If the forces Q1, . . . .

, Qf are derivable from a potential energy function, then we can

define a Lagrangian function L( q 1 ,… , q f ; q̇ 1 , ..˙ , q̇f ) which may in some cases depend on t, and
which may also depend on the constants a1,....., a0. The first f Lagrange equations (9-77) can
then be written in the form

d ∂ L ∂L
− =0. [ k=1 , … .. , f ] (9-79)
dt ∂ q̇ k ∂ qk

9-5 Examples of systems subject to constraints.

A simple mechanical system involving constraints is the Atwood’s machine shown in

Fig. 9-5. Weights m1,m2 are connected by a rope of length l over a fixed pulley. We assume
the weights move only vertically, so that we have only one degree of fredom. We take as
coordinates the distance x of m1 below the pulley axle, and l, the length of the rope. The
coordinate l is constrained to have a constant value, and could be left out of
considerationfrom the start if we wish only to find the motion. If we also want to find the
tension in the string, we must include l as a coordinate. The kinetic energy is

1 1 2
T = m 1 ẋ 2 + m2 ( l̇− ẋ ) (9-80)
2 2

The only forces acting on m1 and m2 are the tension r in the rope and the force gravity. The
work done when x increases by δx, l remaining constant, is

δW = ( m1 g−r ) δx−( m2 g−r ) δx

¿ ( m 1−m 2 ) g δx=Q x δx (9-81)

so that

Q x =( m1−m2 ) g (9-82)

Note that Qx is dependent of r. The work done when l increases by δl, x remaining constant, is

δW = ( m 2 g−r ) δl=Q l δl (9-83)

so that

Q l=m2 g−r (9-84)

Notice that in order to obtain an equation involving the force of constraint r, we must
consider a motion which violates the constraint. This is also true if we wish to measure a
force physically; we must allow at least a small motion in the direction of the force. The
Lagrange equations of motion are (since l̇= l̈=0)

d ∂T ∂T
( )
dt ∂ ẋ
−
∂x
=( m 1 +m 2 ) ẍ= ( m 1−m 2 ) g (9-85)

d ∂T ∂T
( )
dt ∂ l̇
−
∂l
=−m 2 ẍ =m 2 g−r (9-86)

The first equation is to be solved to find the motion:

1 m1−m 2 2
x=x 0 +v 0 t + gt (9-87)
2 m1 +m2

The second equation can then be used to find the tension r necessary to maintain the
constraint:

2 m1 m 2
r =m 2 ( g+ ẍ )= g (9-88)
m 1+ m2

In the case the tension is independent of time and can be found from Eqs. (9-85) and (9-86)
immediately, although in most cases the constraining forces depend on the motion and can be
determined only after the motion is found. Equations (9-85) and (9-86) have an obvious
physical interpretation and could be written down immediately from elementary
considerations, as was done in Section 1-7.

A problem of little practical importance, but which is quite instructive, is that in which
one cylinder rolls upon another, as shown in Fig. 9-6. The cylinder of radius ɑ is fixed, and
the cylinder αɑ rolls around it under the action of gravity. Suppose we are given that the
coefficient of static friction between the cylinder is µ, the coefficient of sliding friction is
zero,* and that the moving cylinder start from rest with its center vertically above the center
of the fixed cylinder. We shall assume that the axis of the moving cylinder remains horizontal
during the motion. It is advisable in all problems, and essential in this one, to think carefully
about the motion before attempting to find the mathematical solution. It is clear that the
moving cylinder cannot roll all the way around the fixed cylinder, for the normal force F
which is exerted by the fixed cylinder on the moving one can only be directed outward, never
inward. Therefore at some point, the moving cylinder will fly off the fixed one. The point at
which it flies off is the point at which

F=0 (9-89)

Furthermore, the cylinder cannot continue to roll without slipping right up to the point at
which it flies off, for the frictional force f which prevents slipping is limited by the condition

f ≤ μF (9-90)

And will certainly become too small to prevent slipping before the point at which Eq. (9-89)
holds. The motion therefore is divided into three parts. At first the cylinder rolls without
slipping through an angle θ1 determined by the condition

f =μF (9-91)

Beyond the angle θ1 the cylinder slides without friction until it reaches the angle θ2
determined by Eq. (9-89), after which it leaves the fixed cylinder and falls freely. We may
anticipatesome mathematical difficulties with the initial part of the motion due to the fact that
the initial position of the moving cylinder is one of unstable equilibrium. Physically there is
no difficulty, since the slightest disturbance will cause the cylinder to roll down, but
mathematically there may be a difficulty which we must watch out for, inasmuch as the
needed slight disturbance will not appear in the equations.

Lets us find that part of the motion when the moving cylinder rolls without slipping.
There is then only one degree of freedom, and we shall specify the position of the cylinder by
the angle θ between the vertical and the line connecting the centers of the two cylinder. In
order to compute the kinetic energy, we introduce the auxiliary angle φ through which the
moving cylinder has rotated about its axis. The condition that the cylinder roll without
slipping leads to the equation of constraint:

ɑ θ̇=αɑ φ̇ (9-92)

which can be integrated in the form

θ=αφ (9-93)

If we were concerned only with the rolling motion, we could now proceed to set up the
Lagrange equation for θ, but inasmuch as we need to know the forces of constraint F and f, it
is necessary to introduce additional coordinates which are maintained constant by these
constraining forces. The frictional force f maintains the constraint (9-93), and an appropriate
coordinate is

γ =θ−αφ (9-94)

So long as the cylinder rolls without slipping, γ = 0; γ measures the angle of the slip around
the fixed cylinder. The normal force F maintains the distance r between the centers of the
cylinders:

r =ɑ +αɑ= (1+ α ) ɑ (9-95)

The kinetic energy of the rolling cylinder is the energy associated with the motion of its
center of mass plus the rotational energy about the center of mass:

1 1
T = m ( ṙ 2+ r 2 θ̇2 ) + I φ̇2 (9-96)
2 2

1 2 2
After substituting φ from Eq. (9-94), and since I = m α ɑ , for a solid cylinder of radius αɑ,
2
we have

1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 ( 2 )
T = m ṙ 2+ m r 2+ ɑ2 θ̇ 2− mɑ 2 θ̇ γ̇ + m ɑ 2 γ̇ 2
4
(9-97)

The equations of constraint [Eq. (9-95) and γ = 0] must not be used until after the equations
of motion are written down. The generalized forces are most easily determined with the help
of Eq. (9-30); they are

Q θ=mgr sin θ , (9-98)

Q γ =−f ɑ , (9-99)

Q r =F−mg cos θ (9-100)

The Lagrange equations for θ, γ, and r are now

1 1
( 2 )
m r 2 + ɑ 2 θ̈+2 mr ṙ θ̇− m ɑ2 γ̈ =mgr sinθ
2
(9-101)

−1 1
m ɑ 2 θ̈+ m ɑ 2 γ̈=−fɑ (9-102)
2 2
 m r̈−mr θ̇2=F−mg cos θ (9-103)

We can now insert the constarint γ = 0 and r = (1 + α) ɑ, so that these equations become

1
[( 1+ α )2 +
2]m ɑ 2 θ̈=( 1+α ) mgɑ sin θ (9-104)

1
f = mɑ θ̈ (9-105)
2

F=mg cos θ−( 1+ α ) mɑ θ̇2 (9-106)

Had we ignore the terms involving γ̇ in the kinetic energy, the θ equation, which determined
the motion, would have come out correctly, but the equation for the constraining force f
would have been missing a term. This happen when the constrained coordinates are not
orthogonal to the unconstrained coordinates, since a cross term ( γ̇ θ̇ ) then appears in the
kinetic energy.

The equation of motion (9-104) can be solved by the energy method. The total energy,
so long as the cylinder rolls without slipping, is

1
( α +1 )2 +
2 (9-107)
mɑ 2 θ̇ 2+ ( 1+ α ) mgɑ cos θ=E
2

and is constant, as can easily be shown from Eq. (9-104), and as we know anyway since the
gravitational force is conservative and the forces of constraint do no work. Since the moving
cylinder starts from rest at θ = 0,

E=( 1+ α ) mgɑ (9-108)

We substitute this in Eq. (9-107) and solve for θ̇:

1
θ̇=2 ( ) sin θ2
βg
ɑ
2
(9-109)

where

α +1
β=
1 (9-
( α +1 )2 +
2
110)
We can now integrate to find θ (t):

1
θ dθ 1 t
2 βg
∫ θ= ɑ
0 sin
( ) ∫ dt 2

0
(9-111)
2

θ 1
θ βg
[ ln tan
] ( )
4 0
=
ɑ
2
t (9-112)

When we substitute the lower limit θ = 0, we run into a difficulty, for ln 0 = -∞! This is the
expected difficulty due to the fact that θ = 0 is a point of equilibrium, albeit unstable. If there
is no disturbance whatever, it will take an infinite time for the cylinder to roll off the
equilibrium point. Let us suppose, however, that it does roll off due to some slight
disturbance, and let us take the time t = 0 as the time when the angle θ has some small value
θ0. There is now no difficulty, and we have

θ θ0 βg 1
tan = tan
4 (
4
exp
ɑ) [( ) t ] 2
(9-113)

As t→∞, θ→2π, and the moving cylinder rolls all the way around the fixed one, if the
constraints continue to hold. The rolling constraint holds, however, only so long as Eq. (9.90)
holds. When we substitute from Eqs. (9-105), (9-106), and (9-109), Eq. (9-90) becomes

β
mg sin θ ≤ μmg [ cos θ−2 β ( 1+α )( 1−cos θ ) ] (9-114)
2

At θ = 0, this certainly holds, so that the cylinder does initially roll, as we have supposed. At
θ = π/2, however, it certainly does not hold, since the