PROJECT DESCRIPTION:

Solar power generation is the one of the effective method to generate the
power. Today’s most of the houses using this method to generate power for home
appliances. In our project we are using this method to generate power for charge
the cell phone. Solar panel consists of number of silicon cells. When sunlight falls
on these cells, it generate voltage pulse and gathered together then given to
charging circuit. The different cell phone sockets are connected in the charging
circuit. The objective of this project is to charge the cell phone with the help of
solar power. This project acts as instant charger. This project is used in important
places such as petrol bunks, bus stand, and railway station and outside of the home
and so on.

With the existing push in the direction of sustainable, clean sources of

power, it is no surprise that solar power has become one of the most popular
alternative energy sources. Free and available everywhere, the power of the sun
can be employed to power everything like cell phones and MP3 player. The sun's
energy is usually harvested through solar panels that are made up of photovoltaic
cells. These cells can convert the sun's power into electricity that can be used for a
number of purposes. For private use, a handheld solar hybrid charger can be
employed to recharge little device for instance a MP3 player, a cell phone, or a
camera. A normal PN junction diode is used for unidirectional flow of charge
current. The output of the solar panel depends on the intensity of the solar light.

It works on the principle that when light falls on the solar cell, electron -hole
pairs are created in the n-type emitter and in the p-type base.The generated
electrons (from the base) and holes (from the emitter) then diffuse to the junction
and are swept away by the electric field, thus producing. Certain modules are
selected and worked out to suitable specifications.

Solar energy is the energy produced directly by the sun and collected
elsewhere, normally the Earth. The sun creates its energy through a thermonuclear
process. The process creates heat and electromagnetic radiation. Only a very small
fraction of the total radiation produced reaches the Earth. The radiation that does
reach the Earth is the indirect source of nearly every type of energy used today.

The radiation that does reach the Earth is the indirect source of nearly every
type of energy used today. The exceptions are geothermal energy, and nuclear
fission and fusion. Even fossil fuels owe their origins to the sun; they were once
living plants and animals whose life was dependent upon the sun. Much of the
world's required energy can be supplied directly by solar power. More still can be
provided indirectly. The practicality of doing so will be examined, as well as the
benefits and drawbacks. In addition, the uses solar energy is currently applied to
will be noted.

Due to the nature of solar energy, two components are required to have a
functional solar energy generator. These two components are a collector and a
storage unit. The collector simply collects the radiation that falls on it and converts
a fraction of it to other forms of energy (either electricity and heat or heat alone).
The storage unit is required because of the non-constant nature of solar energy; at
certain times only a very small amount of radiation will be received.

At night or during heavy cloud cover, for example, the amount of energy
produced by the collector will be quite small. The storage unit can hold the excess
energy produced during the periods of maximum productivity, and release it when
the productivity drops. In practice, a backup power supply is usually added, too,
for the situations when the amount of energy required is greater than both what is
being produced and what is stored in the container
 CHAPTER 1

1. INTRODUCTION
In today’s environment conscious world, a lot of interest is being taken in
alternate forms of energy. Solar power is a renewable source of energy, which has
become increasingly popular in modern days. Today 80% of the energy we use
comes from fossil fuels and about 1% comes from solar energy. It is estimated that
the world’s oil reserves will last for 30 to 40 years, whereas solar energy is forever.

Solar energy has two big advantages over fossil fuels. The first is in the fact
that it is renewable; it is never going to run out. The second is its effect on the
environment. Burning of fossil fuels introduces many harmful pollutants into the
atmosphere and contributes to global warming and acid rain. Solar cell directly
converts solar energy into electricity. The solar cells that are connected together
make up the solar panel. This can last up-to several decades without replacement.
However, there is a drawback of solar power: energy can be produced only in the
presence of sunlight.

To overcome this, the solar panels are coupled with the rechargeable
batteries, which can store excess power generated and provide energy in the
absence of sunlight. Solar energy has advantages over other renewable energy
sources including wind and water power: solar power is generated using solar
panels, which do not require any major mechanical parts, such as wind turbines.
These mechanical parts can breakdown and cause maintenance issues and can also
be quite noisy.

Both of these issues are virtually non-existent with solar panels. This project
aims at harvesting solar energy and storing it in a rechargeable battery. Using this
battery various low-voltage device can be charged. Also, the charge in the battery
is displayed on an LCD through a micro-controller.

SOLAR POWER:

Solar energy, radiation from the Sun capable of producing heat, causing
chemical reactions, or generating electricity. The total amount of solar energy
incident on Earth is vastly in excess of the world’s current and anticipated energy
requirements. If suitably harnessed, this highly diffused source has the potential to
satisfy all future energy needs. In the 21st century solar energy is expected to
become increasingly attractive as a renewable energy source because of its
inexhaustible supply and its nonpolluting character, in stark contrast to the finite
fossil fuels coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

The Sun is an extremely powerful energy source, and sunlight is by far the
largest source of energy received by Earth, but its intensity at Earth’s surface is
actually quite low. This is essentially because of the enormous radial spreading of
radiation from the distant Sun.

A relatively minor additional loss is due to Earth’s atmosphere and clouds,

which absorb or scatter as much as 54 percent of the incoming sunlight. The
sunlight that reaches the ground consists of nearly 50 percent visible light, 45
percent infrared radiation, and smaller amounts of ultraviolet and other forms of
electromagnetic radiation. lar concept is not new for us. As non-renewable energy
sources are decreasing, usage of solar energy is increased. This solar energy is not
only used on the Earth but also used in space stations where no electrical power is
available.

Here is the simple circuit to charge 12V, 1.3Ah rechargeable Lead-acid

battery from the solar panel. This solar charger has current and voltage regulation
and also has over voltage cut off facilities. This circuit may also be used to charge
any battery at constant voltage because output voltage is adjustable.

Uses of Solar Energy

The potential for solar energy is enormous, since about 200,000 times the
world’s total daily electric-generating capacity is received by Earth every day in
the form of solar energy. Unfortunately, though solar energy itself is free, the high
cost of its collection, conversion, and storage still limits its exploitation in many
places. Solar radiation can be converted either into thermal energy (heat) or into
electrical energy, though the former is easier to accomplish
 CHAPTER 2

2. DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS

2.1 SOLAR PANEL:

Solar panels are those devices which are used to absorb the sun's rays and convert
them into electricity or heat.

A solar panel is actually a collection of solar (or photovoltaic) cells, which can be
used to generate electricity through photovoltaic effect. These cells are arranged in
a grid-like pattern on the surface of solar panels. Thus, it may also be described as
a set of photovoltaic modules, mounted on a structure supporting it. A photovoltaic
(PV) module is a packaged and connected assembly of 6×10 solar cells. When it
comes to wear-and-tear, these panels are very hardy. Solar panels wear out
extremely slow. In a year, their effectiveness decreases only about one to two per
cent (at times, even lesser).

Most solar panels are made up using crystalline silicon solar cells. Installation of
solar panels in homes helps in combating the harmful emissions of greenhouse
gases and thus helps reduce global warming. Solar panels do not lead to any form
of pollution and are clean. They also decrease our reliance on fossil fuels (which
are limited) and traditional power sources. These days, solar panels are used in
wide-ranging electronic equipments like calculators, which work as long as
sunlight is available. However, the only major drawback of solar panels is that they
are quite costly. Also, solar panels are installed outdoors as they need sunlight to
get charged.

Solar energy works by capturing the sun’s energy and turning it into electricity for
your home or business. Our sun is a natural nuclear reactor. It releases tiny packets
of energy called photons, which travel the 93 million miles from the sun to Earth in
about 8.5 minutes. Every hour, enough photons impact our planet to generate
enough solar energy to theoretically satisfy global energy needs for an entire year.
Currently photovoltaic power accounts for only five-tenths of one percent of the
energy consumed in the United States. But solar technology is improving and the
cost of going solar is dropping rapidly, so our ability to harness the sun’s
abundance of energy is on the rise.
WORKING OF SOLAR PANEL

When photons hit a solar cell, they knock electrons loose from their atoms. If
conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides of a cell, it forms an
electrical circuit. When electrons flow through such a circuit, they generate
electricity. Multiple cells make up a solar panel, and multiple panels (modules) can
be wired together to form a solar array. The more panels you can deploy, the more
energy you can expect to generate.

MANUFACTURING OF SOLAR CELLS

• Raw Materials: The basic component of a solar cell is pure silicon, which is not
pure in its natural state

• Purifying the silicon

• Making single crystal silicon

• Making silicon wafers i.e. making small small silicon crystal.

• Doping : Doping is used to increase the strength of the material.

• The anti-reflective coating: It is a type of optical coating applied to the surface of

lenses. It improves efficiency.

• Encapsulating the cell

Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels are made up of many solar cells. Solar cells are
made of silicon, like semiconductors. They are constructed with a positive layer
and a negative layer, which together create an electric field, just like in a battery.

ELECTRICITY GENERATION USING SOLAR PANEL:

PV solar panels generate direct current (DC) electricity. With DC electricity,

electrons flow in one direction around a circuit. This example shows a battery
powering a light bulb. The electrons move from the negative side of the battery,
through the lamp, and return to the positive side of the battery. With AC
(alternating current) electricity, electrons are pushed and pulled, periodically
reversing direction, much like the cylinder of a car’s engine. Generators create AC
electricity when a coil of wire is spun next to a magnet. Many different energy
sources can “turn the handle” of this generator, such as gas or diesel fuel,
hydroelectricity, nuclear, coal, wind, or solar. AC electricity was chosen for the
U.S. electrical power grid, primarily because it is less expensive to transmit over
long distances. However, solar panels create DC electricity. A 2017 report from the
International Energy Agency shows that solar has become the world’s fastest-
growing source of power – marking the first time that solar energy’s growth has
surpassed that of all other fuels. In the coming years, we will all be enjoying the
benefits of solar-generated electricity in one way or another.

OVERVIEW OF SOLAR PANELS (PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULES)

A photovoltaic (PV) module or solar electric panel is the smallest replaceable unit
in a PV array. The module is an integral unit that provides support for a number of
PV cells connected electrically and protected from the elements. The electrical
output of the module depends on the size and number of cells, their electrical
interconnection, and, of course, on the environmental conditions to which the
module is exposed. Solar electric panels come in all shapes and sizes, and may be
made from different materials. However, the most commonly used module is a
"glass-plate-sandwich" that has 36 PV cells connected in series to produce enough
voltage to charge a 12 volt battery. The purpose of the structure is to provide a
rigid package and protect the inter-cell connections from the environment. Plus (+)
and minus (-) connectors are located on the back of the module for interconnection.
The modules may have an individual metal frame or be protected by a rubber
gasket and intended for installation in a larger mounting system designed to hold
several modules.

There are four factors that determine any solar electric panel's output: efficiency of
the photovoltaic cells, the load resistance, solar irradiance, and cell temperature.
The solar cell efficiency is set by the manufacturing process; today's commercially
available modules are from 3% to 17% efficient at converting the solar energy to
electrical energy. The load resistance determines where the module will operate on
the current and voltage (I-V) curve. The obvious preferred operating point is where
maximum power (power is calculated by multiplying the current times the voltage)
is generated, called the peak power point. Study the I-V curve shown below. This
curve represents the output of any PV generator, from a cell to the largest array.

For a given solar cell area, the current generated is directly proportional to solar
irradiance (S) and is almost independent of temperature (T). Thus, as the sun's
brightness increases the output voltage and power decreases as temperature
increases. The voltage of crystalline cells decreases about 0.5 percent per degree
centigrade temperature increase. Therefore, arrays should be mounted in the
sunniest place (no shading) and kept as cool as possible by ensuring air can move
over and behind the array.
ADVANTAGES:

 Solar energy is a renewable energy sources. We get solar energy directly

from resources i.e. from sun. The solar charger power source comes from the
solar energy which is a reliable alternative.
 Solar energy comes in free of charge. The energy from the sun is free. The
source of energy is practically free because we get sunlight directly from
sun.
 Solar cells panel on the solar charger does not require much maintenance.
As, the solar cells panel is very reliable as it can last longer than other
Source of energy.
 The solar charger also does emit zero pollution and is very environmental
friendly which helps in reducing global warming and greenhouse effect.
 It also helps reduces cost such as electric bills as the solar charger source of
energy is free.
 The solar charger also operate quietly and this does not contribute to noise
pollution

APPLICATIONS

 For low-power portable electronics, like calculators or small fans, a

photovoltaic array may be a reasonable energy source rather than a battery.
 In other situations, such as solar battery chargers, watches, and flashlights,
the photovoltaic array is used to generate electricity.
 Solar chargers can charge lead acid or Ni-Cd battery bank up to 48 V and
hundreds of ampere-hours (up to 400 Ah) capacity.
 For such type of solar chargers, generally intelligent charge controllers are
used. A series of solar cell array plates are installed separately on roof top
and can be connected to battery bank. Such arrangement can also be used in
addition to mains supply chargers for energy saving during day times.
 Most portable chargers can obtain energy from the sun only. Portable knobs
are also sold. Some, including the Kinesis K3, can work either way.
Examples of solar chargers in popular use include:
 Small portable models designed to charge a range of different mobile
phones, cell Phones, iPods or other portable audio equipment.
  Fold out models designed to sit on the dashboard of an automobile and plug
into the cigar lighter, to keep the battery topped up whilst not in use.
 Torches often combined with a secondary means of charging, such as a
kinetic charging system.
 Public solar chargers permanently installed in public places, such as parks,
squares and streets, which passersby can use for free.

2.2 DIODE IN4007

Pin Configuration:

Pin No. Pin Name Description

1 Anode Current always Enters through Anode

2 Cathode Current always Exits through Cathode

Features:

 Average forward current is 1A

 Non-repetitive Peak current is 30A

 Reverse current is 5uA.

 Peak repetitive Reverse voltage is 1000V

 Power dissipation 3W

 Available in DO-41 Package

Description:
1N4007 is a PN junction rectifier diode. These types of diodes allow only the flow
of electrical current in one direction only. So, it can be used for the conversion of
AC power to DC. 1N 4007 is electrically compatible with other rectifier diodes and
can be used instead of any of the diode belonging to 1N400X series. 1N-4007 has
different real life applications e.g. freewheeling diodes applications, general
purpose rectification of power supplies, inverters, converters etc. A diode is a
device which allows current flow through only one direction. That is the current
should always flow from the Anode to cathode. The cathode terminal can be
identified by using a grey bar as shown in the picture above.
For 1N4007 Diode, the maximum current carrying capacity is 1A it withstand
peaks up to 30A. Hence we can use this in circuits that are designed for less than
1A. The reverse current is 5uA which is negligible. The power dissipation of this
diode is 3W.
TYPES OF DIODES

There are numerous types of diodes that are specifically designed or modified for
specific applications. Below is a list of some popular diodes.

 Zener Diodes
 Photo Diodes
 Light emitting Diodes
 Schottky-Barrier Diodes
 PIN Diodes
 Backward diodes
 Baritt Diodes
 Gunn Diodes
 Step recovery Diodes
 Tunnel Diodes etc.
USES OF DIODES:

USE OF DIODE AS RECTIFIER

Conversion of AC input voltage to the DC output voltage when AC voltage is
applied to a diode is called as rectification. Diodes are used individually or
connected together to produce various rectifier circuits such as half-wave and
full-wave rectifiers for power and signal rectification.

USE OF DIODE AS CLIPPER

Clipping is a waveform shaping where the input signal is clipped or cut to produce
an output which is a flattened version of the input signal. Diode-clipping circuits
are used in voltage limiting applications as this circuit eliminates voltages below
zero.
Advantages of Diode

 Diodes are compact in size and compatible.

 Designing electronic circuit is simple with certain diodes like Zener diodes.
 Diodes help in controlling the current flow.
 These diodes produce less unwanted noise.
 Certain diodes like Schottky diodes can operate at high frequencies.
 Light emitting diodes are highly efficient compared to other diodes and they
can emit light of the expected colors.
 Operates at high switching speed.

Disadvantages of Diodes

 Power dissipation is more for Zener diodes and hence it is less efficient for
heavy loads.
 Diodes are highly sensitive to temperature.
 Amplification is necessary in photodiode based circuits.
 Light emitting diodes are expensive compared to other diodes.
 Certain diodes like Schottky diodes have low maximum reverse voltage
 They have high reverse current and impedance.

Applications of Diode:

 Can be used to prevent reverse polarity problem

 Half Wave and Full Wave rectifiers
 Used as a protection device
 Current flow regulators

2.3 LM317 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

2.3.1 Voltage Regulator

The LM317 Voltage Regulator is a 3-terminal adjustable voltage regulator which
can supply an output voltage adjustable from 1.2V to 37V. It can supply more than
1.5A of load current to a load.

LM317 Pinout

The LM317 Voltage Regulator has 3 pins.

from the front of the voltage regulator, the first pin (on the left) is the Adjustable
Pin, the middle is Vout, and the last pin(on the right) is VIN.

VIN- VIN is the pin which receives the incoming voltage which is to be regulated
down to a specified voltage. For example, the input voltage pin can be fed 12V,
which the regulator will regulate down to 10V. The input pin receives the
incoming, unregulated voltage. Adjustable- The Adjustable pin (Adj) is the pin
which allows for adjustable voltage output. To adjust output, we swap out resistor
R2 value for a different resistance. This creates adjustable voltages.
VOUT- VOUT is the pin which outputs the regulated voltage. For example, the
LM317 may receive 12V as the input and output a constant 10V as output.

LM317 Schematic Diagram:

Here you see we connect two resistors to the voltage regulator. These resistors
determine the voltage that the voltage regulator adjusts to and outputs.

The voltage that the adjustable regulator outputs is determined by the equation
below:

Therefore, you can see based on this formula, that the more the value of resistor R2
increases, the greater the voltage output.

In our setup now, these are the values we're going to use. We're going to put 12
volts into the voltage regulator and regulate it down to 5V. Based on the formula
above, in order for the LM317 to output 5 volts, the value of R2 must be 720Ω. Set
this above circuit up and then use a multimeter to check the output voltage by
placing it across the 1µF capacitor or across the the resistors. You will discover it's
very close to 5 volts. Now swap out the R2 resistor and place a 1.5KΩ resistor in
its place. Now the voltage output should be near 10V.
This is the advantage of adjustable voltage regulators. You can adjust it to any
voltage within the range that the voltage regulator supports.The capacitors C1 and
C2 are used to clean up the power line. C1 is optional and it's used to clean up
transient response. C2 is needed if the device is far from any filter capacitors.
These capacitors help smooth out the power supply line in case of abrupt current
spikes.

In this circuit, we add a DC voltage supply to the VIN pin of the regulator. This is
the pin which, again, receives incoming voltage which the chip will then regulate
down. The voltage which enters this pin must be larger than the voltage it is
feeding out. Remember, voltage regulators are just devices that regulate voltage
down to a certain level. They do not and cannot create voltage on their own.
Therefore, in order to a get a voltage, VOUT, VIN must be greater than VOUT. In
this circuit, we want a regulated 5VDC as output. Therefore, VIN must be greater
than 5 volts. Generally, with regulators, unless they are low drop out regulators,
you want the input voltage to be about 2 volts higher. So therefore, since we want
5 volts as output, we will feed into this regulator 7 volts.
The input pin, we must now deal with the adjustable pin (Adj). This is the pin
which allows us to adjust the voltage to the level we want. Since we want 5 volts to
be output, we must calculate which value of R2 will yield an output of 5 volts.
Using the formula for the output voltage, VOUT= 1.25V (1 + R2/R1). Being that
R1=240Ω, our equation is now 5V= 1.25V (1 + R2/240Ω), so R2=720Ω. So with
R2 being a value of 720Ω, the LM317 will output 5V if fed an input voltage
greater than 5 volts. The last pin of the LM317 is the output pin. This is where the
regulated voltage (in this case, 5 volts) will come out. To feed a circuit the
regulated 5 volts, we just connect it to the output pin.

Different Types of Voltage Regulators

Voltage Regulators can be implemented using discrete component circuits or ICs.

Irrespective of the implementation, voltage regulators can be classified into two
types:

 Linear Voltage Regulators

 Switching Voltage Regulators

Taking the above discussion on the components of a voltage regulator and its basic
functionality into consideration, let us assume that the pass element in the voltage
regulator circuit is a Transistor.

This transistor can be operated either in its active region or as a switch in order to
regulate the output voltage. If the transistor stays in active region or the Ohmic
region or Linear region of its operation during the course of voltage regulation,
then the regulator is called as a Linear Voltage Regulator.
When the transistor operates in cutoff state and saturation state i.e. it switches
between off state and saturation state, then the regulator is called as Switching
Voltage Regulator.

Now, let us dive into both these voltage regulators and take a closer look at their
working and types.

Linear Voltage Regulators

The original form of regulators in regulating power supplies are Linear Voltage
Regulators. In a linear voltage regulator, the variable conductivity of the active
pass element (usually a BJT or a MOSFET) is responsible for regulating the output
voltage.

When a load is connected, the changes in either input or load will result in a
variation in current through the transistor so that the output is maintained constant.
For the transistor to be able to vary its current (collector-emitter current in case of a
BJT), it must be operated in active or Ohmic region (also known as Linear
Region).

During this process, the linear voltage regulator wastes a lot power as the net
voltage i.e. the difference between the input and output is dropped in the transistor
and is dissipated as heat.

Usually, linear voltage regulators are classified into five categories. They are:

 Positive Adjustable Regulators

 Negative Adjustable Regulators
 Fixed Output Regulators
 Tracking Regulators
  Floating Regulators

Advantages of Linear Voltage Regulators

The advantages of Linear Voltage Regulators are as follows:

 Implementation of Linear Voltage Regulators is very simple and they are

easy to use.
 In spite of their power dissipation, linear voltage regulators are robust in
over current protection and thermal protection.
 Adjustable Voltage regulators require a very few external components to
achieve its operation. Fixed voltage regulators require almost no external
components (may be a couple of bypass capacitors).
 At low cost you have a wide range of voltage and current selection.

Disadvantages of Linear Voltage Regulators

The disadvantage of Linear Voltage regulators are as follows:

 Usually, linear voltage regulators are step down only i.e. the output voltage
is always less than the input voltage.
 When operating from AC mains supply, a step-down transformer is required
to bring the voltage to an operable level. Hence, they are usually bulky.
 As the regulation is done by dissipating excess power as heat, they tend to
become extremely hot and the use of a heat sink is unavoidable.
 Also, the efficiency of linear regulators is usually very less, somewhere
between 20% to 60%.
2.3 RESISTOR:

Pin Configuration:

Resistors have two leads, there is no polarity for a resistor and hence can be
connected in both directions.

Features

 Carbon Film Resistor

 4-band Resistor
 Resistor value varies based on selected parameter
 Power rating varies based on selected parameter

Other Resistor based Components: Higher Power Resistor, Potentiometer

(Variable Resistor), LDR (Light Dependent Resistor), Thermistor.

Resistor parameters selection

Ever wondered what about the types of resistors available in market or how to
select one for your project read further. Resistors can be classified based on two
main parameters. One is their Resistance (R-ohms) itself and the other is
its Power (P-Watts) rating.
The value or resistance decides how much opposition it provides to the flow of
current. The greater the resistor value the smaller the current will flow. Resistors
are not available in all values, there are only few standard values which are most
used and they are listed below

Standard Resistor Values: 0Ω, 1Ω, 10Ω, 22Ω, 47Ω, 100Ω, 150Ω, 200Ω, 220Ω,
270Ω, 330Ω, 470Ω, 510Ω, 680Ω, 1KΩ, 2KΩ, 2.2KΩ, 3.3KΩ, 4.7KΩ, 5.1KΩ,
6.8KΩ, 8.2KΩ, 10KΩ, 20KΩ, 33KΩ, 39KΩ, 47KΩ, 51KΩ, 68KΩ, 100KΩ,
220KΩ, 300KΩ, 470KΩ, 680KΩ, 1MΩ.

Resistors are also classified based on how much current it can allow; this is called
Power (wattage) rating. The higher the power rating the bigger the resistor gets and
it can also more current. A Quarter Watt (1/8) resistor is used by default for all
electronics projects. However if you need otherwise, the following are the common
options

Standard Power Ratings: 1/4 Watts, 1/8 (Quarter) Watts, ½ (Half) Watt, 1 (One)
Watts, 2 (Two) Watts, Higher Watt resistor.

Identifying a Resistor

As said earlier, Resistors are not available in all values. So if you project needs a
particular value which is not commonly available then you have to make up the
value by using either series or parallel combination as shown below.
Resistor in Series:

The value of resistors get added up when they are placed in series.

Resistor in parallel:

The value of resistor gets inversely added up when they are parallel.
Applications

 Current limiting Resistor

 To create voltage drop
 Pull up / Pull down Resistor
 Potential dividers
 To measure current as shunt resistor

2.4 CAPACITORS

Capacitors are simple passive device that can store an electrical charge on their
plates when connected to a voltage source.

The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store energy in
the form of an electrical charge producing a potential difference (Static Voltage)
across its plates, much like a small rechargeable battery.

There are many different kinds of capacitors available from very small capacitor
beads used in resonance circuits to large power factor correction capacitors, but
they all do the same thing, they store charge.

In its basic form, a capacitor consists of two or more parallel conductive (metal)
plates which are not connected or touching each other, but are electrically
separated either by air or by some form of a good insulating material such as
waxed paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or some form of a liquid gel as used in
electrolytic capacitors. The insulating layer between a capacitors plates is
commonly called the Dielectric.
A Typical Capacitor

Due to this insulating layer, DC current can not flow through the capacitor as it
blocks it allowing instead a voltage to be present across the plates in the form of an
electrical charge.

The conductive metal plates of a capacitor can be either square, circular or

rectangular, or they can be of a cylindrical or spherical shape with the general
shape, size and construction of a parallel plate capacitor depending on its
application and voltage rating.

When used in a direct current or DC circuit, a capacitor charges up to its supply

voltage but blocks the flow of current through it because the dielectric of a
capacitor is non-conductive and basically an insulator. However, when a capacitor
is connected to an alternating current or AC circuit, the flow of the current appears
to pass straight through the capacitor with little or no resistance.

There are two types of electrical charge, a positive charge in the form of Protons
and a negative charge in the form of Electrons. When a DC voltage is placed
across a capacitor, the positive (+ve) charge quickly accumulates on one plate
while a corresponding and opposite negative (-ve) charge accumulates on the other
plate. For every particle of +ve charge that arrives at one plate a charge of the same
sign will depart from the -ve plate.
Then the plates remain charge neutral and a potential difference due to this charge
is established between the two plates. Once the capacitor reaches its steady state
condition an electrical current is unable to flow through the capacitor itself and
around the circuit due to the insulating properties of the dielectric used to separate
the plates.

The flow of electrons onto the plates is known as the capacitors Charging
Current which continues to flow until the voltage across both plates (and hence
the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vc. At this point the capacitor is said
to be “fully charged” with electrons.

The strength or rate of this charging current is at its maximum value when the
plates are fully discharged (initial condition) and slowly reduces in value to zero as
the plates charge up to a potential difference across the capacitors plates equal to
the source voltage.

The amount of potential difference present across the capacitor depends upon how
much charge was deposited onto the plates by the work being done by the source
voltage and also by how much capacitance the capacitor has and this is illustrated
below.
The parallel plate capacitor is the simplest form of capacitor. It can be constructed
using two metal or metallised foil plates at a distance parallel to each other, with its
capacitance value in Farads, being fixed by the surface area of the conductive
plates and the distance of separation between them. Altering any two of these
values alters the the value of its capacitance and this forms the basis of operation of
the variable capacitors.

Also, because capacitors store the energy of the electrons in the form of an
electrical charge on the plates the larger the plates and/or smaller their separation
the greater will be the charge that the capacitor holds for any given voltage across
its plates. In other words, larger plates, smaller distance, more capacitance.

By applying a voltage to a capacitor and measuring the charge on the plates, the
ratio of the charge Q to the voltage V will give the capacitance value of the
capacitor and is therefore given as: C = Q/V this equation can also be re-arranged
to give the familiar formula for the quantity of charge on the plates as: Q = C x V
Although we have said that the charge is stored on the plates of a capacitor, it is
more exact to say that the energy within the charge is stored in an “electrostatic
field” between the two plates. When an electric current flows into the capacitor, it
charges up, so the electrostatic field becomes much stronger as it stores more
energy between the plates.

Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is proportional to the area, A in

metres2 of the smallest of the two plates and inversely proportional to the distance
or separation, d (i.e. the dielectric thickness) given in metres between these two
conductive plates.

The generalised equation for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given
as: C = ε(A/d) where ε represents the absolute permittivity of the dielectric material
being used. The permittivity of a vacuum, εo also known as the “permittivity of
free space” has the value of the constant 8.84 x 10-12 Farads per metre.

To make the maths a little easier, this dielectric constant of free space, εo, which
can be written as: 1/(4π x 9×109), may also have the units of picofarads (pF) per
metre as the constant giving: 8.84 for the value of free space. Note though that the
resulting capacitance value will be in picofarads and not in farads.

Generally, the conductive plates of a capacitor are separated by some kind of

insulating material or gel rather than a perfect vacuum. When calculating the
capacitance of a capacitor, we can consider the permittivity of air, and especially of
dry air, as being the same value as a vacuum as they are very close.
SCHOTTKY DIODE

A Schottky diode is one type of electronic component, which is also known as a

barrier diode. It is widely used in different applications like a mixer, in radio
frequency applications, and as a rectifier in power applications. It’s a low voltage
diode. The power drop is lower compared to the PN junction diodes. The Schottky
diode is named after the scientist Schottky. It is also sometimes referred to as a hot
carrier diode or hot-electron diode and even a surface barrier diode. This article
discusses what is a Schottky diode, construction, applications, characteristics, and
advantages.

A Schottky diode is also known as a hot carrier diode; it is a semiconductor diode

with a very fast switching action, but a low forward voltage drop. When a current
flows through the diode there is a small voltage drop across the diode terminals. In
a normal diode, the voltage drop is between 0.6 to 1.7 volts, while in a Schottky
diode the voltage drop normally ranges between 0.15 and 0.45volts. This lower
voltage drop provides higher switching speed and better system efficiency. In
Schottky diode, a semiconductor–metal junction is formed between a
semiconductor and a metal, thus creating a Schottky barrier. The N-type
semiconductor acts as a cathode and the metal side acts as the anode of the diode.

Schottky Diode Construction

It is a unilateral junction. A metal-semiconductor junction is formed at one end and

another metal-semiconductor contact is formed at the other end. It is an ideal
Ohmic bidirectional contact with no potential existing between the metal and the
semiconductor and it is non-rectifying. The built-in potential across the open-
circuited Schottky barrier diode characterizes the Schottky diode.
Schottky diode is a function of temperature dropping. It decreases and increasing
temperature doping concentration in N-type semiconductor. For manufacturing
purposes, the metals of the Schottky barrier diode like molybdenum, platinum,
chromium, tungsten Aluminium, gold, etc., are used and the semiconductor used is
N-type.

Schottky Barrier Diode

A Schottky barrier diode is also known as Schottky or hot carrier diode. A

Schottky barrier diode is a metal-semiconductor. A junction is formed by bringing
metal contact with a moderately doped N-type semiconductor material. The
Schottky barrier diode is a unidirectional device conducting current flows only in
one direction (Conventional current flow from the metal to the semiconductor)

V-I Characteristics Of Schottky Barrier Diode

The V-I characteristics of a Schottky barrier diode are below

  The forward voltage drop of the Schottky barrier diode is very low
compared to a normal PN junction diode.
 The forward voltage drop ranges from 0.3 volts to 0.5 volts.
 The forward voltage drop of the Schottky barrier is made up of silicon.
 The forward voltage drop increases at the same time increasing the doping
concentration of N-type semiconductor.
 The V-I characteristics of a Schottky barrier diode are very steeper
compared to the V-I characteristics of normal PN junction diode due to the
high concentration of current carriers.

Current Components in Schottky Diode:

The Schottky barrier diode current condition is through majority carriers, which

are electrons in an N-type semiconductor. The formula in the Schottky barrier

diode is

IT=IDiffusion+ITunneling+IThermionic emission
Where IDiffusion is diffusion current due to concentration gradient and diffusion
current densityJn=Dn*q*dn/dx for electrons, where Dn is the diffusion constant of
electrons, q is electronic charge = 1.6*1019coulombs, dn/dx is a concentration
gradient for electrons.

ITunneling is the tunneling current due to quantum mechanical tunneling through

the barrier.The probability of tunneling increases with the decrease in the barrier or
built-in potential and decrease in depletion layer width. This current is directly
proportional to the probability of tunneling.

IThermionic emission is a current due to thermionic emission current. Due to

thermal agitation, some carriers have equal energy to or larger than the conduction
band energy to the metal-semiconductor interface, and to the current flow.This is
known as thermionic emission current.

Since the current flowing directly through the Schottky barrier diode is through
majority charge carriers. Hence, it is suitable for high-speed switching applications
because the forward voltage is very low and the reverse recovery time is very
short.

Applications Of Schottky Diode

Schottky diodes are used for the voltage clamping applications and prevention of
transistor saturation due to the high current density in the Schottky diode. It’s also
been a low forward voltage drop in Schottky diode, it is wasted in less heat,
making them an efficient choice for applications that are sensitive and very
efficient. Because of the Schottky diode used in stand-alone photovoltaic systems
in order to prevent batteries from discharging purpose for the solar panels at night
as well as in grid-connected systems, containing multiple strings are connected in
parallel connection. Schottky diodes are also used as rectifiers in power supplies.

Advantages Of Schottky Diode

 Schottky diodes are used in many applications compared to other types of

diodes that do not perform well.
 Low turn-on voltage: The turn-on voltage for the diode is between 0.2 and
0.3 volts. For a silicon diode, it is against 0.6 to 0.7 volts from a standard
silicon diode.
 Fast recovery time: A fast recovery time means a small amount of stored
charge that can be used for high-speed switching applications.
 Low junction capacitance: It occupies a very small area, after the result
obtained from wire point contact of the silicon. Since the capacitance levels
are very small.

Features Of Schottky Diode

The features of Schottky diode mainly include the following

 Higher efficiency
 Low forward voltage drop
 Low capacitance
 Low profile surface-mount package, ultra-small
 Integrated guard ring for stress protection
 CHAPTER 3

OVERVIEW OF THE MOBILE CHARGER

Solar cell phone chargers use solar panels to charge cell phone batteries. They can
be used when no electricity supply is available—either mains or, for example, a
vehicle battery—and are sometimes suggested as a way to charge phones without
consuming mains electricity, unlike electrical cell phone chargers. Some can also
be used as a conventional charger by plugging into an electrical outlet. Some
chargers have an internal rechargeable battery which is charged in sunlight and
then used to charge a phone; others charge the phone directly.

There are also public solar chargers for mobile phones which can be installed
permanently in public places such as streets, park and squares. One such is the
Strawberry Tree public solar charger. One cell phone model was reported in 2010
to have a built in solar charger. Solar chargers are commercially available for
cellphones.

Solar cell phone chargers come in different shapes and configurations including
folding (Goal Zero, Endless Sun Solar) and types that unfold like petals (Solio).

They also come in the form of straps, with solar cells on the outer surface and a
rechargeable battery inside. Solar cell technology limits the effectiveness and
practicality of phone solar chargers for everyday use. Phone charge times vary
depending on the solar panel size and efficiency, or the battery capacity of models
with batteries, further extending the charge times of solar chargers. The fold-out
design provides a larger solar panel, hence higher charge current, and is compact
when not in use.
Solar chargers can be used to charge other rechargeable devices with requirements
similar to a mobile phone, such as Bluetooth headsets and music players.

Solar chargers used to charge a phone directly, rather than by using an internal
battery, can damage a phone if the output is not well-controlled, for example by
supplying excessive voltage in bright sunlight. In less bright light, although there is
electrical output it may be too low to support charging, it will not just charge
slower.

A solar charger is a charger that employs solar energy to supply electricity to

devices or batteries. They are generally portable.

Solar chargers can charge lead acid or Ni-Cd battery banks up to 48 V and
hundreds of ampere-hours (up to 4000 Ah) capacity. Such type of solar charger
setups generally use an intelligent charge controller. A series of solar cells are
installed in a stationary location (ie: rooftops of homes, base-station locations on
the ground etc.) and can be connected to a battery bank to store energy for off-peak
usage. They can also be used in addition to mains-supply chargers for energy
saving during the daytime.

Most portable chargers can obtain energy from the sun only. Some, including the
Kinesis K3, and GeNNex Solar Cell 2 can work either way (recharged by the sun
or plugged into a wall plug to charge up). Examples of solar chargers in popular
use include:
Small portable models designed to charge a range of different mobile phones, cell
phones, iPods or other portable audio equipment.

Fold out models designed to sit on the dashboard of an automobile and plug into
the cigar/12v lighter socket to keep the battery topped up while the vehicle is not in
use.

Flashlights/torches, often combined with a secondary means of charging, such as a

kinetic (hand crank generator) charging system.

Public solar chargers permanently installed in public places, such as parks, squares
and streets, which anyone can use for free.

Portable solar chargers are used to charge cell phones and other small electronic
devices on the go. Chargers on the market today use various types of solar panels,
ranging from thin film panels with efficiencies from 7-15% (amorphous silicon
around 7%, CIGS closer to 15%), to the slightly more efficient monocrystalline
panels which offer efficiencies up to 18%.

The other type of portable solar chargers are those with wheels which enable them
to be transported from one place to another and be used by a lot of people. They
are semi-public, considering the fact that are used publicly but not permanently
installed. A good example of this kind of portable solar charger is the Strawberry
Mini device. The solar charger industry has been plagued by companies mass-
producing low efficiency solar chargers that don't meet the consumer's
expectations. This in turn has made it hard for new solar charger companies to gain
the trust of consumers. Solar companies are starting to offer high-efficiency solar
chargers. When it comes to permanently installed public solar chargers, Strawberry
energy Company from Serbia has invented and developed the first public solar
charger for mobile devices, Strawberry Tree. Due to a built in rechargeable battery
which stores energy, it can function without sunshine or at night. Other companies
such as Voltaic Systems, Poweradd and others have started to push better products
onto the market as well.

Rural African villagers holding portable solar charger

Portable solar power is being utilized in developing countries to power lighting as

opposed to utilizing kerosene lamps which are responsible for respiratory
infections, lung and throat cancers, serious eye infections, cataracts as well as low
birth weights. Solar power provides an opportunity for rural areas to "leapfrog"
traditional grid infrastructure and move directly to distributed energy solutions.

Some solar chargers also have an on-board battery which is charged by the solar
panel when not charging anything else. This allows the user to be able to use the
solar energy stored in the battery to charge their electronic devices at night or when
indoors. Solar chargers can also be rollable or flexible and are manufactured using
thin film PV technology. Rollable solar chargers may include Li-ion batteries.

Currently, foldable solar panels are coming down in price to the point that almost
anyone can deploy one while at the beach, biking, hiking, or at any outdoor
location and charge their cellphone, tablet, computer etc. As advances in the
technology continue to be made, new products will be able to be expand into third
world countries faster than ever before. Recently, billionaire Elon Musk unveiled a
new battery system that may allow off-grid systems that rely solely on solar power
to recharge them to be deployed anywhere on the planet, thus possibly ending the
need for strictly grid-based energy systems.
Process of charging:

The Solar Module on your solar bag will transform sunlight to energy when
exposed to the sun. This happens through a so-called photovoltaic process. Energy
is best harvested in bright sunlight, but the technology in our solar panels also
allows for charging under cloudy circumstances and occasional shade that the
module may be in.

A battery, specially designed for solar purposes, will store your generated sunlight
as electricity within your bag or next to your solar kit. It is essential to store your
transformed sunlight in a special battery before you use it for your phone or tablet,
as it is safer for your device and more fun for you to use.

The battery will filter any energy peaks or lows coming from the solar panel in
changing conditions. Also, it will act as a buffer for energy, making sure your
devices get all the energy they need in one single charge and at exactly the voltage
they need. Some of our batteries even count your energy production and will give
you a feedback on your yield.

Types of Charges :

The Universal Charging Squid with 10 cables is the perfect charging solution for
businesses with little space or that don’t like the intrusiveness of a charging station.
It fits perfectly on any desktop or furniture piece while providing your guests with
a convenient way to charge. It has three Apple Lightning cables (iPhone 5 and
newer devices), four Micro-USB cables (android devices), one Apple 30 pin
(iPhone 4 and older), one Type-C (newer devices), and one USB port (to plug in
any USB cable) to charge most phones and tablets on the market. It’s an easy-to-
use product that’s plug-and-play right out of the box like any other phone
charger.The cable itself is 6 feet long to give easier access charging.
 CHAPTER 4

OVERVIEW OF THE SYSTEM

DIAGRAM AND WORKING PRINCIPLE:

Block diagram for mobile charger using solar power

Solar battery charger operated on the principle that the charge control circuit will
produce the constant voltage. The charging current passes to LM317 voltage
regulator through the diode D1. The output voltage and current are regulated by
adjusting the adjust pin of LM317 voltage regulator. Battery is charged using the
same current.

Solar Battery Charger Circuit Design

Circuit must have adjustable voltage regulator , so Variable voltage regulator

LM317 is selected. Here LM317 can produce a voltage from 1.25 to 37 volts
maximum and maximum current of 1.5 Amps.

Adjustable Voltage regulator has typical voltage drop of 2 V-2.5V .So Solar panel
is selected such that it has more voltage than the load. Here I am selecting 17v/5w
solar panel.

Lead acid battery which is used here has specification of 12v/1.3Ah. In order to
charge this battery following are required.

Schottky diode is used to protect the LM317 and panel from reverse voltage
generated by the battery when it is not charging. Any 3 A diode can be used here.
For Charging 12V Battery

Output voltage

 Set the output voltage to 14.5 volts(This voltage is specified on the battery
as cycle use.)

Charging current

 Charging current = Solar panel wattage/Solar Panel Voltage = 5 / 17 =

0.29A.
 Here LM317 can provide current upto 1.5A .So it is recommended to use
high wattage panels if more current is required for your application.(But
here my battery requires initial current less than 0.39Amps. This initial
current is also mentioned on the battery).
 If the battery requires initial current more than 1.5A,it is not recommended
to use LM317.

Time taken for charging

 Time taken for charging = 1.3Ah/0.29A = 4.44hours.

Power dissipation

 Here solar panel has 5Watts

 Power going into battery = 14.5*0.29 =4 watts
 Thus 1 watt of power going into regulator.

All the above mentioned parameters have to be taken into account before charging
a battery.

For 6V Application

Set the output voltage to 7.5-8 volts as specified on the battery.

calculate the charging current ,power dissipation as shown above.

Power Dissipation

In this project, power is limited because of the thermal resistance of LM317

voltage regulator and the heat sink. To keep the temperature below 125 degree
Celsius, the power must be limited to 10W. LM317 voltage regulator internally has
temperature limiting circuit so that if it gets too hot, it shuts down automatically.

When battery is charging, heat sink becomes warm. When completing the charging
at maximum voltage, heat sink runs hot. This heat is because of excess power that
not needed in the process of charging a battery.

Current Limiting:

As the solar panel provides constant current, it acts as a current limiter. Therefore
the circuit does not need any current limiting.

Solar Charger Protection:

In this circuit, capacitor C1 protects from the static discharge. Diode D1 protects
from the reverse polarity. And voltage regulator IC provides voltage and current
regulation.

Solar Battery Charger Circuit Advantages:

 Adjustable output voltage

 Circuit is simple and inexpensive.
 Circuit uses commonly available components.
 Zero battery discharge when no sunlight on the solar panel.

Limitations of this Circuit:

In this project current is limited to 1.5A.

The circuit requires high drop-out voltage.

Solar batteries are one of the power tools to make the device function efficiently.
As the non-renewable energy sources are decreasing there is a need to increase the
usage of solar power. Solar batteries play crucial role to make it happen within no
time.
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Solar act as good power supplies in bright sunlight. The only problem is the unregulated voltage
due to the variation in intensity of light. Voltage regulator is used to solve this problem by
regulating the output voltage. The charge so obtained is stored in the battery and is given to the
respective loads. The charge present in this battery is analyzed and displayed on an LCD using a
micro-controller.

Future scope

Solar energy can only be harnessed when it is daytime and sunny. To overcome this,
solar panels can be coupled with back-up battery which can store the excess power generated
during the day and use it to provide energy to system in the absence of sunlight.

The Lead-acid battery used in the design is large in size and heavy in weight which
makes the device non-portable. Hence a battery of pocket size and optimal weight may be
designed to make the device portable.

The large size of the solar panel makes the device bulky and non-portable. The solar
panel should be fabricated to cover the entire device, which can effectively reduce the size of the
entire device

REFERENCES
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/solar_cell

encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/article.

www.solarbuzz.com/going-solar `

www.solarserver.com/knowledge

http://www.learningaboutelectronics.com/Articles/LM317-voltage-regulator