absent.
5. Women Education was neglected even they had full right to get
educated.
6. Absence of text books.
7.No uniformity in teaching method.
All above said points of demerits of Ancient Education can be neglected
because there were more and more ideals and nobilities we may found. Here we may
conclude that if modification and clarification may take to improvise the Vedic
Education system by implementing the appropriate needs and propogate new ideas
according to the present scenario, Vedic Education system may turn into a noble one
where it may have an equality to the National Education system of present day.
4.12. Curriculum of Vedic Education-
Curriculum is the foundation of teaching-learning process of Education
system. To fulfill the objective of the teaching-learning process, Curriculum plays a
vital role. It is an instrument to satisfy the desire of both the teachers and students in
Education process. The complete activities of the Education system particularly in a
Gurukulas are clipped together within the aspect of curriculum. The subjects which
are to be tought in an Educational institution are also included in curriculum. The
subject matter or the curriculum of Vedic Education system was so strong and
develop in all respect. The teachers of the Gurukulas were wellversed in all sorts of
knowledge and also understood the significance of learning. They knew that,
knowledge is eternal and vast in its nature.288 To achieve the whole knowledge, age
may not be sufficient and there also have many abstacles to check it. By knowing this,
the teacher of Vedic age, dedicatedly taught the lessons as they know to the
students.289 If we have a glance to the vast literature of Vedic period , it shows the
curriculum of the then period particularly the Education system is concerned.





gveda, Yajurveda and Smaveda were considered as Sti as they were learnt
through the repeatation of the listening.Teacher used to chant Mantras, by listening to
him, the students used to follow and chant the same time to time. After a regular
practice of the Mantras, student used to get command over it. The whole teaching -
learning system of Vedic age was categorized into two levels. The first level was that,
where the Mantras were loudly taught by the teacher to the students by chanting and
second one was that, where the same Mantras were byhearted by the student after
chanting of the teacher and re-presented the same by the students before the teacher.
As a result, it was observed that the capability of the students was properly judged
through the lesson of teacher and re-presented the same by byhearting the Mantras.
That was the regular practice of Vedic Education system where students were given
chance to memorise the Mantras with correct pronounciation through proper
concentration. Therefore the Veda-s were protected and transfered from one
generation to another through the tradition of recitation. It was named as oral
transmission of knowledge of Vedic period. Whatever the knowledge was taught to
the students by the teacher at Gurukulas , it was centred on Vedas as the source of
all.290
To recite the Mantras in an exact and correct form, to know the appropriate
meaning of the words, to understand the grammatical rules, metres used in Mantras,
Astronomical and Astrological concept behind the Mantras and the rituals connected
to Mantras also taught to the student through the Vedngas - the limbs to Veda-s.
Again the whole Veda-s were tought into four sections such as Samhit, Brhmaa,

rayaka and Upaniad. All these texts were the subject matter to the students in
Gurukulas particularly in Vedic age. To know the theories and concepts behind the
Yajña, the students were given chance to learn the Brhmaa texts. So along with
Samhit texts where students used to get Mantras alone to recite, the Brhmaa texts
were also gave same priority to learn about rules and regulation of Yajña. The
scholars were concentrating more towards the concept of Yajña and its significance.
As a result privilege has given to understand the Karmak
a related to Yajña in the
curriculum of Vedic studies.
In Vedic age, the scholars were also started writing the Dharma
stra texts
according to the guidline of Veda-s. They were named as Smtistra such as
Par
arasm ti, Y
jñavalkyasm ti, Manusm ti etc. These texts were written by




observing the behaviourial attitude of individual being. All these Smti texts were also
included in the curriculum of Vedic Education system.
In Vedic age, there are two kinds of Vidy
as depicted in Upaniad.
Mu
akopaniad291, a noted Upaniad says, there are two types of Vidy
which are to
be known, such as 1) Parvidy 2) Aparvidy. Parvidy stands for knowing the
supreme Brahman. It is also known as Brahma Vidy or Upaniad Vidy. Through
Upaniadic teaching we may able to know about the nature of Parambrahma and
Uparabrahma. It is understood that the philosophical thoughts of whole Veda-s are
included in the part of Upaniad. This Parvidy is supreme among all knowledge
and is also known as Adhytmavidy. The significance of Adhytmavidy292 is
emphasised in Bhagavatgt through the discussion of Lord Krishna and Arjuna.
As our tradition says, by regular practice of Parvidy as termed as Vidy, the
sages used get salvation. In this context, Yajurveda293 declares that Vidy and Avidy
are the two types of knowledge by which, the practice Avidy leads to overpass the
death and the practice of Vidy makes man to achieve salvation.
The second type of knowledge as described in scriptures is Aparvidy. The
four Vedas i.e gveda, Yajurveda, S
mveda and Atharvaveda, six Ved
ngas i.e.
ik. Nirukta, Vykaraa, Chanda, Jyotia, and Kalpa are included within
Aparvidy. Studies on these texts with commentaries were taught in Vedic period.
The scholar, who has not gone through these texts with proper understanding and
commentaries, he was not considered as good scholar. Mah
bh
sya294 of Patañjali,
Nirukta 295 of Y
ska have explained about the significance of Aparvidy.
We may have the references in Vedic period where there were fourteen types
of Vidy were taught to the students. Four Veda-s, six Vednga-s, Pur-as, Nyya,
Mimms and Dharmastra were basically the fourteen Vidy of Vedic Education
system. In addition to theses scriptures, there were four Upaveda-s296 - additional to
Vedas taught in Gurukulas, such as –
yurveda-science of life, Dhanurveda-science
of Archery, Gndharvaveda- science of music and dance and Arthastra-science of
economy and politics. Sometimes scholars opined that, Stpatyaveda- Science of
Architecture, is one of the Upaveda-s by replacing Arthastra as fourth one. There
are also some references about the eighteen types of Vidy (A daaVidy) and
sometime it is also calculated sixty four in number (CatuahiVidy
). In post-Vedic
period, particularly in Mah
bh
rat, we may get the reference of sixtyfour Vidy as the
attenders of King Yudhihira were well-versed in the same. They were called as




Catua hiviradah, those who have expertised in sixty four types of knowledge. In
Mahbhya, Patañjali also gives description on texts which were taught in Vedic
age. According to him, four Veda-s along with their commentaries or Bh
ya-s,
different branches of different stras, Vakovkyam, Itihsas, Puras, and Vaidya
texts etc were the prominent of texts which were tought in Gurukulas.
In Arthastra,297 Kautilya has explained about the four types of Vidy which
were tought in Ancient age such as Anvikiki, trayi,(three Vedas- gveda, Yajurveda
and S
maveda), Vrt and Da
aniti etc.
In Vedic age, apart from these texts, there was a provision to learn the art
(Kal) by the students. A vivid description we may get about the definition of (Kal)
art in ukranitisra.298 By getting educated on Art, students used to make their life
fruitful and able to maintain themselves in the society. Most of the time, it was also
observed that, for the sustainance of the life, art was adopted by the students for
livelihood. In atapatha Brhmaa, there were three types of Art as explained such as
Ntyam, Gitam and Vdyam. It was also named as ilpam.299
Such type of training was given to the students in Gurukulas with proper
guidance of the teacher, as a result, students used to get explored or skilled on specific
subjects , Yjñavalkyasmti300 has given the reference of ilpakal and its training in
Gurukulas to the students. As tradition says there was sixty four Kal-s or art which
was tought to the students in Vedic period. We may get references of sixty four Kal
in Lalitavistara, Kmastra, ukranitisra, Prabandhakoa and
Sivatattvaratnkara. It was also included within the curriculum of Vedic studies
where along with other subjects, students used to get exposed and trained of sixty four
Kal or Vidy, during the study at Gurukulas.
In Ayodhy K
a of Rmyaa V
lmiki has explained the different kinds of
Vidy while explaining the qualities of R
ma. Through the epithets of R
ma as
described in Rmyaa, it is understood that all these arts were well taken and
practiced by R
ma during his learning period.301 R
ma had strong knowledge in
different kinds of Vidy as a master of all stras, Well- versed in Veda-s and
Vednga-s, Dhanurveda and other military science, knowledge on Dharma, Artha and
Kma, expert in daily and regular activities, master in tax related knowledge,
knowledge on expenditure in right direction, master in Astra and astra Vidy, good
in behavioural activities , control upon horses and elephants, strong in science of
Archery etc.




Again it is also noticed that according to caste and profession of the students
special training or learning was given to them. Responsibility of a Katriya and his
role in connection to state administration and politics was taught to a Katriya student.
The commodities, the properties and their values and transaction policy and economic
affairs were taught to a Vaiya student. Skilled works, science related ilpastra
were taught to a student of udra. Apart from the regular subjects, these subjects were
taught to the students according to their profession and capability. These subjects
were also the part of curriculum during Ancient Education system, particularly from
Vedic period to post Vedic period and also revised time to time, in respect to the
nature of the study.
Besides the three Veda-s, several works were also mentioned as the subjects of
study during Vedic period, They are :-
1.AnuĞƗsana-
According to S
ya
c
rya, Anusana302 is the name given to six Vedngas, viz
.(a) Phonetics, (b) Ritualistic knowledge (kalpa), (c) Grammar (d) Exegetics,
(e)Metrics, (f) Astronomy.
2.VidyƗ-
Vidy,303according to Syacrya, means the philosophical system of Nyya,
Mimms, etc., but it may refer , according to Eggeling 304 to such special sciences as
the Sarpavidy (science of snakes) or Viavidy.
3.VƗkovƗkyam-
Vkovkyam, apparently some special theological discourse or discourses,
similar to Brahmodya disputations or spiritual matters.According to the Geldner,305 it
is an essential part of Itihasa-Pura, the dialogue dramatic element as distinguished
from the narrative portion. In the Chndogyopaniad the term is explained by
Sankar
carya as “ the art of disputation” 306(Tarka stram).
4.ItihƗsa-PurƗ৆a-
Itihsa-Pura307 both are first mentioned in the Atharvaveda.308 Itihsa
singly is mentioned in the atapatha Brhmaa, the Jaiminiya, Bhadrayaka, and
Chndogyopaniad309. In the latter, it makes up with Pura - the fifth Veda, while
the atapatha in one passege310 identifies both with the Veda. The distinction between
the two is not clear. S
yaa (as well as Sankara) understands by Pura the
cosmological myths or accounts such as “ in the beginning this Universe was nothing
but water”,etc, and by Itihsa stories of old heroes and heroines like the story of




Pururv
and Urvasi. Y
ska311 knows only Itihsa and interprets Aitihsikas as those
who interpret the gveda by seeing in it legends where others see myths. Both, as
separate subjects, were probably known to Patañjali. 312
5.િkৢƗna-
In the Aiteriya Brhmaa313 we have the aunaepa
kna related at the
Rjasya and also the
knavids who tell the Saupara legend which is called a
Vykna in the atapatha Brhmaa314. Stories used at the Avamedha during the
year of the horse’s wandering belong to the series called cyclic ( pariplavam).
6.AnvƗkhyƗna-
Anvkhyna, literally means “after story” and hence supplementary narrative.
In two of its uses, however, in the atapatha Brhmaa, it merely indicates a
subsequent portion of the book, while in the third passage315 it is distinguished from
Itihsa proper.
7.AnuvyƗkhyƗna-
Anuvykhyna, (glosses) is a species of writing refered to in the
Bhadrayaka Upaniad316 which Sankara interprets as “explanation of the
Mantras”.
8.VyƗkhyƗna-
Vykhyna used in the sense of ”commentary” (Arthavda) in the
Bhadrayaka 317 and in some passages of the atapatha Brhmaa318 but in another
passage of the later it means only a “narrative” , e.g. that of the dispute of Kadr and
Supar
. Sankara connects it with Stras and Anuvykhyna with Mantras or Slokas.
9.GƗthƗ-
Gth, a gvedic319 term meaning “song or verse”, in one place is classed
with N
r
samsi and Raibh
. The Aiteriya
rayaka regards it as a form of verse with
Rik, Kumby, while the Aiteriya Brhmaa regards Rik as divine and Gth, human.
Several Gths epitomizing the sacrifices of famous kings are preserved in the
atapatha Brhmaa,320 some of which are of the nature of Dnastutis or praises of
gifts like N
r
ams
verses as defined in the Bhadevat. S
yaa identifies the two but
refers to the other view that Gth-s are verses like that about “ the great snake driven
from the lake” while N
r
amsis “ telling about men” would be such as that regarding
Janamejaya and his horses.




10.NƗrƗĞamsƯ-
Nrams occures first in gveda321 and is distinguished from Gth in later
works. The Kthaka Samhit322 while distinguishing the two , affirms that both are
false (antam), while the Taitteriya Brhmaa323 has the phrase “a Gth celebrating
men”(N
r
ams
).
11.BrƗhma৆a,-
Brhmaa, means “religious explanation”, is the title of class of books
mentioned as such in the Nirukta324 and also in the Taitteriya
rayaka325.
12.KৢatravidyƗ-
Katravidy, the science of the ruling class, is mentioned in the Ch
ndogya
Upaniad326. Sankara glosses the term with Dhanurveda, the science of the bow.
13.RƗĞi-
Ri327 is explained by Sankara as Ganitam, science of numbers or arithmetic.
14.Nakৢatra VidyƗ-
Nakatra Vidy, the science of the lunar mansions, astronomy is mentioned
with other sciences in the Chndogya Upaniad328, which Sankara explains as
Jyotiam.
15.Bhnjta VidyƗ-
Bhta Vidy, which is Macdonell takes as the science of creatures that trouble
men and of the means warding them off, and hence it may be “ demonology”. It is
also the one of the sciences mentioned in the Chndogya Upaniad. Sankara explains
Bhutantram, literally the science of life. Ragar
m
nuja, however takes it as “the art
of controlling “(Vaikaraa Vidy). We may note in this connection the art termed
My in the atapatha Brahma329 which corresponds to the Asura-Vidy according
to the commentator of the khyana and
valyana rauta Stras.
16.Sarpa VidyƗ-
Sarpa Vidy, the science of snakes is mentioned in the Chndogya Upaniad
as well as in the atapatha Brhmaa330 by which the commentator on
valyana
rauta Stra understands the K
yap
ya and other treatises (tantra) on venoms. That
it was a well-developed science is evident from the fact that a section (parvan) of it is
required to be recited. The Gopatha Brhmaa has the form Sarpa-veda. Sankara
explains it as Garu
a-Vidy.




17.AtharvƗৄgirasaত-
Atharvgirasa, is the collective name of the Atharvaveda in some of the
Brhmaas. The term Atharvgirasa is occures once in Atharvaveda331. The first
part of the name probably refers to the auspicious practices of the Veda (bheajni)
and the second to its hostile witchcraft (Ytu or abhicra) associated respectively with
the two mythic personages Ghora
girasa and Bhiaja
tharvan.
18.Daiva-
Daiva appears in the list of sciences in the Chndogya Upaniad where
Sankara explains it as Utptajñna ,the knowledge of portents.
19.Nidhi-
Nidhi also appears in the list of sciences of the Chndogya Upaniad and is
taken by Sankara to mean Mahkldinidhi-stram and by Ragarmnuja as
Nidhi-daronopya-stram which is probably some science of divination.
20.Pitrya-
Pitrya appears in the Chndogya Upaniad list of sciences and is taken by
Sankara to mean rituals so far as they concern the worship of the manes (rddha-
kalpa).
21.Snjtra-
Stra (prose formulae) is used in the Bhadrayaka Upanisad332 in the sense
of a book of rules for the guidance of sacrifices and so forth.
22,Upaniৢad-
Upaniad as a class of literature is mentioned first in the Bhadrayaka
Upaniad333. Some of the sections of the Taittiriya Upaniad also end with the words
Ityupaniad, while the Aitteriya
rayaka commences its third part with the title “
The Upaniad of the Samhit” which occures in the khyana
rayaka.
23.ĝloka-
loka,in the Bhadrayaka Upaniad is rendered by Sankara as those
Mantra-s which are to be found not in the Veda-s but in the Brhmaa-s
( Brhmaprabhav mantr).
24.The Veda of Vedas-
The Veda of Veda-s (Ved
n
m Veda) in the Chndogya Upaniad is
explained Sankara to mean “grammar of old Sanskrit” through which the five Veda-s
to be understood (Ved
n
m Bh
rata-pañcam
n
m).

 


25,EkƗyana-
Ekyana in the Chndogya Upaniad is explained by Sankara as Niti-stram,
or science of conduct; literally, “ the only and narrow and right path of morality.”
26. Deva VidyƗ-
Deva Vidy in the Chndogya Upaniad is taken by Sankara to mean Nirukta
or Exegetics but Ragar
m
nuja explains it as “the science of the worship of
Gods”(devatopsanprakra-vidy).
27.Brahma-VidyƗ-
Brahma-Vidy in the Chndogya Upaniad is explained by Sankara to mean
the Vedgas of ik (pronounciation), Kalpa (ceremonial), and Chanda (prosody).
28.Deva-Jana- VidyƗ-
Deva-Jana-Vidy is the last in the Chndogya Upaniad list of subjects of
study, means, according to Sankara, the arts affected by the lesser Gods such as the
making of perfumes (Gandhayukti, which the commentator on Sankara explains as
Kukumdi-sampdanam, which may mean dyeing), dancing, singing, playing on
musical instruments, and other fine arts (Ntya, Gita, Vdya, ilpdivijñnni).
Ragar
m
nuja, however, spilts up the compound into two parts, viz, Deva-vidy -
the arts of the Gndharvas, and Jana-vidy - Science of Medicine(
yurveda).
4.13. Convocation- SamƗvartana-
It is clearly observed, that the students, staying with teacher house for period
of ten or twelve or sometime twenty four years, after the completion of their study of
Veda they entered to the second stage of life i.e. Ghasthrama. Baudhyana
Dharma stra says, a student as long he has not made Veda under his control upto
that period he may stay with teacher for studying Veda.334It was a regular practice of
Gurukulas, where Samvartana ceremony was organized after the completion of the
student’s learning. The term Samvartana is technically known as coming or
returning back to home. This ceremony used to organize at the end of the
Brahmacaryrama period when a student is eligible for entering to Ghasthrama
after the completion of his learning. There was no such provision of Vedic Education
system to provide fee to the teacher, as at present we may get such references.
Providing knowledge to the student by a teacher was considered as noble and pious
service to mankind. The teaching of the teacher to a student was incomparable with
any object of the world335.





Eventhough there was no provision for the payment of fee for learning but a
system of service towards the teacher by students was implemented in use of
commodities or sacrifice. Such system was known as Gurudaki of a student to the
teacher after the completion of his study. Dharma stras have given many references
about Gurudaki336 ,by stating that, a student enters to Samvartana by providing
Gurudaki to his teacher as a token of deep respect and honour.
As we said earlier, Diknta Bhaam or Samvartana Upadea took place
in Gurukula when a student complites his Education. In a suitable and specific day,
students used to make clean his body and mind both inner and outer by a deep oath,
entered to the premises of Guru. In that meeting hall, teacher used to give advices to
the students for their future life. Such Upadea, students take in their mind and apply
the same in their day to day life for a better, sound and comfortable Ghastrama.
Diknta Upadea has been described in many Sanskrit scriptures in hither
and thither. But we may get a vivid description on Samvartana Upadea in
Taittiriyopaniad of eleventh Anuvka337 or lesson. The advice goes on like-
1.Speak the truth.
2.Practice or follow the virtue.
3. Do not neglect the Vedic studies.
4.Present or offer your teacher the gifts that he likes and take care of your
family lineage not to break.
5. Do not neglect truthfulness.
6.Do not neglect your duties or virtues.
7.Do not neglect your health or well being.
8.Do not neglect prosperity.
9. Do not neglect the study as well as the teaching of Veda.
10.Do not neglect the liabilities towards the God and fore-fathers.
11.Respect or revere your mother as God.
12.Respect or revere your father as God .
13.Respect or revere your teacher as God.
14.Respect or revere your guest as God.
15.Do not do the activities or deeds which are unsensurable.
16. Observe or practice those deeds which are considered to be the good and
not others.
17. Provide the learned Brhmaa (teacher) with the seat and entertain them.




18.Do not sit until they (teachers) do not take their seat.
19.Provide the gift with generous heart.
20.Gift should be offered an alogous to one’s own financial condition.
21.Gift should be offered without hesitation (due to society) and fear (due to
the principle)
22. Provide the things with Sympathy.
23. Consult with the learned scholar, who is a man of character and free from
bias, if you have doubt in any activities.
24.Obtain the counsel of the scholar who is learned, expert and unbias with
courteously.
25.Follow the opinion of the learned scholars as they instructed.
26. This is command. This is advice. This order comes from Veda. This is
principle. You should adore these because they are adorable.
This Samvartana Samskra is accepted as a prominent Samskra among
others. Like Taittiriyopaniad, Samvartana advice is also discussed in Vimnastna
of Carakasamhit338 and ntiparva of Mahbhrata.339The third and forth chapters
of ntiparva of Mahbhrata are describing the advice of Samvartana where there
was a conversation between the teacher and students. The advice goes on like this:-
1.Always provide things to Brhmaa.
2.Serve Brhmaa, if desire to get Brahmaloka
3. Propogate or promote Veda-s.
4.Vedic knowledge should not be given to a Aiya ( a person who has not
taken iyatva)
5.Vedic knowledge should not be given to iya who has not having vow
(vrata) within him.
6.Vedic knowledge should not be given to iya who is incapable to receive
the same.
7.Should know the concept with proper justification .
8. At any cost Veda Vidy, the knowledge on veda should not be given to
iya whose character is not examined.
9. Should examine the character of the students according to the background
of the family.
10. Should not engage the student in Veda-s with fear.





11. Knoweldge should be fruitful and utilised as per the capability and
capacity of the student.
12.All should achieve their goal.
13.All should see the noble and auspicious.
14.Provide knowledge to all four Varna-s keeping Brhmaa in first priority.
15.Should learn Veda-s and do practice accordingly.
16.Pray the Gods with Veda-s as it is self originated.
17.Advice should be followed from Veda-s and kept always in heart.
After listening the Upadea of Guru students say :-
We will follow the command as you directed. We will take Vedas from
Mountain to the Earth to propogate as per your instruction.
Again teacher( Guru) advices:-
18.Should go to the Earth or the Heaven ,wherever you like ,without getting
hindrance or abstacles in your work.
19.Should follow the advice of Guru, and do pradakiam before saluting
Vy
sa.
Not only in Vedas and Vedic related texts, but also we may find the advice of
Guru in other classical literatures. In Raghuvama Mah
k
vya, poet K
lid
sa has
given a vivid description on Samvartana Upadea when Kautsa has complited his
learning under the guidance of Guru Varatantu. It is also notice that “ Kautsa was
ready to give Daki to his Guru but Varatantu was pleased with his deep devotion
and was not asking any Daki from Kautsa.340 When iya Kautsa asked repeatedly
to provide Daki, Varatantu got angry and asked twenty four crores of gold coins in
lieu of twenty four types of learning.
Therefore Kautsa went to the King Raghu and King Raghu gave more gold
coins to Kautsa by getting from Kubera341, but Kautsa received the exact gold coins
which was asked by his teacher. Not more than that.342
The Dole was not only meant for teacher alone. It was also dedicated to satisfy
the wife of the teacher. Student used to ask the wish of the Gurumt to fulfill her
desire.343 In completion of Brahmacaryrama, students entered to his house after
getting Samvartana Upadea from the teacher. He used to practice the knowledge
which was received by his teacher at Gurukulas. Whenever students felt to meet
teacher again to make his doubt clear, he may enter to the Gurukulas with proper
instruction or guideline of Dharma stra. In this context
pasthambadharmastra




says, a student may enter to Gurukula again if he desires, with proper code of
conduct.344This was Samvartana Samskra of Vedic period as narrated in different
tra.
4.14. Lifetime learning at Gurukulas-
There was a trend in Vedic Education system where a student can stay and
study for whole life.345 Such type of Education or Vedbhysa was also persisting in
ancient age. We may have different terminology on this particular learning.
Yjñavalkyasmti346 termed as Nai hikabrahmacri and define as, a student, who
learns Veda till his life under the guidance of his preceptor. Viusmti347 also
explains the nature of the student who enters the Nai hikabrahmacarya stage. It
elaborates that, such type of students were well-versed in Veda-s and Upaniad-s and
there name was uttered in different Upaniadic texts. They were staying in Gurukulas
with deep devotion and pursuing their learning to achieve knowledge. There was no
such provision to enter Ghasthrama, Vnaprasthrama and Sanysrama for
such students as they were sincierly dedicated to the teacher to pass time in Gurukulas
till end of their life.
4.15. Teaching methods of Vedic Age-
Teaching method significantly plays a vital role in Education system. It shows
the path or tradition of teaching. From the beginning itself, the teaching method of
Indian Education system was complete and unique in its nature, because of the
expansion of the whole Vedic literature. Due to the teaching method, from the Vedic
period onwards a continuous flow, we may observe in Vedic literature. It is also
understood that, the Education system of Vedic age was based on oral transmission of
knowledge, where students were repeatedly listening the teacher’s lesson and by
hearting the same in a proper order. The practice of Vedamantra was in the mode of
listening. That’s why it is sometimes called as ruti. Teaching of Veda or its
methodology was mainly categorized into five different stages348. This technique was
implemented in Vedic Education system from the very beginning. Such as-
1. Acceptenance of Veda (Vedasvikaraam)
2. Discussion( Vicra)
3. Practice( Abhysa)
4. Chanting ( Japa)
5. Distribution of knowledge (Dnam)




Through these above said techniques, the knowledge had been transferred
from the teacher to students. In the beginning, the student used to accept the Veda,
there after he used to discuss the content with his teacher and with other fellow
students. Then he made the practice of mantras, he used to chant the same with proper
punctuation in the line of Uddta, Anuddta and Svarita form. At the end, whatever
the knowledge he gained through his teacher, it was distributed or transmitted to his
students. This was the basic principles of Vedic studies where the knowledge had
been transmitted from teacher to student. Again when a student was so confident in
his lesson, after getting the lesson from his teacher, he used to do the same practice
and became a teacher. Through such type of Vedic studies, we may understand the
methodology of teaching of the then period. Not only the practice of Veda with
different style of readings like Pada, Ghana, Ja  was made in Vedic period , but also
more emphasize was given to memorize the mantras in a better way. The mantra
portions of different Vedas were kept in memory by regular practice349.
If we have a glance to the Vedic Education system, particularly, the part of
methodology we may observe that, the remarkable methods of teaching were
implemented during Vedic practice. The prominent methods of Vedic Education were
also categorized through the textual evidences. such as-
1) Study (Adhiti)
2)Understanding ( Bodha)
3) Practice( Acaraam)
4) Propogation( Pracra) etc.
The above said characteristics are also followed by the modern teachers to
make their class more attractive and live. A teacher how far he may expertise in his
area of specialization, but he must do regular study by understanding the concept,
practice the same time to time and after that he must promulgate the knowledge to the
students.
In Vedic age, several methods were adopted to strengthen the Education
system. In Naiadhiyacarita350 of riharsa, we may get fourteen types of methods,
which were adopted in the then period of teaching- learning process. Here we may
discuss the prominent teaching methods of Vedic age with proper references.
4.15. 1. Descriptive Method – (VyƗkৢƗnavidhi)
Descriptive method or Vyknavidhi was a common method of Vedic
Education system where as the teacher used to give lesson to his students by




analyzing the capability of the student. A pious and purified life was maintained
among the students during their learning period at Gurukula. To control over the
sense organs and drag their attention to the learning, the teacher used to command the
student. By the help of the Descriptive method, he used to advice much information
related to the Education. After getting the advice of the teacher, students used to listen
the lesson carefully and do by heart the same and re-present before the teacher. A
complete understanding was made in the part of the student while getting a lesson
from the teacher in Gurukula. It is observed that, there were three different stages of
learning to achieve knowledge351. Such as -
1. Listening ( ravaam)
2. Memorizing ( Mananam)
3. Practicing ( Nididhysanam)
At first a student used to listen the lesson of the teacher carefully. He used to
memorize the lesson what was taught to him by the teacher and at the end, he used to
re-present before the teacher. This was the regular practice of learning at Gurukula. If
the lesson is properly presented by the student before the teacher then only teacher
used to go for a new lesson. In Gurukula, the teacher used to provide the knowledge
to the student through the method of Description. A particular topic was chosen by the
teacher and an extensive talk was given by him and the same was followed by the
student as per the instruction of the teacher. If we have a glance to this procedure we
may say this plan of study is recommended by the educationist in modern system of
education. Moreover this method of teaching is implemented during the training
period of the student who are pursuing the B.Ed and M.Ed courses.
Again in Descriptive method, teacher explained the lesson in a descriptive
way, after listening the same, students used to ask the questions wherever they have
doubts. There after teacher made their doubts clear. To create an attention towards the
lesson, teacher used to call the students by their name. In this respect, we may have an
evidence in Bhadrayakopaniad 352 where sage Y
jñavalkya addresses his wife
Maitreyi through descriptive method.
While the teacher used to explain something before the students, he used to
extend and present apt examples as quoted by ancient scholars for a better
understanding of the students.353 Moreover, to make the lesson more interesting
among the students, the teacher also used to provide the name of historical personage.
Sometime it is also noticed that the teacher used to utter the ornamental language




while conversing with the students through Descriptive method.354An excellent

reference we may get in Bharadvjarautastra 355 in context to this method.
In ntiparva of Mahbhrata, the explanation of the sage Vy
sa on creation
was quite remarkable. The intension of the teacher was not to speak few words at the
time of description. They understood that, the lesson which to be taught to the
students should be elaborate one, as a result the students may not have any difficulties
to understand the lesson. To support this concept Bhadrayakopaniad says, the
doubts may be clarified through the elaborate description of the teacher by using
number of vocabularies.356 Sometime the discussion on spiritual aspect may follow
the path of less explanation as we may say it Mauna Vykhynam for the clarification
of the doubts of the students.357This is the descriptive method as reflected in Vedic
Education system.

4.15. 2. Logical Method – ( Tarkavidhi)

In Vedic age, the lesson related to Upaniad was taught to the students through
the logical method. Particularly the philosophical discussion between the teacher and
the student was made through the logical method as per the guidance of Nyyastra.
According to Nyyastra , Parrthnumana358 consists of five elements. Such as –
1) Pratijñ - Roughly a Proposition
2) Hetu - Reason
3) Udharaa- Example
4) Upanaya - Confirmatory Sentence
5) Nigamana- Conclusion
The above said elements can be properly understood with the following statements.
1. The Mountain is fire.
2. Because it has smoke.
3. Where there is smoke there is fire i.e. kitchen
4. Such is this Mountain.
5. Therefore this Mountain is fire.

Thus, the mountain possesses fire is PratijñƗ, Because it possesses smoke is

Hetu, whatever possesses smoke, possesses fire, Kitchen is an UdƗhara۬a , such is
the mountain is called Upanaya, therefore, this mountain possesses fire is Nigamana.




The five steps in this process are –

Step-I The Statement that is going to be proved. (Pratijñ)
Step-II The ground for the claim. (Hetu)
Step-III An Example to demonstrate the invariable relationship between the
ground and the claim.(Udharaa)
Step-IV Confirming that the ground provided does have such relationship
and such a ground is present in the case under consideration.(Upanaya)
Step-V Confirming the claim.(Nigamana)

Again the modern approach of logic may be taken into consider for the
understanding of logical method. For an example such statements are as follows-
Statement-1 All men are mortal.
Statement-2 Rama is a man.
Conclusion- Ram is mortal.
Such type of reasoning method is also adopted in Vedic system of Education
while the philosophical and spiritual lessons were taught by the teacher.
In Upaniadic discourses, the logical method was highly adopted and it had an
unique significance. We may come across with this method in Ka hopaniad359 while
the discussion was made between Yama and Nacikat
.
The present system of education is not out of it. If we want to accept
something there must have some reason to support. That’s why the Modern education
always trains the student to possess logical thought to understand any concept. The
nature of blind believe is not motto of Modern Education system.
4.15. 3. Question answer Method- (PraĞnottaravidhi)-
The process of teaching stands on the part of the students to clarify their
doubts. As we know the teacher and students are the two different points of teaching-
learning process. In the form of question raised by the students before the teacher and
the answer given by the teacher as per the question asked by the students was the
main part of the Question-Answer Method.
In Vedic Education system, imposing questions to the teacher by the students
was considered as best practices. Acquisition of the knowledge was only possible by
the clearance of the doubts. Such method of learning was highly remarkable and also
found in Yajurveda360. In the mantra of Yajurveda , we may notice , one part of the
mantra denotes Question and second part of the mantra denotes its answer given by




the teacher . In another Mantra of Yajurveda , we may get about the nature of the soul
(
tm) through a Question-Answer method.361
If we have a glance to Bhagavatgt, the conversation of Lord Krishna and
Arjuna perhaps stands on Question-Answer method to produce Gtmtam.362 Again
the significance of this method is also declared in a very systematic way.363
There are the few Mantras of Yajurveda where a systematic Question-answer
method may be noticed.
Mantra in form of Question Mantra in form of Answer
1.Who moves alone? 1.The Sun moves alone.
2.Who takes birth again? 2.The Moon takes birth again.
3.Who is the medicine for the cool? 3.Fire is the Medicine for the cool.
4.What is the place to seed?364 4.Earth is the place to seed.365
This is the Question-Answer method as narrated in the Vedic texts so far the
Educational system of Vedic age is concerned. In connection to this, we may say the
present classroom situation of Modern Education system is completely depends upon
this method and it is accepted as the best approach of teaching-learning process.
4.15. 4. Dialogue Method- ( SambƗdavidhi)
In Upaniadic Education, more emphasis has given on Brahmavidy. It was so
secret in nature366 and the command on this knowledge was also secret in the part of
the teachers.367 Through the intellectual ability of the teacher such knowledge was
transmitted from the teacher part( Guru) to the student part( iya).
A desirous student may get this knowledge by approaching his beloved teacher.
Sometime the teacher may explore the knowledge on Brahmavidy in a wise
assembly as per the request of his disciples. The whole Upaniadic knowledge was
transmitted through dialogue method between student and teacher. It is also noticed
that the dialogue method was also in different nature. Sometime this conversation or
dialogue may occurs between the teacher and the student, the man and animal, the
father and the son, the sage and sages in Upaniadic period of Education.
Here we may have some of the noted dialogue methods as noticed in different
Upaniads.
1. Dialogue between father and son:-
a) Mahari Udd
laka rui and vetaketu in Chndhogyopaniad.368
b) Mahari V
rui and Bh gu in Taitteriyopaniad.369
2.Dialogue between husband and wife-

 


a) Mahari Y
jñavalkya and Maitreyi in Bhadrayokapaniad.370

3.Dialogue between iya ( student) and Animal-
a) Satyak
ma J
b
la and abha ( Bull) 371
b) Satyak
ma J
b
la and Hamsa (Swan)372
c) Satyak
ma J
b
la and Madgu373
4.Dialogue between iya and Agni:-
a) Satyak
ma J
b
la and Agni 374
b) Upakoala K
mal
yana and Agni 375
5.Dialogue between Devarshi and i:-
a) Mantravid N
rada and i Sanatkumar 376
6. Dialogue between i and R
jari:-
a) D pta B
l
ki G
rgya and Aj
taatru 377
7 .Dialogue between G
div
n and R
jari:-
a) G
div
n Raikva and J
na ti pautr
yaa 378
8.Dialogue between i and R
jari:-
a) i Y
jñavalkya and R
jari Janaka 379
9. Dialogue between R
jari and i:-
a) Avapati and Aupamanvava 380
Avapati and Satyajña Paului 381
Avapati and Indradyumna Bh
laveya 382
Avapati and Jana S
rkar
kya 383
Avapati and Budila vatar
siva 384
b) Prav
hana Jaivali and vetaketu and Udd
laka rui 385
10. Dialogue between Mahari and Brahmav
dini
a) Mahari Y
jñavalkya and G
rg
386
11.Dialogue between Mahari and Mahari;-
a) Mahari Y
jñavalkya and Sakalya 387
12.Dialogue between Mahari and i;-
a) Mahari Pippal
da and Kabandhi K
ty
yana388
13. Dialogue between Guru and iya:-
a) c
rya Yama and Naciket
389
b) i Gautama and Satyak
ma J
b
la 390
c) i Satyak
ma and Upakoala K
mal
yana 391
14.Dialogue between i and Hota:-





a) i Y
jñavalkya and Hot
Asvala 392

Knowledge on Brahmavidy was the prominent subject matter of Upaniadic
period. The most secret knowledge was available in whole Upaniadic texts. The
command of the i was also highly secret as reflected in Chndogyopaniad. The
highly intellect i with their cognitive power used to make the Brahmavidy concept
easer to the iya who are highly passionate through the mode of dialogue or the way
of conversation. In this respect we may have many more references in different
Upaniads as noted above. The dialogue between father and son as reflected in case
of Udd
laka rui and vetaketu in Chndogyopaniad , Mahari V
rui and Bh gu
in Taittiriyopaniad, the dialogue between husband and wife as reflected in case of
Mahari Y
jñavalkya and Maitreyi in Bhadrayakopaniad , the dialogue between
Devari and i as reflected in case of N
rada and Sanatkumar in Chndogyopaniad,
the dialogue between i and Rjari as reflected in case of Y
jñavalkya and Janaka
in Bhadrayakopaniad and the dialogue between teacher and student as reflected
in case of Yama and Nachiket
in Ka hopaniad etc. are the best examples of
dialogue method of Vedic age. The above said dialogues are depicted in different
Upaniads.
Here is the concept of dialogue method which can be correlated to the modern
system of Education. In the Regular courses of present day system, student gets direct
contact of the teacher to get his doubts clear by which a close bond between the
teacher and the student used to establish. Close proximity with the teacher may help
the student to understand the very tough concept easily. Even though the
correspondence courses as extended in various institutions particularly in higher
learning it is observed that it has its great lacuna in running the classes. Sometime it is
also noticed that degree holder through correspondence and state Open University is
not entitled to pursue the research programme which is objected by some of the
universities. Therefore the dialogue method indirectly speaks about the value of
regular course of present day.
4.15. 5. Example Method- (D৚ৢ৬Ɨntavidhi)
To explain a critical concept sometime teacher used to take the help of an
example to clarify and make understand better to the student. This type of example
may stand on the practical experience of the teacher in his day to day life. This exact
method is applied in case of Udd
laka rui and his son vetaketu in
Chndyogopaniad.




While explaining the concept of Tattvamasi, father Udd
laka rui has given
more examples to his son for his understanding. Again to explain the concept
tm
and Paramtm, he has given to a beautiful example of a honey bee , who collects
different types of Rasa( honey) from different flowers and makes one all together at
the end.393 Moreover he said the rivers those move towards the ocean for union in one
point even though they come from different roots.394 By providing the practical
examples Udd
laka rui tried to explain
tm and Paramtm to make understand
his son vetaketu’s doubts.
Sometime we may observe Sage Y
jñavalkya has also explained about the
realization of
tm by giving the example of Dundubhi 395, Sankha396, and Vi 397 for
better understanding of the students as reflected in Bhadrayakopaniad. This is the
example method as used by the teacher in teaching- learning process of Vedic age.
The same method is also adopted in each and every course from the primary to higher
level of present Education system.
4.15. 6. Story telling Method-( KathƗvidhi)-
In Ancient Education system particularly in Upaniadic age , the story telling
method was also adopted by the teacher for a better understanding of the students.
Most difficult task was explained easily through this method. In this respect, we may
get an instant example of Kenopaniad. In Kenopaniad, the sage put the story of
Yaka ( Yakopkhynam) 398 before the students. Through the story of Yaka, the
teacher was trying to explain that, without the destruction of ego, an individual being
may not be in a position to understand or realize the Brahman or Supreme Soul.
Again in Chndagyopaniad 399, the noble story of Saura Udgitha plays a
significant role for teaching learning process where as we may say the story telling
method was also adopted in Vedic Education system.
This method makes child more attentive towards learning. In modern
Education system we may observe that the story telling method is highly
recommended for play schools and also for other higher courses.
4.15. 7. Short-Cut Method-(Snjtravidhi)
Ancient
cryas have also adopted the short-cut method in their teaching-
learning policy. The most secret and difficult concept of Upaniad was properly
conveyed through this method. An extensive concept was technically reduced in an
comprehensive manner and the same was presented before the students. As we know
the Tattvamasi400, Aham Brahmsmi401, Sarvam Khalu Idam Brahma402 are the





famous Stra lines which contain more extensive meaning even though look so small
and simple. If we take the example of M
ukyoponiad , where the term om is
narrated as Brahma. The whole Universe is the exact description of the term om. It
represents past, present and future.403
It is also explained that the whole Universe is Brahma.
tm is considered as
Brahma. That
tm has four feet named as Vaivnara, Taijasa, Prjña and Turiya as
a result it is called catupda.404This method is applicable for all mathematical
formulas of present day Education system and through this more comprehensive
concept can be addressed in a better manner.
4.15. 8. Single letter Method( EkƗkৢaravidhi)-
Along with the Stravidhi teachers of Vedic age were well-versed in single
letter method to explain the lesson to their students. In Bhadrayakopaniad,
Praj
pati advised his three sons i.e. 1) the God, 2) the Man and 3) the Demon with
uttering a word “Da” and asked the question to all of his sons whether they
understood something from the letter or not.405 All three sons have given their answer
as per their nature and understanding. The God answered to Praj
pati that,”O! Master.
You please control us (Da - Dmyateti means to control). The Demon answered to
Praj
pati that, O ! Master, please be kind to us ( Da- Dayadhvamiti means to be kind)
and at the end Man answered to Praj
pati that, O ! Master, Please be generous to us (
Da- Datta means to generous). In this manner, from a single letter Praj
pati was
trying to advice his three sons. Praj
pati, the master of the whole Universe, not only
advice to his sons through this method, it is also an advice to all mankind to sustain a
beautiful life in the whole Universe. This method of teaching was adopted in Vedic
age.
In connection to this, we may say this method in modern education puts a
platform for the student to think more on a specific topic and helps for the
development of the cognitive attitude of student.
4.15. 9. Summative Method (Samanvayavidhi)-
Summative method is a method for which a group of doctrines may be
combined all together and a final doctrine may come up with a valid justification. In
Upaniad and in Vedic texts, many scholars have been given their views on a specific
topic or context. By going through all the remarks and opinions of scholars, a
concluding remark may present before the students by the teacher is the sole aim of
this method. In Chndagyopaniad406, we may get this method of approach where the




conversation was going on between Kaikeya and B
l
ki G
rgya on the creation of the
Universe. At the end Avapati has given a concluding remark by going through the
six different opinions of six different scholars.
In another incident of Pranopaniad407 we may get that the i Pippal
da has
listen to six different i in six different questions and at the end he has given a
summative remark by analyzing the six different opinions of six is.
In Bhadrayakopaniad408, sage Y
jñavalkya has given a concluding
remark or summative doctrine before King Janak by analyzing the different opinions
of different scholars.
Through this method, the teacher used to listen the questions of the students
and after a careful study in his mind from all aspects; he used to give his opinion
before the assembly of students by taking into the consideration of all other opinions.
This is all we observe in proposed Seminars and Conferences where the chairman
summarizes the whole content by listening to all the scholars after their presentation.
4.15. 10. Derivative Method-( Vyutpattividhi)
In Upaniadic age, teacher used to take the word and get its meaning through
its derivation and at the end explain the content of lesson before the students. In
Chndogyopaniad409,
crya has explained the term Hdaya and said the soul or

tm exists in Hdaya and that is the derivation of term Hdaya.
In Chndogyopaniad410 the term
girasa explained in a derivative way.
Naturally he is the son of Agirasa that way he is
girasa. But in Upaniad it is
explained as Pra or Vital force. Pra is the Rasa of Aga or limbs or body. Where
the Pra does not exist, the Aga remains dry and senseless.
Again in the derivation of the term Svapiti411 and Purua412 also narrated in
Upaniad-s which comes under the Derivative Method of teaching.
From the above said discussion we may conclude that, in Vedic Education
different types of teaching methods were adopted by the
crya-s for the better
understanding of the students during the teaching learning process at Gurukula-s. If
the teaching methods of Vedic period can be properly adopted in modern Education
system we may get an effective Classroom situation and attract the attention of the
students towards learning, finally a live teaching classroom may be presented before
the students.




4.16. Teacher-Student Relationship

If we have a glance to some of the Upaniads, in the beginning of the text,
through ntimantra, we may get the reference of deep relationship of Teachers and
Students. While saluting the Supreme soul Teacher used to utter that you protect both
of us (teacher and student), you nourish both of us, let both of us to get food, let both
of us to get energy, let the learning of us to get powerful, let not both of us to get
quarrel. It is said in Ka hopaniad.413
At the end of this mantra it is said m vidvivahai. It is understood in
Upaniadic period, the relationship between teacher and student was cordial, there
was no quarrel between them, that why it was an order for both. Again it is said man
can do anything with others but not to make quarrel or jealous.
By doing quarrel or jealous he used suffer from three types of pain or misery
(
dhytmika,
dhibhautika and
dhidaivika). To get rid of from these three pains,
both teacher and student used to utter nti, nti, nti three times at the end.
In ikvalli of Taittriyopaniad414 it is praised by the teacher before
Paramtm that, let both of us (teacher and student) to achieve fame and let both of
us to enjoy the power of Brahman.
Again in ntimantra of Taittriyopaniad, student used to pray before the
Almighty, that O, Lord, let me adorn with the knowledge, let the speaker (teacher) be
capable to talk, let me and the speaker (teacher) be protected by you.415
Through this evidences we may say, there was a very good relationship
between the teacher and the student where teacher was loving the students and student
was also paying deep regard and respect to the teacher.

4.17. Dress code of the Students-

A student, before going to fit for learning, in the first step of Upanayana, it is
to impose upon the pupil certain external marks of differentiation in
connection to his dress, equipment and appearance by which he can be easily
recognized.




4.17.1. Ajina –
The Brahmacri is to wear Ajina or upper garment made of the skin of
animals. It should be the skin of Ka, black buck, for a Brhmaa; of Ruru, or
spotted deer, for a Katriya; of Vasta or Aja, goat, for a Vaiya [Brihaspati; Yama;
Sankha]. It may also be the skin of the cow (gavyam) for all, according to P
raskara
(sarvem v gavyam).
4.17.2. VƗsa-
V
sa is the lower garment which may be made of the following materials, viz.
(1) a, hemp; (2) Kauma, fibre of atasi plant; (3) Cra, darbha, or kua grass; (4)
Kutapa, wool derived from mountain goats and used to make kambala or blankets;
and (5) Krpsa, cottan. According to Vasishtha, it may be only woven cotton cloth
(tntavam). But it should be woven or manufactured in the home of the pupil for
purposes of the ceremony416 (Vsa sadya kttotam). This shows the use of loom
and khaddar in every household in those days. According to Taittiriya
rayaka417,
cloth could alternate with skin (ajinam vso v dakiata upavya).
According to Manu, the Brhmaa should use Vsa of Sa, the Katriya of
Kauma, and the Vaiya of Avika or goat’s wool. But most texts agree that different
castes should use Vsa of different colours. The Brhmaa should use his Krpsa
which is white, clean, and fresh and coloured red with manji h. The Katriya should
have his Kauma cloth coloured yellow and the Vaiya Kaueya cloth. According to
pastamba, the Brhmaa should use cloth coloured with kaya, a vegetable dye
(vka-kaya-nirmitam vrkam), the Katriya Manji h cloth and the Vaiya
hridra cloth.

4.17.3. Da৆ঌa –
The Brahmacri is also to be equipped with a da
a or staff of wood of lenths
which are different for different castes. The different woods mentioned are Bilva,
Pala, Va a, Khadira, Pilava, Udumbara, Plaka, Nyagrodha, Vetasa, Avattha
and failing these, any wood fit for use in sacrifice (yajñiya). It should reach up to
head in length for a Brhmaa, up to forehead for a Katriya, and up to nose for a
Vaiya. But in all cases, it should be straight, beautiful, non-terrifying
(anudbegakara), unburnt, and in its natural condition (satvacha).




4.17.4. MekhalƗ-
The Brahmacri’s uniform also comprises a mekhal or girdle made of
different materials for different castes. It is muñja grass for the Brhmaa, jy
(bowstring) for Katriya (symbolizing his military avocation) and a, thread for
the Vaiya. It may also be of rope used for yoking the oxen to the plough (symbolical
of agriculture as his occupation).
All these informations are highly elaborated in Ancient Indian Education by
Radha Kumud Mookerji.418

4.18. Tenure of the Learning Period

There is no specific time duration allotted for a child who enters to the
Gurukula for learning, particularly in Upaniadic period. Through the textual
evidences we may get some information about the starting age for a child and age for
the course completion. It is also observed that the tenure of learning (short period or
long period) of the child completely depends upon his cognition, eligibility and
grasping power. But up to a specific period, a child used to stay at Gurukula.
In Chndogya Upaniad, i Udd
laka rui has instructed his son vetaketu
to enter the
cryakula for studying Veda-s. From this incident, we may observe that,
by the mean time vetaketu was twelve years old, later he entered to Gurukula,
studied Veda-s for twenty four years and became a master of Veda.419
From this, it may conclude that, in the age of twelve a child may enters to the
Gurukula and he may stay there for twenty four years for learning by maintaining
Brahmacaryavratam. The time fixation for Gurukula may reflect the total number of
letters in Gyatrimantra as it is the Bijamantra for the child at the time of learning.
This tenure may differ from person to person.

4.19. Examination:-
So far the examination is concerned; there was completely oral system of
examination for judging the capability of student. To understand the able of
knowledge of a student, teacher used to ask questions, by getting satisfactory answer
form the student, he used to declare for entering to the second stage of life. i.e.




Ghasthrama. After successful completion of Brahmacarya period, student used to

undergo Samvartanotsava. With the reference to Chndogyopaniad420 (5.3.1), it is
noticed that vetaketu, after completion of his leaning under the guidance of his father
Udd
laka rui sent him to the assembly of Pravahaa Jaiv
li of P
ñc
la state. In that
state, Pravahaa asked questions to vetaketu on Pañcgnividy , but he was unable
to answer the questions. King Pravahaa asked him that, How can you say that you
have completed learning from your father. From this incident, it is observed that there
are few aspects which noticed in Upanisdic Education system.
1. Learned Assembly was considered as the examination centre.
2. The king was the chief of the Assembly.
3. The king used to take examination of the student as Pravahaa took
examination of vetaketu.
4. Student used to accept his failure if he could not answer the question,
5. Student used to declare fail before the learned Assembly.
After a deep analysis on this specific topic it is concluded that the guidance of
Vedic texts may help to rectify the mistakes or the drawback which are available in
present education system. If it is accepted we may get a refine and faultless structure
of Education system in near future.

4.20. Training on Useful Education-

Apart from the teaching learning Process of Gurukula we may have some sorts
of reference on Training and Useful Education in Vedic Age. Such training was
extended to the student through his family. If a child belongs to a Physician family
and his father is a Physician he may adopt his father’s profession and get trained by
the family to become a Physician. Again in Vedic period, the followers of the manual
arts like the Stone-cutter, the Carpenter were held in high esteem. We have noticed
that, how in the families of Vedic Sages some were following the Profession of the
Physician and some that of the stone-cutter.421 The carpenter (Rathakra) was also an
important member of the society that the chief of his society was included among the
twelve courtiers (Ratnins) to whose house the king had to repair in order to offer him
an oblation at the time of his coronation.422




The people of Vedic Age were completely conscious about the different types
of useful professions. Archery, horsemanship, charioting, smithy, carpentry, medicine
and mining were the principal useful arts of the Vedic Age.423Some of these
professions may have been hereditary in several families; in such cases fathers must
have been instructing their sons in the processes of their arts and industries.
Upaniads, Ghya-Stras and Dharma-Stras have given very little
information about the Useful Education. Arthastra gives some important
information, but it is hardly sufficient to satisfy modern interest.
A.S. Altekar424 says that, the Upaniadic period probably did not record any
remarkable advance in sculpture and architecture, but decisive progress seems to have
been made in the realms of weaving, ship-building, medicine, mining and metallurgy.
Strabo, who complains that Indians do not pursue accurate knowledge in any line,
admits that they were remarkably efficient in medicineThe Greeks were particularly
struck by the efficacy of the Indian medicine against snake-biting. The followers of
Garu
a-Vidy and Sarpa-Vidy mentioned in the Gopatha Brhmaa425 and
chndogya Upaniad 426 must obviously be specializing in studying and devising
antidotes against serpent poison. It is difficult to visualize the precise progress made
in the medical science at this period, because no books of the age have been handed
down.

In conclusion it is understood that, there are many interesting and beautiful
aspects in connection to the Education system which we may come across while we
put our attention towards the Vedic texts. It is clear that the Vedic texts are not
exactly meant for to highlight the Education system of Ancient India but they give a
brief outlook on the life style of human being to attain Pururtha-s through an
indirect touch of Education Policy of the present day. Educational elements are highly
reflected in a different look from Vedic period to Stra period in connection with the
human nature. The abovesaid informations are collected and presented in a systematic
manner through the textual evidences of Vedic literature.

 


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