1.

BASIC CONCEPTS
I. General types and characteristics of WANs including circuit, packet and cell- switched technologies.
A WAN (wide area network) is a large area network that expands in a geographical area, such as a country
or a continent. It is known also as a communication system that connects computer networks such as LANs
(local area network) and MANs (metro area network).
The strains in LANs are better quality than the channels within the WAN, due to the fact to the variations
among the local location networks and the huge network region, their topologies can take very one-of-a-
kind paperwork. The structure of the WAN has a tendency to be greater irregular, because of the need to
join many terminals, computers and switching centers. The switching of WAN, provides communication
pathways between two endpoints and manages how data flows between them. The two most common
switching methods are circuit switching and packet switching.
 circuit switch
Basically circuit switch required a dedicated physical connection between the sending and receiving
devices. Or else Circuit switching is a method of implementing a telecommunications network in which
two network nodes establish a dedicated communications channel (circuit) through the network before the
nodes may communicate. The circuit guarantees the full bandwidth of the channel and remains connected
for the duration of the communication session. The circuit functions as if the nodes were physically
connected as with an electrical circuit. There are 3 phases in circuit switching:
 Connection establishment
 Data transfer
 Connection release
Example for circuit switching, parties involved in a phone call have a dedicated link between them for
the duration of the conversation. When either party disconnects, the circuit is broken, and the data path is
lost. This is an accurate representation of how circuit switching works with network and data transmissions.
The sending system establishes a physical connection, and the data is transmitted between the two. When
transmission is complete, the channel is closed.
 Packet switch
Messages are broke into smaller units called packets. Each packet is assigned source and vacation
spot addresses. Packets are required to have this data because they do not continually use the equal route
or route to get to their supposed destination. Packets can take an alternative course if a selected path is
unavailable for a few cause. Most common example for packet switching is internet.
 Cell switched technologies
Cell switching operates in a similar way to packet switching but uses small fixed length cells for
data transport. This technology is found within cell based integrated networks such as Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM) networks. Cell switching can handle multiple data types, i.e. voice, video and data.
This switch has high bandwidth and speed technology. Cell switching is essentially an attempt to combine
the best of circuit switching (guaranteed delivery) and packet switching (efficiency).

Comparison between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching

Circuit switching Packet switching
Each packet has entire path address. Each packet has path address of next location
only.
No congestion is possible. Congestion is possible.
Connection is established to transfer No connection is established to transfer
information. information.
Reliable data transfer. Data transfer is not reliable.

II. General routing algorithms, eg distance vector line state.

A routing algorithm is a set of step by step rules used to direct internet traffic efficiently. When
a packet of data leaves its source, there are many different paths it can take to its destination. The routing
algorithm is used to determine mathematically the best path to take.

pg. 1
 Different routing algorithms use specific strategies to decide the quality path. For instance, a distance
vector set of rules calculates a graph of all to be had routes by having every factor (called a node) decide
the "cost" of journeying to each on the spot neighbor. This statistics is amassed for each node to create a
distance table; that's used to decide the first-rate route to from any person node to some other. There are
two type of routing algorithms.
o Static routing algorithms.
o Dynamic routing algorithms.
 Static routing algorithms,
Static routing is a form of community routing approach. Static routing isn't always a routing protocol; as
a substitute, it's miles the manual configuration and selection of a network direction, generally controlled
via the community administrator. It is employed in eventualities in which the network parameters and
surroundings are anticipated to remain regular.
Static routing is only greatest in some conditions. Network degradation, latency and congestion are
inevitable effects of the non-bendy nature of static routing due to the fact there may be no adjustment when
the primary path is unavailable.
 Dynamic routing algorithms,
Dynamic routing is a networking method that provides optimum data routing. The network administrators
and engineers configure a dynamic routing protocol at the network interfaces. The protocol strolling at the
router learns approximately others routers robotically and additionally dynamically trade routing facts with
each different. Dynamic routing protocols carry out numerous activities, including community discovery
and retaining routing tables. Unlike static routing, dynamic routing protocol robotically selects the
exceptional course to place into the routing table as well as the network adjustments update routinely into
the routing table therefore. Dynamic routing uses multiple algorithms and protocols. The most popular are
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).

III. Congestion control, eg use of fair queuing, red, or other algorithms to prevent congestion collapse.
Basically a congestion means, state occurring in network layer when the message traffic is so heavy
that it slows down network response time. Congestion controlling is basically reducing that massage traffic
time. Or else Congestion is an important issue that can arise in packet switched network. Congestion is a
situation in Communication Networks in which too many packets are present in a part of the subnet,
performance degrades. Congestion in a network may occur when the load on the network (i.e. the number
of packets sent to the network) is greater than the capacity of the network (i.e. the number of packets a
network can handle.). Network congestion occurs in case of traffic overloading. Effects of Congestion are,
 As delay increases, performance decreases.
 If delay increases, retransmission occurs, making situation worse.
There are few congestion control algorithms we can see and that algorithms are,
 Leaky bucket algorithm.
Each network interface contains a leaky bucket and the following steps are involved in leaky bucket
algorithm:
1. When host wants to send packet, packet is thrown into the bucket.
2. The bucket leaks at a constant rate, meaning the network interface transmits packets at a constant
rate.
3. Busty traffic is converted to a uniform traffic by the leaky bucket.
4. In practice the bucket is a finite queue that outputs at a finite rate.
 Token bucket algorithm.
The leaky bucket algorithm enforces output pattern at the average rate, no matter how bursty the traffic is.
So in order to deal with the bursty traffic we need a flexible algorithm so that the data is not lost. One such
algorithm is token bucket algorithm.

pg. 2
Steps of this algorithm can be described as follows:
1. In regular intervals tokens are thrown into the bucket. ƒ
2. The bucket has a maximum capacity. ƒ
3. If there is a ready packet, a token is removed from the bucket, and the packet is sent.
4. If there is no token in the bucket, the packet cannot be sent.
There is a formula foe token bucket algorithm.
M*s=C+ρ*s
S – is time taken
M – Maximum output rate
ρ – Token arrival rate
C – Capacity of the token bucket in byte
Congestion control refers to the techniques used to control or prevent congestion. There are some
congestion control technique and there are two type of congestion control techniques.
1. Open loop congestion control
Open loop congestion control policies are applied to prevent congestion before it happens. The
congestion control is handled either by the source or the destination.
2. Close loop congestion control
Closed loop congestion control technique is used to treat or alleviate congestion after it happens.
Several techniques are used by different protocols.

IV. Addressing and routing with IP, eg location addressing, subnet masks, etc. including both IPv4 and
IPv6.
a) IPv4
Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth revision of the Internet Protocol and a widely used
protocol in data communication over different kinds of networks. IPv4 is a connectionless protocol used in
packet switched layer networks, such as Ethernet. It provides the logical connection between network
devices by providing identification for each device. There are many ways to configure IPv4 with all kinds
of devices, including manual and automatic configurations depending on the network type. There are 3
types of addressing IPv4,
 Unicasting (unicast addressing)
Unicast addressing is data (packets) sent only to one destined host. The Destination Address field
contains 32- bit IP address of the destination host. Here the client sends data to the targeted server.
Ex: telephone conference…
 Multicasting(multicast addressing)
In this section data (packets) is addressed or sent to all the hosts in a network segment. The Destination
Address field contains a special broadcast address, i.e. 255.255.255.255. When a host sees this packet
on the network, it is bound to process it. Here the client sends a packet, which is entertained by all the
Servers.
Ex: video conference…
 Broadcasting(broadcast addressing)
In this section data (packets) is sent or addressing to any destination and no certain destination. Or else
is a mix of the previous two modes.
Ex: television, radio…
All IP address divided into two parts, first one is identified as network and other part identified as host. In
IPv4, the subnet mask 255.255.255.0 is 32 bits and consists of four 8-bit octets. The
address: 10.10.10.0 subnet mask 255.255.255.0 means that the subnet is a range of IP addresses
from 10.10.10.0 - 10.10.10.255.

pg. 3
b) IPv6
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol (IP),
the communications protocol that provides an identification and location system for computers on
networks and routes traffic across the Internet. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) to deal with the long-anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion. IPv6 is intended to
replace IPv4. IPv6 became a Draft Standard for the IETF. There few types of addressing IPv6,
 Unicasting addressing
This represents a single interface. Packets addressed to a unicast address are delivered to a single
interface.
 Multicasting addressing
Identifies one or more interfaces. For example, servers that support the same function can use the same
unicast IP address. Packets sent to that IP address are forwarded to the nearest server. Any-cast
addresses are used for load-balancing. Known as “one-to-nearest” address.
 Any-casting addressing
Represent a dynamic group of hosts. Packets sent to this address are delivered too many interfaces.
Multicast addresses in IPv6 have a similar purpose as their counterparts in IPv4.

2. PTO SWITCHED SERVICES

I. A representative range of current public switched PTO services. This should include at least two
circuit-switched services (eg PSTN, ISDN, leased lines), and at least two packet switched services (eg
X 25, SMDS, and frame relay).
PTO services are mostly used in wan or wide area networks. Here is some of the most commonly known
examples of PTO Switched Services.
 Circuit switches
Basically circuit switches based on the sender and receiver making the most of the full communication
channel for the length of the communication. This type of switching can be found in the Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN) where telephone calls are started by the person dialing but aren’t completed
until the person receiving the call answers.
Examples for circuit switching,
 PSTN – public switched telephone network
PSTN, or Public Switched Telephone Network, is a circuit-switching network that uses internationally
agreed codes and unique identifiers (telephone numbers) to operate. The PSTN network was originally
made for fixed-line analogue telephone systems but the PSTN is now almost completely digital and also
incorporates mobile telephones alongside analogue ones. PSTN, require physical protection on some
levels.
 ISDN – integrated services digital networks
ISDN, or Integrated Services Digital Network, is a communications standard used internationally to
send data, including voice and video, over digital or regular phone lines, at the same time. One of the most
well-known uses of ISDN is for Internet access, with ISDN providing a maximum speed for upload and
download of 128 Kbit/s.
 Packet switches
Packet switching is a communications method that works by splitting the data being sent into smaller
chunks, called packets. When the data is sent it can end up being sent through different paths to arrive at
its destination. Each time a packet goes through a switch, router or adapter it is buffered and queued, which
can slow down how quick the packets arrive at their destination, which also means the order of delivery
can also be different.
 X 25
This is one of the oldest packet-switched services that are still available and used, although it is now
being replaced by less complex protocols, like IP (internet Protocol). It was developed before the OSI

pg. 4
Reference Model so the protocol suite is essentially just three layers, which are almost the same as the
lower three layers of the seven-layer OSI model (Physical, Data and Network layers).
 SMDS - Switched Multimegabit Data Service.
SMDS, or Switched Multimegabit Data Service, is a telecommunications service that gives
connectionless, excessive-overall performance, packet-switched statistics delivery. As SMDS is neither a
protocol nor a generation, it way that it is able to guide widespread protocols and communications
interfaces which can be the use of present day, as well as destiny, generation. SMDS can use both fiber or
copper-based totally traces and works at the data link and bodily layers of the OSI version.

3. MOBILE AND BROADBAND SERVICES

I. Current and developing broadband and high-speed mobile technologies, e.g. Cable, xDSL, GSM (2G),
UMTS (3G), 3.5G, and WiMAX or LTE (4G).
There are lot of current and development broadband and high speed technologies in the world. For an
example cable, xDSL, GSM (2G), UMTS (3G), 3.5G and WIMAX or LTE (4G). Internet service providers
(ISP) are spending a lot of cost and getting effort to deploy 4G technology, which is an advanced stipulation
of these technologies around the world.

 Cable technology
By the present day despite advances in wireless technologies, some of companies are using cable
technology to connect devices to devices and devices to internet to transfer data. Several standard types
of network cables exist, each designed for specific purposes.
I. Coaxial cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer presents insulation among
the middle conductor and a braided metallic guard. The metal defend helps to block any outdoor
interference from fluorescent lights, cars, and different computers. Coaxial cabling is difficult to install and
highly resistant to signal interference. But it can support greater cable lengths between network devices
than twisted pair cable and its transfer distance is 175m – 190m. The two types of coaxial cabling are thick
coaxial and thin coaxial. Most of the time coaxial cables used in bus and ring topologies.
Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as THINNET. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being
200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable has been popular
in school networks, especially linear bus networks. Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as THICKNET.
10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals.
There are several connectors for connecting these cables and T-connector, barrel connector, and
terminator are the most commonly used.
Advantages of coaxial cables,
 Cost of coaxial cable is less.
 It is less susceptible to noise or interference (EMI or RFI) compare to twisted pair cable.
 It supports high bandwidth signal transmission compare to twisted pair.
 Easy to wire and easy to expand due to flexibility.
Disadvantages of coaxial cables,
 It is bulky.
 As signal cable is used for signal transmission across the entire network in case of failure in one cable
the entire network will be down.
 The security is a greater as it is easy to tap the coaxial cable by breaking it and inserting T-joint in
between.
 Increasingly vulnerable to data or signal damage (damage of interference).
II. Twisted pair
A twisted pair cable is a type of cable made by putting two separate insulated wires together in a
twisted pattern and running them parallel to each other. This type of cable is widely used in different kinds
of data and voice infrastructures. There are two type of twisted pair cables, STP – shielded twisted pair and

pg. 5
UTP – unshielded twisted pair. Twisted pair has 4 pairs and 8 wires and there is a color code to each 8
wires, major 4 colors are orange, green, blue and brown sub color are white/orange, white/green, white/blue
and white/brown.
STP (shielded twisted pair)
Shielded twisted pair is a special kind of copper telephone wiring used in some business installation. An
outer coverage of shielded is added to the ordinary twisted pair telephone wires. Twisted pair is the ordinary
copper wire that connects home and many business computers to the telephone company. To reduce
crosstalk or electromagnetic induction between pairs of wires, two insulated copper wires are twisted
around each other. Each signal on twisted pair requires both wires. Since some telephone sets or desktop
locations require multiple connections, twisted pair is sometimes installed in two or more pairs, all within
a single cable. Shielded twisted pair is often used in business installations
UTP (unshielded twisted pair)
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables are widely used in the computer and telecommunications industry
as Ethernet cables and telephone wires. In an UTP cable, conductors which form a single circuit are twisted
around each other in order to cancel out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources.
Unshielded means no additional shielding like meshes or aluminum foil, which add bulk, are used.
UTP cables are often groups of twisted pairs grouped together with color coded insulators, the number of
which depends on the purpose.
Advantages of twisted pair
 Simple to install and configure the cable.
 Physically flexibility.
 Cable has very lowest weight.
 Relatively inexpensive.
 Supports many network types.
Disadvantages of twisted pair
 Data transmission rate is very low than other cables.
 Difficult to maintain repeaters.
 Very sensitive to Noise.

III. Fiber optic

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective materials.
It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This
makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also
made it the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of
moisture and lighting fiber optic cable has 5 layers and that layers are core, cladding (silica), plastic cover
1, plastic cover 2 and plastic jacket. Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer
distances than other cables. Mainly there are two type of fiber optic cables,
Single mode
Single-mode fiber optic cable excels at long-distance communication. Single-mode cable is designed to
carry a single signal source with low transmission loss over great distances. It is frequently used for
communication systems due to the clarity it provides. This type of fiber optic cable has the smallest core
and the thickest sheathing.
Multimode
Multimode cables are designed to carry multiple signals, however, this capacity comes with a loss of
range. Multimode cables come in two primary varieties.
Advantages of fiber optic cables,
 Fiber optic cables has batter bandwidth.
 High data rate.
 Goes for kilometers (high distains)
 It has good security console
 Lowers interference
Disadvantages of fiber optic cables,
pg. 6
 Expensive to install
 Difficult to maintain.

 xDSL technology
DSL, or Digital Subscriber Line, presents clients with virtual services through their telephone
system. The ‘x’ surely approach that there are a variety of different DSL era available. DSL might be the
maximum used technique for human beings to get right of entry to virtual services, which include the
internet as it's miles inexpensive than leased lines and additionally faster than ISDN, with speeds of upto
1.5Mb/s down load pace and 128kb/s add pace to be had on ADSL (Asymmetric DSL). This is right down
to the truth that DSL makes use of a virtual modem in preference to an analogue one that means that the
information doesn’t want to be transformed earlier than its miles sent.

 GSM (2G) technology

The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a standard developed by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe the protocols for second-generation (2G)
digital cellular networks used by mobile devices such as mobile phones and tablets. And it is the global
standard for mobile communication. GSM/2G technology developed for replacement of first generation
(1G) analog cellular networks. The GSM preferred at the beginning defined a digital, circuit-switched
network optimized for full duplex voice telephone. This multiplied over the years to include information
communications, first by means of circuit-switched delivery, then with the aid of packet records transport
thru General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), and Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).
In security part, GSM was intended to be a secure wireless system. It has considered the user authentication
using a pre-shared key and challenge-response, and over-the-air encryption. However, GSM is vulnerable
to different types of attack, each of them aimed at a different part of the network.

 UMTS (3G) technology

The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is a third generation (3G) mobile
cellular system for networks based on the GSM standard. Broadband, packet-based transmission of text,
digitized voice, video, and multimedia at data rates up to 2 megabits per second (Mbps). Most of the time
uses a different radio interface based around the use of direct sequence Spread Spectrum as CDMA or
Code Division Multiple Access.
The security function of UMTS technology is based on what was implement in GSM. Encryption
algorithm is stronger and protected in base station (NODE-B) to radio community controller (RNC)
interface, the application of authentication algorithms is stricter and subscriber confidentially is tighter.
Some additional security functions on UTMS are,
o Security against using false base station with mutual authenticating.
o Encryption extended from air interface only to include Node-B to RNC connection
o Security data in the network will be protected in data storages and while transmitting ciphering keys
and authentication data in the system.
o Mechanism for upgrading security features.
But UTMS has specific security feature groups,
o Network access security.
o Network domain security.
o User domain security.
o Application domain security.
o Visibility and configurability security.

 WIMAX or LTE (4G) technology

What is WIMAX….?
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a family of wireless broadband
communication standards based on the IEEE 802.16 set of standards, which provide multiple physical layer
(PHY) and Media Access Control (MAC) options. WIMAX is a technology standard for long rang wireless
networking for mobile and fixed connection. Sometimes WiMAX was once envisioned to be a leading
pg. 7
form of internet communication as an alternative to cable and DSL, its adoption has been limited. WiMAX
equipment comes in two basic forms: base stations, installed by service providers to deploy the technology
in a coverage area; and receivers, installed in clients.
There are two type of WiMAX family of standards concentrate of usage models a fixed usage model
and a mobile usage model. The basic element that differentiates these systems is the ground speed at which
the systems are designed to manage.
 Fixed WIMAX
Service and consumer usage of WiMAX for fixed access is expected to reflect that of fixed wire-line
service, with many of the standards-based requirements being confined to the air interface. Because
communications takes place via wireless links from Customer Premise Equipment (CPE) to a remote Non
Line-of-sight (NLOS) base station, requirements for link security are greater than those needed for a
wireless service. The security mechanisms within the IEEE 802.16 standards are sufficient for fixed access
service.
 Mobile WIMAX
The 802.16a extension, refined in January 2003, uses a lower frequency of 2 to 11 GHz, enabling NLOS
connections. The latest 802.16e task group is capitalizing on the new capabilities this provides by working
on developing a specification to enable mobile WiMAX clients. These clients will be able to hand off
between WiMAX base stations, enabling users to roam between service areas.

What is 4G….?
4G is the fourth generation of broadband cellular network technology, succeeding 3G. A 4G
system must provide capabilities defined by ITU in IMT Advanced. Potential and current applications
include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV, video
conferencing, and 3D television. There are few frequencies for 4G LTE networks,
o 700 MHz (Band 28 - Telstra / Optus)
o 850 MHz (Band 5 - Vodafone)
o 900 MHz (Band 8 - Telstra)
o 1800 MHz (Band 3 - Telstra / Optus / Vodafone)
o 2100 MHz (Band 1 - [a small number of Telstra sites] / Optus [Tasmania] / Vodafone)
o 2300 MHz (Band 40 - Optus [Vivid Wireless spectrum])
o 2600 MHz (Band 7 - Telstra / Optus)
Advantages of 4G technology,
- More flexible and reliable.
- It is easier to standardize and it offers.
- It is very stable when connected to the internet without any disruption and it doesn’t throttle.
- Good speed and higher bandwidth.
- It present much more coverage than the other systems such as Wi-Fi.
Disadvantages of 4G technology
- 4G technology involves the possibility of some interference though not much.
- Obtaining the information from the people illegally becomes easier.
- 4G LTE network has higher data prices for the consumers.
- It consumes the data very fast & your battery becomes hot when it is used for a very long time.
- 4G LTE network needs complex hardware.

What is the different between WIMAX and 4G technology?

Specification WIMAX 4G/LTE

Standard IEEE 802.16-2004 3GPP TS 36.101 for the UE

IEEE 802.16-2005
Channel bandwidth 5, 7, 8.75, 10MHz 1.4/3/5/10/15/20 MHz
Data Modulation BPSK/QPSK/16QAM/64QAM QPSK/16QAM/64QAM

pg. 8
 MIMO 2-antenna, 2 or 4 at transmit
matrix A, 2-antenna, and 2 or 4 at
matrix B receive side
vertical encoding, Collaborative
SM for
two MS with
single
transmit antenna
Subcarrier spacing 10.9375KHz 15KHz
for 1024 FFT,
10 MHz bandwidth

And also there is another new technology called 5G. Now it is the most popular and upcoming technology.
 5G
5G is the fifth generation telecommunication and wireless network standard which will be capable of
handling greater data rates and network efficiency. 5G networks will offer scalable and adaptable services,
it promises a smarter, faster and efficient network. It will be more complex maintenance, using hardware
that is 10 years younger than what’s deployed for 4G today. Many parts of the U.S. (let alone the rest of
the world) may not have enough qualified service personnel, early on, leading to outages as the networks
go into service.

II. You should also describe current relevant standards, applications, and quality of service in Voice over
IP (VoIP) technology.
VOIP is stands for voice over internet protocol. It is likewise called IP Telephony, Internet
Telephony, and Internet Calling. It is an opportunity way of creating telephone calls that may be very
reasonably-priced or absolutely unfastened. The ‘telephone’ part isn't always constantly gift anymore, as
you may speak without a phone set. VoIP has been named the most a hit technology of the ultimate decade.
There are 3 basic types of VoIP systems available - Software Solution, Hosted VoIP and Self-Hosted VoIP.
Let’s have a look how these systems are used. VOIP has some of advantages and it is,
 Cheaper infrastructure - Compared to laying copper or fiber-optic lines just for telephones, adding extra
Ethernet connections or provisioning VoIP to use a Wi-Fi connection significantly reduces the cost of
a first-time deployment.
 No required network topology - VoIP doesn't require a local network to be configured in a specific
way, so you can plug a VoIP solution into any existing network without having to re-engineer it.
 Mobile telephony - Not only can you use a softphone to call on your computer or smartphone, but you
can also program desktop VoIP phones and then move them at will without reprogramming them —
great for flexible office arrangements.
 More competition - Compared to the small number of PSTN-based providers, the VoIP marketplace of
hardware and software vendors is significantly more robust, leading to more features at lower costs
over time.
VoIP is vulnerable to all security issues that generally affect the traditional IP data networks. This includes
viruses, worms and denial of service (DoS), spoofing, port scanning, unauthorized access from a third
party, and toll fraud. In short, the same issues you deal with in compromised Internet function can be linked
to the use of VoIP technology.

pg. 9
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pg. 10