Architecture and stratigraphy AUTHORS

Audun V. Kjemperud  Department of

of alluvial deposits, Morrison Geosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1047,
Blindern, N-0316 Oslo, Norway; present
Formation (Upper Jurassic), Utah address: Bridge Energy AS, P.O. Box 229,
N-1377 Billingstad, Norway;
Audun V. Kjemperud, Edwin R. Schomacker, and audun.kjemperud@bridge-energy.no
Timothy A. Cross Audun V. Kjemperud received his Ph.D. in
petroleum geology in 2008 from the University
of Oslo. His research interests include alluvial
sequence stratigraphy and geological reservoir
ABSTRACT characterization.

This article presents a unique cross section of a 13.5-km (8.3-mi)- Edwin R. Schomacker  Department of
long by 150-m (492-ft)-thick stratigraphic interval containing Geosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1047,
braided stream and associated flood-plain deposits. The cross Blindern, N-0316 Oslo, Norway; present
address: StatoilHydro, NO-0246 Oslo;
section is oriented approximately parallel to depositional strike.
edwin.schomacker@geo.uio.no
This cross section is a resource for geoscientists and engineers
Edwin R. Schomacker received his Ph.D. in
interested in the measurements of stratigraphic architectural
petroleum geology in 2008 from the University
elements, such as dimensions and continuity of facies tracts of Oslo. He recently joined StatoilHydro as a
and facies associations, stratigraphic and geographic changes in geologist in global exploration. His current re-
sandstone/mudstone proportions (net to gross), and frequency search interests include geological reservoir
and cause of vertical fluid communication between superposed characterization, forcing factor responses, and
reservoirs. application of depositional trends in sequence-
stratigraphic analysis.
In addition to presenting this rich data resource, observed
and documented stratigraphic relationships add to our con- Timothy A. Cross  Strategic Stratigraphy,
ceptual understanding of certain attributes of the stratigraph- Inc, P.O. Box 994, Evergreen, Colorado 80437;
ic process-response system. For example, we show that, like strategicstratigraphy@wildblue.net
meandering rivers, aggradational braided river systems also Timothy A. Cross is a professor emeritus at the
build levees and alluvial ridges, providing the supra-elevation Colorado School of Mines and president of
Strategic Stratigraphy, Inc. His current chief
above the adjacent floodplain to create extensive crevasse
interests are applying stratigraphic base-level
splay and channel complexes. We show that superposed chan- concepts to establish correlation strategies for
nel sandstone reservoirs may be brought into physical contact the strata of different environments and to
not only by the erosion of an upper sand into a lower sand but predict facies attributes and distribution and
also by the vertical aggradation of the lower sandstone, pro- dimensions of architectural elements. He is
ducing a pyramid on which a younger sandstone is deposited. also interested in extending these principles
and methods to stratigraphic inversion.
Four stratigraphic cycles of increasing and decreasing ac-
commodation/sediment supply (A/S) regimes are identified.
These cycles are recognized from systematic vertical changes ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
in stratigraphic and sedimentologic attributes. At the largest The cross section presented in this article in-
scale, there is a progressive downhill shift in facies tracts re- cludes a 5-km (3-mi)-wide section mapped by
cording a basinward stepping of the four stratigraphic cycles. Andres Fajardo and Jorge Rubiano under the
supervision of Tim Cross, as part of a Statoil and
Ecopetrol financed reservoir analog study in
2001. That study documented the vertical ag-
Copyright #2008. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
gradation of braided streams and concluded
Manuscript received October 15, 2007; provisional acceptance December 18, 2007; revised manuscript
that the vertical upbuilding of channels in-
received February 24, 2008; final acceptance March 25, 2008. creased the probability of fluid communication
DOI:10.1306/03250807115

AAPG Bulletin, v. 92, no. 8 (August 2008), pp. 1055 –1076 1055
 in reservoirs. Stratigraphic cycles reflecting
changes in the A/S (accomodation/sediment
supply) regime were also recognized. We grate-
fully acknowledge their contribution to this
study. This study is part of the PETROMAKS
project (Program for the Optimal Management
of Petroleum Resources) title, Geologic reser-
voir characterization: Alluvial deposits, control-
ling factors, processes, architectural style and
heterogeneities, funded by the Research Coun-
cil of Norway (NFR). Statoil ASA provided ad-
ditional financial support. We have benefited
from discussions with Rune Mjøs, Jens Jahren,
and Johan Petter Nystuen. We thank reviewers
Brian Horn, Bret Fossum, and an anonymous
reviewer for their helpful suggestions and for
adding clarity to the presentation.
DATASHARE 28
The Appendix is accessible in an electronic
version on the AAPG Web site as Datashare 28
at www.aapg.org/datashare/index.html.
1056 Architecture and Stratigraphy of Alluvial Deposits
At the intermediate scale, there is a systematic change in chan-
nel types, from laterally amalgamated braided channels, to ver-
tically building braided channels, to steer-head distributary
channels encased within lacustrine-dominated fines. At the
smallest scale, systematic and repeated vertical successions of
facies occur within the three types of channel belts. These sys-
tematic changes are related to progressive changes in the A/S
regime that occur during superimposed stratigraphic base-level
cycles of three different scales.
INTRODUCTION
Braided fluvial and floodplain strata of the Morrison For-
mation are exposed continuously along the Waterpocket fold
monocline in Capitol Reef National Park, south-central Utah
(Figure 1). This article presents a cross section of a 150-m (492-ft)-
thick stratigraphic interval over a 13.5-km (8.3-mi) distance
(Appendix; Datashare 28). The Waterpocket fold strikes north-
west, paleoflow was to the northeast, so the generally good to
excellent exposures are oriented parallel to depositional strike,
providing optimal conditions for documenting facies tract di-
mensions and stratigraphic architecture.
The cross section shows the stratigraphic and geographic
distribution of channel sandstones, floodplain mudstones and
fine sandstones, crevasse splay and channel complexes, paleo-
sols, and lacustrine limestones and mudstones. Measured sec-
tions spaced about 300–400 m (984–1312 ft) apart and bed
descriptions lateral to the measured sections provide informa-
tion about facies content, proportion, and distribution within
the larger scale architectural elements. The combination of
measured sections and pseudo sections with a spacing of 200 m
(656 ft) prepared from the cross section supplies quantitative
data on facies proportions with respect to the geographic and
stratigraphic position and to the architectural elements.
One purpose of this study is to provide geoscientists and
engineers with a large and detailed data set of strata originating
from braided fluvial and associated environments. Using this data
set, measurements of various attributes important to reservoir
characterization and geocellular modeling may be taken.
Another aim of this study is to use the collected compre-
hensive data set to characterize alluvial architectural elements,
facies, facies associations, and facies tracts. We observe repeated,
systematic variations in numerous sedimentologic and strati-
graphic attributes at three scales of cyclicity. We argue that the
systematic and repeated stratigraphic distribution of archi-
tectural elements, facies, facies proportions and associations,

and dimension of sediment bodies reflects accom-
modation/sediment supply (A/S) fluctuations.
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
The strata studied belong to the Entrada Sand-
stone and Summerville Formation of the Middle
Jurassic San Rafael Group (Gilluly and Reeside,
1928) and the overlying Upper Jurassic Morrison
Formation (Imlay, 1980). The Summerville Forma-
tion unconformably overlies the Entrada Sandstone
(J-3 unconformity of Pipiringos and O’Sullivan,
1978) (Figure 2). The Summerville Formation,
composed of reddish-brown mudstones and sand-
stones with beds of white to pale red gypsum, was
Figure 1. Location map of Capitol Reef
National Park in south-central Utah. The
thick black line indicates the geographic
position of the mapped cross section.
deposited in a hypersaline playa setting (Peterson,
1988). The contact with the overlying Morrison
Formation, which apparently is conformable in the
study area, corresponds to an unconformity sur-
face with an angular truncation west and north of
the study area (J-5 unconformity of Pipiringos and
O’Sullivan, 1978).
The Morrison Formation is 180–200 m (590–
656 ft) thick and comprises the Tidwell (Peterson,
1988), Salt Wash (Lupton, 1914), and Brushy Ba-
sin (Gregory, 1938) members. The Tidwell Mem-
ber is dominated by varicolored (grayish-green,
purple, and red) mudstones interbedded with sand-
stone, limestone, and gypsum beds. Peterson (1988)
attributed lacustrine, evaporative mudflat, minor
eolian, and fluvial origins to the Tidwell strata.
Kjemperud et al. 1057
Figure 2. The left figure shows the
Jurassic lithostratigraphy of the Capi-
tal Reef National Park area (modified
from Hintze, 1988). The right figure
illustrates the stratigraphy in the study
area. Note the interfingering relation-
ship between the Tidwell and Salt
Wash and the Salt Wash and Brushy
Basin members. Units 1–4 are the
chronostratigraphic divisions presented
in this study. The dotted line repre-
sents a regional paleosol horizon (mid-
Morrison unconformity of Demko
et al., 2004). J-3 is the J-3 unconformity
surface of Pipiringos and O’Sullivan
(1978). J-5 is the correlative conformity
to the J-5 unconformity of Pipiringos
and O’Sullivan (1978) farther north.

The overlying Salt Wash Member is of alluvial ori-
gin composed of fluvial channel deposits inter-
bedded with flood-plain and crevasse splay depos-
its (Craig et al., 1955; Mullens and Freeman, 1957;
Tyler and Ethridge, 1983; Peterson, 1984, 1986;
1988; Robinson and McCabe, 1997, 1998). The
top of the Salt Wash Member is a regional paleosol
horizon, also referred to as the mid-Morrison un-
conformity (Demko et al., 2004). Whereas the re-
gional paleosol is a time marker, the lithological
boundary between Salt Wash and Brushy Basin
facies is diachronous, as Salt Wash facies occasional-
ly continue above the regional paleosol and interfin-
ger with Brushy Basin facies (Figure 2). The Brushy
Basin Member is composed of varicolored mud-
stones of lacustrine origin and local fluvial channel
conglomerates (e.g., Turner and Fishman, 1991).
METHODOLOGY
Mapping was conducted by measuring vertical sec-
tions (1:200) and walking out facies boundaries be-
tween the measured sections. Forty-five vertical
sections, spaced an average of 300–400 m (984–
1312 ft) apart, were measured using a clinometer
to adjust for the 35 to 43j northeast structural dip.
Distances between the measured sections were de-
termined through global positioning system (GPS)
measurements. Thickness measurements were

1058 Architecture and Stratigraphy of Alluvial Deposits

reproducible within an uncertainty of 5%. The mea- Table 1. Facies Recorded from the Tidwell and Salt Wash
Members*
sured sections were digitized and extrapolated onto
a two-dimensional grid with grid cells of 5  50 m Facies Code Grain Size
(16  164 ft). When tracing beds between mea-
Pebbly Pbs Sand-granules-pebbles
sured sections, a tracking device on the GPS unit
sandstone
was used to determine the distance between fixed
Plane-parallel-stratified Pps Fine – medium sand
GPS points along the route. sandstone
Stratigraphic intervals with low sandstone pro- Trough-cross-stratified Trx Fine sand –cobbles
portions are frequently covered by scree and vege- sandstone
tation; otherwise, the outcrop quality is generally Planar-tabular cross-stratified Ptx Fine – medium sand
good to excellent. Usually, sandstone beds thicker sandstone
than approximately 0.5 m (1.6 ft) are well ex- Ripple-laminated Rls Silt – fine sand
posed, and all beds thicker than about 0.5 m (1.6 ft) sandstone
are mapped. Proportions and dimensions of flood- Laminated mudstone Mlam
plain deposits reflect minimum values, whereas the Structureless mudstone Muns
true dimensions and proportions of thin sandstone Limestone Ls
beds most likely are higher. *See Figure 3 for illustrations of the facies.
Quantitative data for calculating the propor-
tions of facies and dimensions of sandstone and
mudstone units were collected by making evenly FACIES
spaced pseudo logs (pseudo measured sections) from
the cross section. Pseudo logs are commonly close The facies described include those occurring with-
to actual measured sections. Sixty-eight pseudo in channels and those occurring outside of chan-
logs with a spacing of 200 m (656 ft) were used to nels on the floodplain and within crevasse splay
make the calculations. complexes (Table 1). Of the channel sandstones,
Two datums were used in the mapped area. One only 1% are structureless, a consequence of elutria-
is the paleosol horizon at the contact between the tion and sediment reorganization after deposition;
Salt Wash and Brushy Basin members (blue on the these are not discussed further. The bulk of the
Appendix; Datashare 28). This datum forms a channel sandstones are divided into facies based on
unique, easily recognizable marker that is regionally the type of stratification (fabric) and texture. The
correlative. The second datum is an interval of lime- mudstones of the floodplain are also divided into
stone beds, individually ranging in thickness from facies based on fabric and texture with the excep-
a few centimeters to several meters in the Tidwell tion of one limestone facies. Facies are presented in
Member, near the base of the Morrison Forma- order of decreasing energy regime.
tion. In combination with the lithostratigraphic
unit boundaries, these datums are useful for con- Pebbly Sandstone
straining the stratigraphic boundaries of the Mor-
rison Formation. Facies Pbs, pebbly sandstone (Figure 3A, C), con-
The Tidwell-Salt Wash succession is divided stitutes 11% of the channel facies. This facies oc-
into four chronostratigraphic units based on changes curs throughout the Salt Wash Member and in
in stratigraphic architecture, as discussed subsequent- parts of the Brushy Basin and Tidwell members,
ly. Dashed lines on the cross section indicate the but the distribution and abundance vary with chan-
unit boundaries (Appendix; Datashare 28). Spatial nel type and stratigraphic position. Pebbly sand-
positions of the examples in the text are indicated stones overlie scour surfaces at the base of channels
by geographic position, shown in meters at the bot- and at the base of macroforms within channel sand-
tom of the cross section, and by unit (e.g., 4.5 km, stones. Pebbly sandstones range in thickness from
14.7 ft; unit 3). a few centimeters to 80 cm (31 in.). Widths range

Kjemperud et al. 1059

1060 Architecture and Stratigraphy of Alluvial Deposits
from a few meters to several hundred meters above
scours within channel sandstones and up to several
kilometers above basal channel scours.
The bulk of this facies is very poorly sorted,
medium to coarse sand with scattered granules and
pebbles consisting of both exotic and locally de-
rived clasts. The latter are dominantly mudstone
rip-up clasts derived from channel margins. The
composition and provenance of the exotic clasts
are not documented. Beds of pebbly sandstone are
graded or ungraded and are commonly trough cross
stratified. Facies Pbs represents bed load transported
in channel thalwegs.
Plane-Parallel-Stratified Sandstone
Facies Pps, plane-parallel-stratified sandstone
(Figure 3B), constitutes 20% of the channel facies.
Facies Pps occurs in channel sandstones through-
out the Tidwell-Salt Wash succession. Beds of
Pps are predominantly in the range of 0.5– 2 m
(1.6– 6 ft) thick and composed of upper fine to
lower medium, well-sorted sand. Laminations are
either horizontal or inclined at a low angle. Parting
lineations are observed where the outcrop quality
is good and bedding surfaces are exposed. Obstacle
scours downcurrent of isolated pebbles on slightly
inclined parallel laminations are rare. The deposits
are interpreted as bar tops in braided streams.
Trough-Cross-Stratified Sandstone
Facies Trx, trough-cross-stratified sandstone
(Figure 3D), is the most abundant facies of the
channel deposits, constituting 64% of channel sand-
stones. Beds of trough-cross-stratified sandstone
range from decimeter-scale sets to successions of
amalgamated sets up to 9 m (29 ft) thick. The grain
size of facies Trx varies with channel type and strati-
graphic position and ranges from fine sand to peb-
bly sand. Lags of poorly sorted sandstones with
mudstone rip-up clasts and exotic clasts are fre-
quently recorded at the base of Trx sets.
Lateral facies transitions from Pps to Trx are
frequently recorded. The lateral facies transition be-
tween Pps and Trx is interpreted as the transition
from shallow-water, upper-flow-regime flow across
bar tops, to deeper-water, lower-flow-regime chan-
nel thalweg deposits.
Planar-Tabular Cross-Stratified Sandstone
Facies Ptx, planar-tabular cross-stratified lower fine
to lower medium sandstone (Figure 3E), is a minor
component, constituting only 2% of the channel fa-
cies. Facies Ptx occurs as sets with oblique foreset
laminae a few decimeters thick and as sets with tan-
gential foresets ranging from a few decimeters to 2 m
(6 ft) thick. Multiple vertically amalgamated sets
are rare. Sets with oblique foreset laminae are gen-
erally recognized as trains of cross-stratification on
large downstream-accreting bars. Sets with tangen-
tial foreset lamainae form on downstream-migrating
bars and on accretionary surfaces of bar forms and
fill local hollows on the channel floor.
Ripple-Laminated Sandstone
Facies Rls, ripple-laminated sandstone (Figure 3F),
is a minor component of channel sandstones, con-
stituting only 2%. However, it is the most abundant
facies in floodplain and crevasse splay complexes.
The abundance and distribution of facies Rls in
channel sandstones are restricted to the tops of steer-
head and vertically aggradational channel sandstones.
Facies Rls on the floodplain is frequently biotur-
bated and is composed of silt to lower fine sand.
Beds of ripple-laminated sandstone range in thick-
ness from 0.1 to 1.5 m (0.3 to 4.9 ft). Both current-
and climbing-ripple lamination are recorded.

Figure 3. Illustrations of selected facies from the Tidwell and Salt Wash members. (A) Channel scour surface on laminated
mudstones (facies Mlam) overlain by pebbly sandstone (facies Pbs). The picture shows an approximately 1-m (3-ft)-thick interval. (B)
Plane-parallel-stratified sandstone (facies Pps) overlying a trough-cross-stratified sandstone (facies Trx). (C) Macroform scour surface
with overlying pebbly sandstone (facies Pbs) on a plane-parallel-stratified sandstone (facies Pps). (D) Amalgamated trough cross-
stratification sets (facies Trx). (E) Tangential, tabular cross-stratified sandstone (facies Ptx). (F) Ripple-laminated sandstone (facies Rls)
in crevasse splay deposit. (G) Limestone bed (facies Ls) 0.5 m (1.6 ft) thick.

Kjemperud et al. 1061

Laminated Mudstone
Facies Mlam, laminated mudstone (Figure 3A),
constitutes a small proportion of flood-plain depos-
its. This facies is composed of silty clay to very fine
sand. Facies Mlam commonly occurs as greenish-
gray laminated mudstones in the Tidwell Member
and as reddish laminated mudstones in the Salt
Wash Member. Laminated mudstones decrease in
abundance vertically through the Salt Wash Mem-
ber and are replaced by structureless mudstone
(facies Muns). The plane-parallel lamination is
generated through suspension fallout in ephem-
eral floodplain lakes. Variations in abundance and
distribution of Mlam reflect stratigraphically re-
lated changes in depositional environment. As pond
and ephemeral lake deposits decrease in abundance
upward through the studied succession, they are
replaced by vertical accretion and crevasse splay
deposits.
Structureless Mudstone
Facies Muns, structureless mudstone, dominates
floodplain strata. This facies is composed of silty
clay to very fine sand and occurs in continuous suc-
cessions of several meters. The structureless fabric
is generated by soil-forming processes that reor-
ganize the depositional fabric.
Limestone
Facies Ls, limestone (Figure 3G), occurs only in the
lowermost part of the Tidwell Member. Limestone
beds range in thickness from a few centimeters to
several meters. They are continuous over tens to
hundreds of meters. Normally, limestones are en-
cased in greenish-gray laminated and structureless
mudstones. Locally, they are vertically adjacent to
sandstones. Internal domal structures are common,
and red chert concretions occur at specific strati-
graphic levels. The limestones vary in composition
but frequently contain significant proportions of
silty siliciclastics. The limestone beds originate in
a variety of lacustrine environments, reflected by
their variable composition. Some have internal dom-
al structures created by columnar stromatolites,
1062 Architecture and Stratigraphy of Alluvial Deposits
whereas the chert concretions frequently occur in
lens-shaped beds interpreted as tufa deposits.
CHANNEL SANDSTONES
Channel sandstones constitute 54% of the expo-
sures by area. Channel sandstones are placed into
four categories based on geometry, dimension, pro-
portions, and successions of constituent facies; as-
sociation with floodplain and lacustrine facies tracts;
and stacking pattern. These categories are steer-
head distributary channels (SHC), crevasse chan-
nels (see coarse-grained flood-plain deposits), lat-
erally amalgamated braided channels (LABC), and
vertically aggradational braided channels (VABC).
The SHC sandstones are restricted to units 1 and 2
in the Tidwell and the lowest part of the Salt Wash
members where they co-occur with lacustrine strata.
The other channel types occur throughout the
Tidwell-Salt Wash succession.
Steer-Head Channel Sandstones
The SHC sandstones have a concave-up basal
scour surface, a width/thickness ratio less than 40,
and a horizontal upper bounding surface formed
by thin wings extending laterally from the channel
axis (Figure 4). The name was selected because
the geometry of these sandstones resembles the
head of a longhorn steer: a narrow nose widening to
the face from which horns extend a few times lon-
ger than the width of the face. In the terminology
of Friend et al. (1979), SHC sandstones are a sim-
ple, single-story channel fill. They are morpholog-
ically similar to the large sandstone lenses described
by Nadon (1994) and to the major sandstone rib-
bons described by Eberth and Miall (1991), which
these authors interpreted as anastomosed river
channels because of their association with flood-
plain and crevasse splay strata. However, the SHC
sandstones, which are restricted almost entirely to
the Tidwell Member, are associated with lacustrine
strata. They are similar to, but considerably smaller
than, the distributary channels described by Gardner
et al. (2004) from the Ferron Sandstone of Utah.
They would be classified as medium-thickness,
Figure 4. Summary of facies proportions within and dimensions of the three types of channel sandstones. The left column, labeled
facies proportions, shows typical facies succession and substitution trends through the three channel types. The facies proportions
were calculated from measured sections. For facies abbreviations, see Table 1. Trough-cross-stratified pebbly sandstone is rep-
resented by Trx-c. Note the increase of ripple lamination and the decrease of high-energy facies from laterally amalgamated braided
channel (LABC) deposits through vertically aggradational braided channel (VABC) deposits to steer-head channel (SHC) deposits. The
center column, labeled typical log, shows generalized facies successions. The right column, labeled dimensions, shows dimensional
details in meters (W = width, T = thickness, W/T = width/thickness ratio, R = range, and A = average). The wings of the SHC
sandstones are not included in the dimensions. The lower figures illustrate typical geometries and architectures for the different
channel sandstone types. VF = very fine; F = fine; M = medium; C = coarse.

Kjemperud et al. 1063


Figure 5. Width/thickness data of channel deposits in the Salt
Wash sorted by channel type. Plot A shows the dimensional
relationship between SHC and VABC deposits. The SHC depos-
its form a cluster characterized by a lower width/thickness ratio
than the VABC deposits. The average width of the SHC deposits is
115 m (377 ft), and the average thickness is 3.3 m (10.8 ft),
whereas VABC deposits have an average width of 437 m (1434 ft)
and an average thickness of 6.1 m (20 ft). The cluster of SHC
deposits overlaps slightly with the lower ranges of VABC deposits.
Plot B shows the dimensional relationship between the two
groups of braided stream deposits. The two groups slightly over-
lap, but, in general, LABC deposits greatly exceed VABC deposits
in width with an average of 2006 m (6581 ft) and an average
thickness of 8.1 m (26.5 ft). SHC = steer-head channel; VABC =
vertically aggradational braided channel; LABC = laterally amal-
gamated braided channel.
medium-width, narrow sheets in the terminology
of Gibling (2006).
The SHC sandstones have either a fining-
upward trend from lower medium or upper fine to
lower fine, or no change in grain size from base to
top. The fining-upward trend is limited to the top
of the sandstone. Usually, the basal scour surface
is overlain by a pebbly sandstone lag (structureless
or trough cross stratified), followed by a mixture
of facies Pbs, Pps, and Trx. Facies Trx dominates
throughout, comprising 50–80% of the channel fill.
Facies Pps generally increases from 0 to 15% toward
1064 Architecture and Stratigraphy of Alluvial Deposits
the middle part of the channel fill and then de-
creases to about 8% toward the top. Facies Trx dom-
inates the upper part of the SHC deposits along
with minor facies Rls.
Of the channel deposits 66% (90 of 137) are
SHC sandstones, but they compose only 7% of all
channel sandstones by area. The difference be-
tween number and area reflects the limited dimen-
sions of the SHC deposits. They have an average
width of 115 m (377 ft) with a range of 30–445 m
(98–1460 ft), and an average thickness of 3.3 m
(10.8 ft) with a range of 1.5–11.8 m (4.9–38.7 ft)
(Figure 5A). This is in contrast to the braided
channel sandstones, which are 8–40 times larger.
Lack of laterally migrating bar forms (point
bars), abundance of downstream-accreting bar
forms, and low dispersion of paleoflow direction
indicate that river sinuosity was low. Channel de-
posits of steer-head morphology are interpreted to
represent distributary channels draining into flood-
plain lakes and large wetland systems situated north-
east of the study area. This interpretation is sup-
ported by the restriction of the SHC deposits to
the lower two units of the Tidwell-Salt Wash suc-
cession, where they co-occur with lacustrine strata.
In distributary channels, the total discharge is dis-
tributed into multiple channels. This allows single
channels to fill under a constant flow regime and
accounts for the observed lack of fining-upward
trends or the restriction of fining-upward trends to
the tops of channel sandstones.
Braided Channel Sandstones
Although representing only 34% of channel depos-
its by number (47 of 137), braided channel sand-
stones constitute 93% of channel sandstones by
area. Braided channel deposits have variable archi-
tecture, dimension, width/thickness ratio, degree
of amalgamation, and association and proportion
with other facies tracts. The most notable criteria
for differentiation are the height of the alluvial
ridge and the concomitant thickness of adjacent
crevasse splays, attributes that reflect the degree
of aggradation and accommodation. A continuum
from braided channel complexes without alluvial
ridges to those with alluvial ridges up to 5 m (16 ft)
high (thick) is observed. Two end-member catego-
ries, LABC and VABC sandstones, are useful to
describe this variability, as discussed in the follow-
ing two sections (Figure 4).
Laterally Amalgamated Braided Channel Sandstones
The LABC sandstones occur predominantly in strati-
graphic intervals where sandstone/mudstone pro-
portions (net to gross) are high. In Gibling’s (2006)
classification, they would be termed multilateral,
wide, medium-thickness, broad sheets. They have a
slightly undulating basal scour surface that is contin-
uous over one to several kilometers (Figure 4). The
basal scour surface is overlain by multiple, erosion-
ally truncated macroforms containing only facies Trx
and Pps. Frequently, the upper bounding surface is
sharp, erosive, and overlain by other channel deposits.
The upper boundary is flat where not incised by
younger channels. The flat upper and lower bound-
aries give the sandstones a rectangular shape in a de-
positional strike view. The LABC sandstones form
sheets up to 20 km (12 mi) wide (e.g., 11.1–13.3 km
[6.8–8.2 mi]; unit 2, Appendix; Datashare 28).
Facies Rls is absent in LABC sandstones, in con-
trast to its common occurrence in the upper part
of SHC and VABC sandstones. As a consequence
of the mixture of only facies Trx and Pps, a slight
coarsening upward trend or no trend at all is ob-
served. The LABC sandstones are characterized
by their high content of exotic gravel and pebble
clasts, average grain size exceeding that of other
channel sandstones, and vertically increasing abun-
dance of trough-cross-stratified pebbly sandstones,
which are rare in the other channel sandstones. The
LABC deposits are also distinguished from other
channel sandstones by architecture and geometry.
With the exception of one occurrence, the widths
of LABC deposits exceed 1 km (0.62 mi) with an
average of 2 km (1.2 mi), and the average thickness
is 8.1 m (26.5 ft) with a range from 5 to 12.6 m (16
to 41.3 ft) ( Figure 5B).
The LABC sandstones are the deposits of braided
channel systems with multiple anabranches and
thalwegs that have migrated freely. Continuous
shifts and avulsions of anabranches within the braided
system combined with severe cannibalization give
rise to a complex sandstone body with numerous
internal scour surfaces. The bounding surfaces of
the individual channel macroforms within the com-
posite channel deposit are too complex to map in
field at the scale of the cross section.
Vertically Aggradational Braided Channel Sandstones
The VABC sandstones occur in stratigraphic inter-
vals with both high and low sandstone/mudstone
proportions (net to gross). In Gibling’s (2006)
classification, they would be termed multistory,
medium-width, medium-thickness, narrow sheets.
In intervals with high sandstone proportions, VABC
sandstones frequently are overlain erosively by other
channel deposits. The VABC deposits are bounded
at the base by low-relief scour surfaces that are
laterally continuous over distances up to 1200 m
(3937 ft). One distinctive characteristic of VABC
sandstones is the upper boundary, which is shaped
like a stepped pyramid in a two-dimensional view
parallel to depositional strike (Figure 4). This shape
reflects the vertical stacking of channel sandstones
through time as the channel system coalesced, built
alluvial ridges, and gradually transferred discharge
to another channel system before abandonment.
To the knowledge of the authors, very few articles
have identified the creation of alluvial ridges by
braided streams (Bentham et al., 1993; Bristow
et al., 1999; Ethridge et al., 1999). The other dis-
tinctive characteristic of VABC sandstones is dimen-
sion. Although an overlap in dimensions between
LABC and VABC sandstones exists, the VABC
sandstones generally are much narrower. The 34
mapped VABC deposits have an average width of
437 m (1552 ft) ranging from 100 to 1200 m (328
to 3937 ft). The average thickness is 6.1 m (20 ft)
with a range from 3.2 to 11.5 m (10.4 to 37.7 ft)
(Figures 4, 5).
The basal scour surface is overlain by a vertical
facies succession that reflects a decrease in flow en-
ergy near the top of the channel sandstones. The
succession is pebbly sandstone lags, trough-cross-
stratified pebbly sandstone, trough-cross-stratified
and plane-parallel laminated sandstones, and ripple-
laminated sandstone (Figure 4). This facies suc-
cession is accompanied by an average decrease in
grain size from medium to fine sandstone, with the
Kjemperud et al. 1065
decrease commonly occurring near the top of the
channel deposits. Facies Trx and Pps are the dom-
inant facies from base to top, constituting 70–85%
of the fill.
Most VABC sandstones have the shape of a
stepped pyramid. They begin with a broad, flat
base, and successive channel sandstones contract
from base to top in a step-wise fashion (e.g., 7.8 km
[4.8 mi]; unit 2). Less commonly, the width of
the sandstone increases slightly in the lower part
before contracting toward the top (e.g., 4.3 km
[2.6 mi]; unit 3). In a few instances, channel sand-
stone width is constant from base to top. In some
cases, the contraction and buildup are symmetrical
and centered about the channel sandstone axis
(e.g., 3.8–4.2 km [2.3–2.6 mi]; unit 3). In other
cases, the contraction and buildup are skewed to-
ward one side of the channel sandstone complex.
The stepped pyramidal cross section is pro-
duced by aggradation, levee, and/or alluvial ridge
development; gradual loss and transfer of flow
to another braid belt or anabranch; and reduction
of channel migration. The broad, flat-based sand-
stones at the base of VABC complexes reflect the
free migration of the braid belt over the flood-
plain. Through aggradation, the braid belt gradu-
ally builds a low-relief alluvial ridge sustained, at
first, by thin, marginal crevasse splays. Continued
aggradation increases the alluvial ridge relief above
the adjacent floodplain, and marginal splays be-
come thicker. With the increased potential energy
created by the alluvial ridge height above the flood-
plain, the flow volume decreases as flow is gradu-
ally transferred to other braid belts or anabranches.
During the aggradational phase, channel migration
is progressively more restricted to the top of the
alluvial ridge until the flow transfer is complete
and the braid belt is abandoned.
The common occurrence of pyramidal channel
sandstone complexes suggests an autoregulatory
control on channel stability. On a floodplain lacking
topography that would confine channel migration,
channels may migrate freely and deposit a wide-
spread, blanket-like sandstone. However, through
time and many flood events, rivers build levees and
alluvial ridges and gradually become elevated above
the floodplain. At that point, the river’s course
1066 Architecture and Stratigraphy of Alluvial Deposits
does not change until an avulsion occurs. An avul-
sion requires exceeding an energy threshold in a
nonlinear dynamical system that encompasses mul-
tiple feedback mechanisms, buffers, and thresh-
olds. Until a threshold is exceeded, it requires less
energy for a river’s course to be maintained than to
establish a new course. Once a preferred drainage
axis is established, autoregulation may promote
the continued vertical stacking and contraction of
channel sandstones at the same position.
Vertical aggradation of VABC channel-belt
sandstones produces a previously unrecognized way
of creating vertical fluid communication between
two superposed sandstones. The common approach
to evaluating whether two superposed sandstones
might have fluid communication is to relate typi-
cal depths of channel scour to typical floodplain
mudstone thickness. If the potential channel scour
depth is equal to or greater than the thickness of
the intervening floodplain mudstone interval, then
vertical fluid communication is probable. In the
Tidwell and Salt Wash members, the maximum
relief on channel scour surfaces is about 5 m (16 ft),
and channel scours have a low probability of creating
vertical fluid communication with an underlying
sandstone. The vertical aggradation of VABC chan-
nels reaches 10 to 12 m (33–39 ft), resulting in a
common alternative mechanism of creating vertical
fluid communication between two or more super-
posed channel sandstones.
The ultimate alluvial ridge height of a braid
belt and the adjacent splay thickness is deter-
mined by the combination of duration and amount
of aggradation, peak discharge during floods, and
size of splay complexes with well-developed splay
channels. An increased alluvial ridge height pre-
disposes the river to transfer discharge elsewhere
because of an increased potential energy (e.g., Allen,
1965; Jones and Schumm, 1999; Törnqvist and
Bridge, 2002). Increased duration and volume of
peak flood discharge give the river kinetic energy
to affect such transfer, temporarily or permanently
(e.g., Slingerland and Smith, 2004). The frequency
of floods also increases the chances for flow transfer
and/or avulsion (Jones and Schumm, 1999). Larger,
thicker splay complexes with well-developed, even
perennial, crevasse channels give the river the means
by which flow is transferred elsewhere (e.g., Slinger-
land and Smith, 2004). Without well-developed
crevasse channels that can carry the flow far from
the trunk stream, a flood is not likely to effect aban-
donment and avulsion.
All of these contributors are related to the A/S
regime and A/S trends and, therefore, to strati-
graphic position. Higher alluvial ridges and larger,
thicker splays are developed under a high A/S re-
gime. During rising and high stratigraphic base lev-
el, the chances for flow transfer and eventual aban-
donment are increased. During falling and low
stratigraphic base level, alluvial ridge heights de-
crease, splays flatten out, crevasse channels carry
flow and sediment less far from the trunk stream,
and the rivers have less tendency to aggrade and
instead move more freely across the floodplain.
FLOOD-PLAIN DEPOSITS
Flood-plain strata occupy 46% of the mapped area.
These are presented in the following categories:
coarse-grained flood-plain deposits comprising le-
vees and crevasse splay and channel complexes and
fine-grained flood-plain deposits comprising distal
splays, vertical accretion deposits, soils, and lacus-
trine deposits.
Coarse-Grained Flood-Plain Deposits
Coarse-grained flood-plain deposits occupy 10% of
the mapped area. Crevasse splay deposits consti-
tute significant proportions of the mapped area,
whereas crevasse channel deposits are a minor com-
ponent. The thickness of crevasse splays range from
0.1 to 5 m (0.3 to 16 ft) with an average of 0.9 m
(2.9 ft). The levee or alluvial ridge height above
the adjacent floodplain determines the maximum
thickness of the crevasse splays. The average width
of the sandstone-dominated (proximal) part of the
crevasse splays is 290 m (951 ft), ranging from 30
to 1200 m (98 to 3937 ft) measured perpendicular to
the general flow direction. Levee and crevasse splay
deposits grade into finer grained deposits toward
their distal margins, and the distinction between
distal splays and vertical accretion deposits is blurry.
The lower boundary of crevasse splays is de-
positional and frequently gradational with under-
lying fine-grained flood-plain deposits. Crevasse
splays are composed of interbedded sandstones, ap-
proximately 75%, and mudstones, approximately
25%. Splays normally have a coarsening-up profile.
The thickness and proportion of sandstone beds
generally increase with decreasing splay thicknesses.
Sandstone beds are dominated by facies Rls (72%)
with smaller components of facies Trx (20%) and
structureless sandstone (8%). Bioturbation is abun-
dant in coarse-grained flood-plain deposits with
vertical to oblique burrow traces extending down-
ward from the tops of sandstone beds. The upper
bounding surface of crevasse splay deposits is ero-
sive where overlain by channel sandstones and de-
positional where overlain by fine-grained flood-
plain deposits.
Thirty-five crevasse channel sandstones are
mapped. Crevasse channel sandstones have a concave-
up scour surface filled with a mixture of facies Rls
and Trx. In contrast to braided channel sandstones
in which facies Trx, Pps, and Pbs dominate, facies
Rls dominates crevasse channel sandstones. Cre-
vasse channel sandstones average 53 m (174 ft)
wide with a range from 11 to 137 m (36 to 449 ft).
The average thickness is 1.8 m, ranging from 0.6 to
3.5 m (1.9 to 11.4 ft). No correlation between
width and thickness of the crevasse channel sand-
stones was observed. Crevasse channels differ from
braided channels in dimension, facies composi-
tion, and distribution. Braided channel deposits
are generally thicker and wider and have signifi-
cantly lower proportions of low-energy facies.
Fine-Grained Flood-Plain Deposits
Fine-grained flood-plain deposits, which include
mudstones, fine sandstones, and lacustrine lime-
stones, comprise 36% of the mapped section. The
lower boundary of the deposits is always deposi-
tional. The upper boundary is erosive when over-
lain by channel sandstones and depositional when
overlain by crevasse splay deposits. These mudstones
and fine sandstones are predominantly red to ma-
roon and are dominated by facies Muns, with facies
Mlam representing a small component. Stratigraphic
Kjemperud et al. 1067
intervals of fine-grained flood-plain deposits are up
to 18 m (59 ft) thick and have widths up to several
kilometers. Such intervals contain occasional thin
beds of coarser grained crevasse splay deposits that
were not mapped. No correlation was observed
between the width and thickness of the floodplain
mudstones. Paleosols are recorded throughout the
Tidwell-Salt Wash succession within the flood-
plain mudstones. They are variegated reds, purples,
and greens and contain root traces, calcrete nod-
ules, and clay peds.
Lacustrine deposits are only recorded in the
lower part of the Tidwell Member. The assem-
blage includes green-gray mudstones, thin sand-
stones, and limestone beds. Lacustrine mudstones,
which are the dominant component of the lacus-
trine assemblage, are dominated by facies Mlam.
Thin sandstone beds contain a mixture of wave-
and current-ripple lamination and frequently have
nondescript burrows oblique to bedding. Locally,
lacustrine mudstones are erosively overlain by SHC
deposits. The limestone beds of facies Ls occur in a
package of two to five beds within the lowermost
10–15 m (33–49 ft) of the Morrison Formation.
Individual limestone beds are discontinuous and
lenticular, but, as an interval, the package of lime-
stone beds forms a robust stratigraphic datum. The
limestones are interbedded with mudstones and
sandstones. The limestones have depositional lower
and upper boundaries. The upper boundary is fre-
quently dome shaped and draped by mudstones.
Concretions a few centimeters to a few meters in
diameter of amorphous silica are common in the
limestone beds.
STRATIGRAPHIC MOTIF
We have discussed the regular organization of fa-
cies successions within different channel types and
the systematic succession of particular channel
types through a stratigraphic interval. We attribute
these to changes in the A/S regime. We observe
similar regularity at the next larger scale of strati-
graphic architecture wherein there are systematic
changes not only in facies or channel types but also
in the environments and geomorphic elements that
1068 Architecture and Stratigraphy of Alluvial Deposits
succeed each other during a stratigraphic base-level
cycle. We present this systematic change as a strati-
graphic motif during a large-scale increase in the
A/S regime or a stratigraphic base-level-rise half
cycle (Figure 6). The full stratigraphic base-level
cycle contains the motif and its mirror image.
Stratigraphic base level (Wheeler, 1964; Cross
et al., 1993; Cross and Homewood, 1997; Gardner
et al., 2004) describes the balance between the
energy required to change the sediment storage
capacity (accommodation space) and the energy
used by surficial processes to erode, transport, and
deposit sediment. Stratigraphic base-level changes
are manifest by changes in the A/S ratio. Changes
in A/S conditions and mass conservation determine
the volumes and types of geomorphic elements
that are preserved in different environments. A
stratigraphic base-level cycle is explicitly a time-
bounded rock unit because it comprises all hiatal
surfaces and all strata accumulated and preserved
in linked depositional environments during a cycle
of base-level rise and fall.
We recognize four stratigraphic cycles of strati-
graphic base-level rise and fall (increasing and de-
creasing A/S) in the Tidwell-Salt Wash succes-
sion. They contain systematic vertical changes in
the architecture of channel, flood-plain, and lacus-
trine deposits, as well as changes in the composi-
tion and distribution of their constituent facies and
degree of preservation of original geomorphic ele-
ments. The stratigraphic motif for the stratigraphic
cycles is composed of (1) an interval with braided
stream and related flood-plain deposits, (2) an in-
terval with SHC sandstones and related flood-
plain and lacustrine deposits, and (3) an interval
with lacustrine deposits (Figure 6). The transitions
between these intervals are interfingering and grad-
ual, reflecting a gradual change of depositional en-
vironments and degree of preservation of geomor-
phic elements through the stratigraphic half cycle.
In any particular geographic or stratigraphic po-
sition, it is unlikely that a particular cycle will con-
tain a full suite of facies, environments, and pre-
served geomorphic elements. A particular cycle may
have a thicker braided interval, a thin SHC sand-
stone interval, and may lack lacustrine facies. An-
other may have a condensed braided interval, a
Figure 6. Illustration of the stratigraphic motif for the Tidwell and Salt Wash members through a stratigraphic base-level cycle
(column S) with relative time increments (column T). A stratigraphic base-level triangle pointing up represents the base-level rise; the
one pointing down represents the base-level fall. Facies tract successions within the Tidwell-Salt Wash succession may be described
by three building blocks (column BB), although gradual transitions and gradations are the reality: (1) a lower interval of braided
stream deposits, (2) a central interval of steer-head channel sandstones, and (3) an upper interval of lacustrine deposits. The illustration
reflects relative dimensions and proportions of the channel and flood-plain deposits. In the left column, facies succession and
substitution diagrams from Figure 4 show the average components and distribution of facies in channel deposits in their respective
stratigraphic positions (see Figure 4 for an explanation of the gray shades).

thick SHC sandstone interval, and a well-developed
lacustrine interval.
The braided stream interval is characterized by
a vertical transition from wide, laterally amalgam-
ated LABC sandstones at the base toward more lat-
erally restricted and vertically aggradational VABC
sandstones. Flood-plain facies are rare at the base
because of the dominance of the amalgamated chan-
nel sandstones. The channel architecture increases
in complexity with an increasing proportion of cre-
vasse splay deposits through the middle part of the
stratigraphic base-level-rise half cycle. The deposits
become muddy with lacustrine influence at the top.
In the context of a long-term stratigraphic base-
level rise and increasing A/S regime, the laterally
amalgamated LABC sandstones at the base record
low-accommodation conditions when channel belts
crisscross the floodplain, cannibalizing flood-plain
muds and channel sands. With the gradual increase
in sediment storage capacity through the half cycle,
braided channels aggrade and build levees and al-
luvial ridges. This creates a supra-elevation of the
channel belt above the adjacent floodplain. Cre-
vasse splay thickness increases, reflecting the increas-
ing alluvial ridge heights (Table 2). Crevasse splay
and channel complexes become a significant part
of the floodplain.
As alluvial ridge height increases, the potential
energy for avulsion increases, so channel belts are
less connected and separated by a mix of crevasse
splays and other flood-plain facies tracts. Lateral
amalgamation is controlled by the avulsion fre-
quency and the sediment accumulation rate on the
adjacent floodplain. In the Tidwell and Salt Wash
members, the decrease in lateral amalgamation and
sandstone interconnectedness and the increase of
channel-belt aggradation are attributed to the in-
creasing A/S regime.
Above the braided channel interval contain-
ing LABC and VABC sandstones is a succession of

Kjemperud et al. 1069

Table 2. Summary of Vertical Trends Through the Stratigraphic Motif
A. Decreasing Upward
Channel/floodplain proportion
Stacking density and sandstone interconnectedness
Channel sandstone dimensions (W/T)
Cannibalization, internal erosion, and reworking
Bulk grain size of channel sandstones
Proportion of conglomeratic facies
Abundance and thickness of paleosols
SHC sandstones and associated lacustrine and flood-
plain mudstones. The change in architectural style
reflects a shift in geomorphic environments from
braided rivers to low-sinuosity single-channel rivers.
The shift marks an uphill migration of environments
from a higher gradient alluvial plain to a lower gra-
dient distal alluvial plain, such that the latter over-
lies the former. Channel deposits in this interval are
laterally restricted and frequently encased in over-
bank deposits. The proportion of channel sandstones
to floodplain mudstones is low, and channel sand-
stones are poorly interconnected. Because the steer-
head channels only build limited levees or alluvial
ridges, crevasse splay and channel complexes are
thin, and fine-grained vertical accretion deposits
dominate. The SHC sandstones show very limited
cannibalization, and the preservation of a complete
channel fill is the norm. Grain-size trends of either
fining upward or no change in size, and increased
preservation and diversity of low-energy facies are
typical.
The top interval of the stratigraphic motif con-
sists of lacustrine sandstones, mudstones, and car-
bonates (Figure 6). Facies tracts continue to migrate
uphill during the A/S regime increase. Lacustrine
deposits are a minor component of the studied suc-
cession and occur only in the Tidwell Member.
Variations in the Stratigraphic Motif
Although the trends are regular through each strati-
graphic cycle, the proportions and numbers of con-
stituent facies change from cycle to cycle. This re-
flects the constancy in a half cycle of increasing A/S
1070 Architecture and Stratigraphy of Alluvial Deposits
B. Increasing Upward
Floodplain/channel proportion
Thickness and width of floodplain mudstones
Preservation proportion of Trx and barforms
Facies diversity in channel sandstones
Channel aggradation height
Thickness of crevasse splay and levee deposits
Lacustrine deposit proportion
ratio but of variations in the absolute quantity of
the A/S ratio. Two examples are presented, overall
low and high A/S regimes, to show these variations
(Figure 7). There is also a systematic decrease in
the proportion of base-level-fall to base-level-rise
half cycles (Figure 8).
The stratigraphic motif for low A/S regimes
(Figure 7A) is characterized by high values of the
parameters listed in column A and low values of
the parameters listed in column B of Table 2. This
interval consists of highly interconnected braided
channel and related flood-plain deposits. That is,
the lower part of the stratigraphic motif is empha-
sized. The bulk of the interval consists of LABC
deposits. With an increasing A/S ratio upward, ag-
gradation rates increase and the architectural style
shifts gradually to VABC deposits. In the overall
low A/S regime, both the LABC and VABC de-
posits show a high degree of cannibalization and
amalgamation.
The high A/S regime stratigraphic motif
(Figure 7B) is characterized by low values of the
parameters listed in column A and high values of
the parameters listed in column B of Table 2. The
LABC sandstones are restricted to a thin basal
interval. They are replaced vertically by a thick suc-
cession of VABC sandstones. Sandstone intercon-
nectedness decreases upward. The height of alluvial
ridges and the thickness of crevasse splay complexes
increase upward. Toward the top, SHC sandstones
replace VABC sandstones, and lacustrine sand-
stones and mudstones replace flood-plain mud-
stones. In even higher A/S regimes, the cycle would
lack the basal LABC sandstones.
Figure 7. Illustration of the low and high accommodation/supply (A/S) regime stratigraphic motifs. Thickness differences illustrate the
differences in accumulation rate. (A) A succession deposited during a low A/S regime where highly amalgamated LABC deposits
dominate. With slightly increasing A/S conditions, the architectural style changes gradually to a dominance of VABC deposits. (B) A
succession deposited in a high A/S regime. In this succession, channel sandstone proportions are significantly lower and VABC and SHC
sandstones are the dominant architectural elements. A gradual transition between the low and high A/S regime motifs (A and B) is observed.

STRATIGRAPHIC CYCLES stones. The characteristics of these cycles are dis-

One of the most conspicuous attributes of the
cross section along the Waterpocket fold is the
clustering of channel belts 2.2–4.2 km (1.3–2.6 mi)
wide separated by kilometer-wide intervals of flood-
plain mudstones nearly lacking channel sandstones.
Despite dramatic changes in sandstone/mudstone
(net-to-gross) ratios along this exposure, we ob-
serve systematic vertical successions of facies and
preserved geomorphic elements as described by
the stratigraphic motif. These systematic succes-
sions and their turnarounds occur at the same
stratigraphic positions along the 13.5-km (8.3-mi)
exposure and reflect stratigraphic base-level cycles
of increasing and decreasing A/S ratios. Stratigraph-
ic units are composed of an A/S rise succession
overlain by a fall succession. Both stratigraphic base-
level fall-to-rise and rise-to-fall turnarounds are
correlated based on changes described by the strati-
graphic motif. As these changes are gradual, turn-
around intervals instead of surfaces are identified.
For correlation purposes, the fall-to-rise bound-
aries are placed at the base of laterally persistent
complexes of amalgamated LABC channel sand-
cussed in stratigraphic order.
Unit 1
The lower boundary of the approximately 28-m
(92-ft)-thick unit 1 is overlain by a 4- to 7-m (13-
to 23-ft)-thick succession of whitish sandstone
sheets containing exotic black pebbles. The sand-
stone sheets are vertically succeeded by a lacustrine-
dominated succession comprising varicolored, lami-
nated mudstones, thinly bedded sandstone sheets,
and limestone beds. Through the central part of
the unit, the lacustrine deposits are gradually re-
placed vertically by red or maroon fine- and coarse-
grained floodplain mudstones and sandstones and
channel sandstones (Figure 8). This gradual facies
transition represents the lithostratigraphic bound-
ary between the Tidwell and Salt Wash members
(Peterson, 1988). The boundary is diachronous
in the study area. The channel sandstones, which
constitute the main facies association in the upper
part of the unit, are predominantly of steer-head
morphology. With an increasing channel sandstone/

Kjemperud et al. 1071

Figure 8. Illustration of the large-scale stratigraphic development through the Tidwell and Salt Wash members, including trends in
the fluvial architecture and interpretations of related accommodation/supply (A/S) regime trends. Note the successive decrease in the
thickness of the stratigraphic motif upward. The large-scale trend in the A/S regime is indicated on the right.

floodplain mudstone proportion (increasing net
to gross), the width/thickness ratio and intercon-
nectedness of the channel sandstones increase
slightly. Unit 1 comprises 14% channel sandstone,
25% coarse-grained flood-plain deposits, and 61%
undifferentiated fine-grained flood-plain deposits
(including lacustrine limestones, lacustrine mud-
stones, and floodplain mudstones).
Paleogeographic reconstructions by Turner and
Peterson (2004) suggest that unit 1 in the study
area was situated on a distal alluvial plain near the
Jurassic seaway that extended from Canada to Utah.

1072 Architecture and Stratigraphy of Alluvial Deposits

Classic tidal bundles and intertidal sand flats are
exposed along highway I-70, 60 km (37 mi) to the
north. The vertical interfingering of lacustrine and
fluvial deposits in the base of unit 1 indicates that
rivers fed lakes on the alluvial plain and must have
extended north to the seaway. No evidence for a
large lake exists. The base of unit 1 (Figure 8) is a fall-
to-rise turnaround, the limestone interval is a rise-
to-fall turnaround (maximum A/S), and the top is
a fall-to-rise turnaround (minimum A/S).
Unit 2
Unit 2 is about 32 m (105 ft) thick. The lower
boundary is the base of the lowermost stratigraph-
ic interval dominated by LABC sandstones. Lat-
erally and vertically stacked LABC deposits form
a 5- to 10-m (16- to 33-ft)-thick sandstone sheet
extending across most of the study area (Appendix;
Datashare 28; Figure 8). The LABC deposits are
succeeded by VABC sandstones and then a mix-
ture of VABC and SHC sandstones as the propor-
tion of channel sandstone to floodplain mudstone
decreases. Width/thickness ratios of the channel
sandstones decrease upward, whereas the aggrada-
tion height of channel sandstones and the thickness
of crevasse splay complexes increase. In the central
and upper part of unit 2, channel deposits are pre-
dominantly encased in fine-grained floodplain sand-
stones and mudstones and therefore have limited
interconnectedness. By contrast, floodplain sand-
stones and mudstones are laterally persistent. Com-
plete vertical sandstone interconnectedness through
the unit occurs only in one area at 7.9–8.6 km (4.9–
5.3 mi) (Appendix; Datashare 28). Toward the top
of the unit, the width/thickness ratio of channel
sandstones and the proportion of paleosols increase.
The unit comprises 49% channel sandstones, 11%
coarse-grained floodplain sandstones, and 40% fine-
grained floodplain sandstones and mudstones.
There is a continued period of fluvial prograda-
tion from unit 1 into the lower part of unit 2 and a
gradual decrease in A/S ratio across the unit bound-
ary. The decreasing A/S ratio across the unit bound-
ary is expressed as a shift from the laterally re-
stricted SHC and VABC sandstones to the laterally
extensive LABC deposits. The base of the LABC
complex is assigned as the unit-bounding surface
because it is located near the large-scale A/S turn-
around that actually occurs within the LABC-
sandstone-dominated interval (i.e., the A/S fall-to-
rise turnaround occurs somewhere within the LABC
sandstone facies instead at the boundary between
two distinctly different facies). This unit boundary,
which is correlative throughout the study area, is not
a regional unconformity surface. Instead, the fluvial
system adjusted to the decreasing accommodation
space by migrating over wider areas. The vertical
transition to VABC sandstones upward through
unit 2 shows that the drainage on the alluvial plain
was gradually concentrated and geographically re-
stricted. With increasing A/S conditions, channels
aggraded vertically more than they migrated later-
ally. Increasing abundance of SHC sandstones near
the upper part of unit 2 reflects the increased A/S
regime, and the rise-to-fall turnaround is placed at
or near the top of the SHC sandstones. The increased
width/thickness ratio of channel sandstones and
the increased abundance of paleosols toward the
top of the unit indicate the period of stratigraphic
base-level fall, completing the stratigraphic cycle.
Unit 3
Unit 3 is about 30 m (98 ft) thick. The lower
boundary is defined as the base of the second strati-
graphic interval dominated by LABC sandstones
(Figure 8). Unit 3 comprises 74% channel sand-
stones, 3% coarse-grained flood-plain deposits,
and 23% fine-grained flood-plain deposits. The
marked increase in channel sandstone proportion
is predominantly the consequence of the increased
proportion of LABC sandstones in the lower part
of unit 3. The architecture of the channel sand-
stones changes simultaneously with decreasing chan-
nel sandstone to floodplain mudstone proportion
through unit 3 (Figure 8). The VABC sandstones
gradually replace the basal LABC sandstones ver-
tically through unit 3. The high proportion of the
channel sandstone (high net to gross) in unit 3 pro-
duces the vertical and lateral stacking of channel
deposits and high sandstone interconnectedness.
The LABC sandstones in unit 3 have the same
architecture as those in unit 2, but the interval is
Kjemperud et al. 1073
significantly thicker and has less distinct vertical
changes in architectural style. The LABC sand-
stones in unit 3 are more cannibalized and amal-
gamated. Accommodation space increased less
through unit 3 than through unit 2, and a lower A/S
regime was maintained through most of the strati-
graphic cycle. The SHC sandstones that dominate
the low net-to-gross intervals of units 1 and 2 are
replaced by VABC sandstones in unit 3. The lower
A/S regime of unit 3 is indicated by a downill mi-
gration of facies tracts, as also shown in paleogeo-
graphic reconstructions by Turner and Peterson
(2004).
Unit 4
Unit 4 is about 22 m (72 ft) thick. The lower
boundary is defined as the base of the third strati-
graphic interval of LABC sandstones (Figure 8).
This sandstone complex, composed of multistory,
multilateral LABC deposits, is continuous along
the entire mapped area. The channel complex dif-
fers from LABC deposits of older Salt Wash units
by its coarser grain size, higher proportion of trough-
cross-stratified pebbly sandstones, greatly increased
lateral continuity, and increased number of inter-
nal scour surfaces and extensive cannibalization.
Along the entire length of the mapped section, the
architectural change across the unit boundary is
distinct. Relief along the base is locally up to 12 m
(39 ft). The LABC channel sandstone complex is
overlain by a laterally persistent interval of flood-
plain fines capped by a paleosol horizon. The paleo-
sol horizon is overlain by the mostly playa and la-
custrine Brushy Basin Member, but in places Salt
Wash sandstone facies occur in the Brushy Basin and
are bounded laterally by Brushy Basin mudstones
(e.g., 5100–5800 and 9200–11000 m [16,732–
19,023 and 30,184–36,089 ft], Appendix; Data-
share 28). The LABC sandstone complex consti-
tutes approximately 85%, and the overlying interval
dominated by fine-grained flood-plain deposits con-
stitutes the remaining 15%.
The relief on the basal surface of unit 4 and the
marked architectural change across the boundary
indicate that unit 4 was initiated by a period of
degradation. This erosion most likely removed the
1074 Architecture and Stratigraphy of Alluvial Deposits
upper part (decreasing A/S regime) of unit 3. The
coarser grain size, higher proportion of trough-
cross-stratified pebbly sandstones, and extensive
lateral continuity reflect a lower A/S regime than
in units 1–3. The upper interval of fine-grained
flood-plain deposits contains the turnaround from
increasing-to-decreasing A/S, whereas the paleosol
at the upper boundary reflects the minimum A/S
conditions in unit 4 and probably throughout the
Tidwell-Salt Wash succession (Figure 8).
CONCLUSIONS
A cross section is provided of the Tidwell and Salt
Wash (Upper Jurassic) braided stream and flood-
plain strata along the Waterpocket fold in south-
central Utah. The cross section covers a 150-m
(492-ft)-thick stratigraphic interval over a distance
of 13.5 km (8.3 mi) along depositional strike. This
is probably the most detailed and largest cross sec-
tion of braided stream and related flood-plain de-
posits in existence. As such, it provides a basic data
set from which others may obtain the information
they seek, such as width/thickness relations, sand-
stone or mudstone connectivity, and dimensions
of facies components.
Morrison strata are organized at three spatial
scales, and vertical successions at smaller scales are
superposed on larger scale successions. At the larg-
est scale, there is a progressive downhill shift in
facies tracts recording a basinward-stepping of the
four stratigraphic cycles. At the intermediate scale,
there is a systematic change in channel types, from
LABCs to vertically building braided channels, to
steer-head distributary channels encased within
lacustrine-dominated fines. At the smallest scale,
systematic and repeated vertical successions of fa-
cies occur within the three types of channel belts.
Vertical facies successions within channel-belt
sandstones are regular and predictable within an
A/S context. These facies successions are products
not only of the geomorphic elements that existed
within the channels but also of the degree of pres-
ervation of those geomorphic elements. As can-
nibalism increases and preservation decreases, the
channel sandstones become more amalgamated
and less complicated, and the number of facies is
reduced. The preservation potential of geomorphic
elements in rivers is the inverse of the height above
the river thalweg.
Three channel types are recognized: laterally
amalgamated braided channels (LABC), vertically
aggradational braided channels (VABC), and steer-
head distributary channels (SHC). The LABC sand-
stones formed under low A/S regimes, the VABC
sandstones formed under intermediate A/S con-
ditions, and the SHC sandstones formed in the
highest A/S regimes. These succeed each other in
the order listed during a stratigraphic base-level-
rise half cycle. In a stratigraphic base-level-fall half
cycle, the order is reversed. Changes in the types
of fluvial channels are accompanied by numerous
sedimentological and stratigraphical attributes of
the sandstones within them, including changes in
the constituent facies, proportions, degree of pres-
ervation, and grain size. Architectural attributes
include changing width/thickness ratio, intercon-
nectedness, and stacking density.
An important finding of this study is that
braided channels build levees and alluvial ridges and
become supra-elevated above the adjacent flood-
plain. Very few articles known to the authors have
identified the creation of alluvial ridges by braided
streams. The measured heights (thickness) of the
alluvial ridges range from 0 to 5 m (0 to 16 ft). The
height of the alluvial ridges increases with increasing
A/S ratio. Vertical aggradation and contraction of
channel belts create a multistory sandstone body
shaped like a stepped pyramid. Because the heights
of the pyramids are as much as 12 m (39 ft), much
higher than typical erosional scour depths at channel
bases, they may form a local high on which a youn-
ger sand is deposited, thus creating the potential for
fluid communication between superposed reservoirs.
Braided channel deposits vary greatly in archi-
tecture as a function of stratigraphic position. In
low A/S regimes, braided channel sandstones are
widespread and highly interconnected. They are
characterized by intense cannibalization, limited
aggradation and blocky to upward coarsening grain-
size profiles. With increasing A/S ratio, channel
sandstone width/thickness ratios decrease. In chan-
nel sandstones deposited in high A/S regimes, pres-
ervation of geomorphic elements is greater, and the
sandstones tend to have an upward-fining grain-size
profile.
At the largest scale of stratigraphic architec-
ture, the expression of decreasing A/S conditions
is the downhill migration of laterally linked fa-
cies tracts, producing a basinward-stepping stack-
ing pattern of successive stratigraphic cycles. Four
intermediate-scale stratigraphic cycles are recog-
nized, which range from 22 to 32 m (72 to 105 ft)
thick. A systematic upward decrease in stratigraph-
ic base-level-fall half-cycle thickness is seen. The
stratigraphic base-level-rise half cycles also show
a slight decrease in thickness, excluding the very
thin half cycle at the base of unit 1. This trend be-
gins with the lower lacustrine-dominated A/S-fall
half cycle, followed by two cycles where the first
contains an LABC-VABC-SHC-VABC succession
and the second contains an LABC-VABC-LABC
succession. The top cycle is dominated by LABC
sandstones at the base followed by an interval of
floodplain mudstones that is capped by a thick pa-
leosol horizon at the boundary to the Brushy Basin
Member. The successive decrease in thickness of
both the A/S rise and fall successions indicates a
long-term decrease of sediment accumulation rates.
APPENDIX: CROSS SECTION OF TIDWELL AND
SALT WASH STRATA, WATERPOCKET FOLD,
SOUTH-CENTRAL UTAH
See foldout.
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