Chapter 8

Conservation of
Energy
 Energy Review
• Kinetic Energy: K = (½)mv2
– Associated with movement of members of a system
• Potential Energy
– Determined by the configuration of the system (location of the
masses in space).
– Gravitational PE: Ug = mgy
– Elastic PE (ideal spring): Ue = (½)kx2
• Internal Energy
– Related to the temperature of the system
 Types of Systems
• Non-isolated Systems
– Energy can cross the system boundary in a variety
of ways.
– The total energy of the system changes
• Isolated Systems
– Energy does not cross the boundary of the system
So, the total energy of the
system is a constant
(CONSERVED!)
 If no non-conservative forces
act within the system we can
use conservation of mechanical
energy to solve a variety of
problems.
 Ways to Transfer Energy
Into or Out of a System
• Work – transfers energy by applying a force & causing a
displacement of the point of application of the force
• Mechanical Waves – allows a disturbance to propagate
through a medium
• Heat – is driven by a temperature difference between two
regions in space
 More Ways to Transfer Energy
Into or Out of A System
• Matter Transfer – matter physically crosses the
boundary of the system, carrying energy with it
• Electrical Transmission – transfer by electric current
• Electromagnetic Radiation – energy is transferred by
electromagnetic waves
 Examples of Energy Transfer
a) Work b) Mechanical Waves c) Heat

d) Matter Transfer e) Electrical Transmission

f) Electromagnetic Radiation 
 Conservation of Energy
• TOTAL Energy is conserved
“Total” means the sum of all possible kinds of energy.
“Conserved” means that it remains constant in any process.
In other words, Total Energy can be neither created nor
destroyed, but only can be transformed from one form to
another or transferred across a system boundary.
 If the total amount of energy in a system changes, it
can only be due to the fact that energy has crossed the
boundary of the system by some method of energy
transfer
  The total change in the energy of a system = the
total energy transferred across a system boundary.
DEsystem = ST
Esystem = total energy of the system
T = energy transferred across the system boundary
• Established symbols: Twork = W & Theat = Q
• Others just use subscripts
• The Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem is a special case of
Conservation of Energy
A full expansion of the above equation gives:
D K + D U + DEint = W + Q + TMW + TMT + TET + TER
 Isolated System
• For an isolated system, ΔEmech = 0
– Remember Emech = K + U
– This is conservation of energy for an isolated system
with no non-conservative forces acting
• If non-conservative forces are acting, some energy is
transformed into internal energy
• Conservation of Energy becomes: DEsystem = 0
- Esystem is all kinetic, potential, & internal energies
- The most general statement of the isolated system
model
• For an isolated system, the changes in energy
can be written out and rearranged

Kf + Uf = Ki + Ui
This applies only to a system in which only
conservative forces act!
 Problem Solving Strategy – Conservation of
Mechanical Energy for an Isolated System with No
Non-conservative Forces
Conceptualize
– Form a mental representation
– Imagine what types of energy are changing in the system
Categorize
– Define the system
– It may consist of more than one object and may or may not include springs or other sources of storing
potential energy.
– Determine if any energy transfers occur across the boundary of your system.
• If there are transfers, use DEsystem = ST
• If there are no transfers, use DEsystem = 0
– Determine if there are any non-conservative forces acting.
• If not, use the principle of conservation of mechanical energy.
 Problem-Solving Strategy, 2
Analyze
– Choose configurations to represent initial and final configuration of the
system.
– For each object that changes elevation, identify the zero configuration for
gravitational potential energy.
– For each object on a spring, the zero configuration for elastic potential
energy is when the object is in equilibrium.
– If more than one conservative force is acting within the system, write an
expression for the potential energy associated with each force.
– Write expressions for total initial mechanical energy and total final
mechanical energy.
– Set them equal to each other.
 Problem-Solving Strategy, 3
Finalize
– Make sure your results are consistent with your
mental representation.
– Make sure the values are reasonable and consistent
with everyday experience.
 Serway: Example 8.1 – Free Fall
• Calculate the speed of the ball
at a distance y above the
ground
• Use energy
• System is isolated so the only
force is gravitational which is
conservative
• So, we can use conservation of
mechanical energy!
Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Kf + Ugf = Ki + Ugi

Solve for vf: v f  v i  2g  h  y 

2

(for general case)

The equation for vf is consistent with the
results obtained from kinematics
 Serway: Example 8.2 – Grand Entrance
• An actor, mass mactor = 65 kg, in a
play is to “fly” down to stage during
performance. Harness attached by
steel cable, over 2 frictionless pulleys,
to sandbag, mass mbag = 130 kg, as in
figure. Need length R = 3 m of cable
between nearest pulley & actor so
pulley can be hidden behind curtain.
For this to work, sandbag can never
lift above floor as actor swings to
floor. Let initial angle cable makes
with vertical be θ. Calculate the
maximum value θ before sandbag lifts
off floor.
 Free Body Diagrams

Step 1: To find actor’s speed at bottom,

let yi = initial height above floor & use
Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf
or 0 + mactorgyi = (½)mactor(vf)2 + 0 (1)
mass cancels. From diagram,  

yi = R(1 – cos θ) Actor

at bottom
Sandbag

So, (1) becomes:

(vf)2 = 2gR(1 – cosθ) (2)
 Step 2: Use N’s 2nd Law for actor at bottom of path
(T = cable tension).
Actor: ∑Fy = T – mactorg = mactor[(vf)2/R]
or T = mactorg + mactor[(vf)2/R] (3)
Step 3: Do not want sandbag to move.
 N’s 2nd Law for sandbag:
∑Fy = T – mbagg = 0 or T = mbagg (4)
Combine (2), (3), (4):
mbagg = mactorg + mactor[2g(1 – cosθ)]
Solve for θ:
cosθ = [(3mactor - mbag)/(2 mactor)] = 0.5 or θ = 60°
 Serway: Example 8.3
– Spring Loaded Popgun
Ball, mass m = 35 g = 0.035 kg in
popgun is shot straight up with spring
of unknown constant k.
Spring is compressed
yA = - 0.12 m, below relaxed level,
yB = 0.
Ball gets to a max height yC = 20.0 m
above relaxed end of spring.
(A) If no friction, find spring constant k.
(B) Find speed of ball at point B.
 Spring Loaded Popgun
Ball starts from rest. Speeds up
as spring pushes against it. As
it leaves gun, gravity slows it
down.
System = ball, gun, Earth.
Conservative forces are acting,
so use
Conservation of Mechanical
Energy
 Spring Loaded Popgun
Initial kinetic energy K = 0.
Choose gravitational potential
energy Ug = 0 where ball leaves
spring. Also elastic potential
energy Ue= 0 there. At max height,
again have K = 0.
Note:
Need two types of potential
energy!
For entire trip of ball,
Mechanical Energy is
Conserved!!
or:
KA + UA = KB + UB =
KC + UC
At each point, U = Ug + Ue so,
KA+ UgA+ UeA = KB+ UgB + UeB
= KC + UgC + UeC
 (A) To find spring constant
k, use:
KA+ UgA+ UeA =
KC + UgC + UeC
or, 0 + mgyA + (½)k(yA)2 =
0 + mgyC + 0,
giving
k = [2mg(yC – yA)/(yA)2]
= 958 N/m
 (B) To find ball’s speed at
point B, use:
KA+ UgA+ UeA =
KB + UgB + UeB
or, (½)m(vB)2 + 0 + 0 =
0 + mgyA + (½)k(yA)2 ,
giving
(vB)2 = [k(yA)2/m] + 2gyA;
or, (vB) = 19.8 m/s
 Summary
The energy of the gun-projectile-Earth system is
initially zero.
The popgun is loaded by means of an external
agent doing work on the system to push the spring
downward.
After the popgun is loaded, elastic potential
energy is stored in the spring and the gravitational
potential energy is lower because the projectile is
below the zero height.
As the projectile passes through the zero height,
all the energy of the system is kinetic.
At the maximum height, all the energy is
gravitational potential.
 Example: Two Kinds of PE
m =2.6 kg v1 = 0 v2 = ?
h =0.55 m
Y = 0.15 m
k=? v3 = 0

A two step problem: STEP 1: (a)  (b)

 (½)m(v1)2 + mgy1 = (½)m(v2)2 + mgy2
v1 = 0, y1 = h = 0.55 m, y2 =0 . Find: v2 = 3.28 m/s
STEP 2: (b)  (c) (both gravity & spring PE)
 (½)m(v2)2+(½)k(y2)2+mgy2 = (½)m(v3)2 + (½)k(y3)2 + mgy3
y3 = Y = 0.15m, y2 = 0  (½)m(v2)2 = (½)kY2 - mgY
Solve for k & get k = 1590 N/m
ALTERNATE SOLUTION: (a)  (c) skipping (b)
Friction is a non-conservative force!
So, if friction is present, we have
Wf = Work done by friction
In moving through a distance d,
force of kinetic friction fk does work
Wf = - fkd
 Work – Kinetic Energy With Friction
• In general, if friction is acting in a system:
– ΔK = ΣWother forces -ƒkd
– This is a modified form of the work – kinetic energy
theorem
• Use this form when friction acts on an object
– If friction is zero, this equation becomes the same as
Conservation of Mechanical Energy
 Including Friction, final
• A friction force transforms kinetic energy in a system
to internal energy
• The increase in internal energy of the system is equal
to its decrease in kinetic energy
• ΔEint = ƒk d
In general, this equation can be written as

ΣWother forces = W = ΔK + ΔEint

This represents the non-isolated system

model for a system within which a non-
conservative force acts.
Adding Changes in Potential Energy
If friction acts within an isolated system
DEmech = DK + DU = -ƒk d

DU is the change in all forms of

potential energy
 -fkd = DK + DU = Kf – Ki + Uf – Ui
–Also now, K + U  Constant!
–Instead, Ki + Ui+ Wf = Kf + Uf
or: Ki + Ui - fkd = Kf+ Uf
• For gravitational PE:

(½)m(vi)2 + mgyi = (½)m(vf)2 + mgyf + fkd

• For elastic or spring PE:

(½)m(vi)2 + (½)k(xi)2 = (½)m(vf)2 + (½)k(xf)2 + fkd

Ex. 8.4 – Block Pulled on Rough Surface
• A block, mass m = 6 kg,
is pulled by constant
horizontal force F = 12 N.
over a rough horizontal
surface. Kinetic friction
coefficient μk = 0.15.
Moves a distance Δx = 3
m. Find the final speed.
• The rough surface applies a friction force on
the block
• The friction force is in the direction opposite
to the applied force.
• The block is pulled by a force and the surface
is rough, so the block and the surface are
modeled as a non-isolated system with a non-
conservative force acting.
Apply the particle in equilibrium model to the block in
the vertical direction:
ΣF y = 0 => n - mg = 0 => n = mg

Find the magnitude of the friction force:

Σfk = µkn
= µkmg
= (0.15)(6.0 kg)(9.80 m/s2)
= 8.82 N
 FΔx = ΔK + ΔEint
= (1/2 mvf2 − 0) + fkd

vf = [(2/m)(−fkd + FΔx)]1/2

[(2/6.0 kg)(−(8.82 N)(3.0 m) + (12 N)(3.0 m))]1/2

= 1.8 m/s
What if ?

– Suppose the force is applied at an angle

 q = 0 gives greatest speed if no friction
– At an non-zero angle, the frictional force
is also reduced
 Example 8.6 – Block-Spring System
• A mass m = 1.6 kg, is
attached to ideal spring of
constant k = 1,000 N/m.
Spring is compressed
x = - 2.0 cm = - 2  10-2 m &
is released from rest.
(A) Find the speed at x = 0 if
there is no friction.
(B) Find the speed at x = 0
if there is a constant friction
force fk = 4 N.
• The problem
– The mass is attached to a
spring, the spring is compressed
and then the mass is released
– A constant friction force acts
• Conceptualize
– The block will be pushed by the
spring and move off with some
speed
• Categorize
– Block and surface is the system
– System is non-isolated
• Analyze
–Kf = Ki - ƒk d + Ws
–Kf = ½ m v²f
–evaluate ƒk d
–evaluate SWs
• Finalize
–Think about the result. (cf. without friction)
 Serway: Ex. 8.7
– Crate Sliding Down a Ramp
Crate, mass m = 3.0 kg, starts
from rest at height
yi = 0.5 m & slides down the
incline of length d = 1.0 m
& incline angle θ = 30˚.
Constant friction force fk = 5 N.
Continues to move on horizontal
surface on leaving the incline.
 Serway: Ex. 8.7
– Crate Sliding Down a Ramp
(A) Find the speed at the
bottom of incline.
(B) Assuming the same
friction force, find the
distance on the horizontal
surface that the crate
moves after it leaves the
ramp.
• Problem: the crate slides down
the rough incline
– Find speed at bottom
• Conceptualize
– Energy considerations
• Categorize
– Identify the crate, the surface,
and the Earth as the system
– Isolated system with
nonconservative force acting
• Analyze
– Let the bottom of the ramp be y = 0
– At the top: Ei = Ki + Ugi = 0 + mgyi
– At the bottom: Ef = Kf + Ugf = ½ m vf2 + mgyf
– Then DEmech = Ef – Ei = -ƒk d
– Solve for vf
• Finalize
– Could compare with result if ramp was frictionless
– The internal energy of the system increased
 Serway: Ex. 8.8 – Block-Spring Collision
Block,
mass m = 0.8 kg,
gets initial velocity
vA = 1.2 m/s to right.
Collides with spring
with constant
k = 50 N/m.
 Serway: Ex. 8.8 – Block-Spring Collision
(A) If no friction, find the
maximum compression
distance xmax of spring after
collision.
(B) There is a constant
friction force fk between
block & surface. Coefficient
of friction is μk = 0.5. Find
the maximum compression
distance xC now.
• Without friction, the
energy continues to be
transformed between
kinetic and elastic potential
energies and the total
energy remains the same
• If friction is present, the
energy decreases
DEmech = -ƒkd
• Conceptualize
– All motion takes place on a horizontal plane
• So no changes in gravitational potential energy
• Categorize
– The system is the block and the system
– Without friction, it is an isolated system with no non-
conservative forces
• Analyze
– Before the collision, the total energy is kinetic
• Analyze
– Before the collision, the total energy is kinetic
– When the spring is totally compressed, the kinetic
energy is zero and all the energy is elastic potential
– Total mechanical energy is conserved
• Finalize
– Decide which root has physical meeting
• Now add friction
– Categorize
• Now is isolated with non-conservative force
– Analyze
• Use DEmech = -ƒk d
– Finalize
• The value is less than the case for no friction
–As expected
Serway: Ex. 8.9 – Connected Blocks in Motion
• Two blocks, masses m1 & m2,
are connected by spring of
constant k. m1 moves on
horizontal surface with
friction. Released from rest
when spring is relaxed when
m2 at height h above floor.
Eventually stops when m2 is
on floor. Calculate the kinetic
friction coefficient μk between
m1 & table.
Conceptualize
– Configurations of the system when at rest are good candidates for initial and
final points.
Categorize
– The system consists of the two blocks, the spring, the surface, and the Earth.
– System is isolated with a non-conservative force acting
– Model the sliding block as a particle in equilibrium in the vertical direction.

Analyze
– Gravitational and elastic potential energies are involved.
• Changes in gravitational potential energy are associated only with the
falling block.
– The kinetic energy is zero if our initial and final configurations are at rest.
• Analyze, cont
– Block 2 undergoes a change in gravitational potential
energy
– The spring undergoes a change in elastic potential energy
– The coefficient of kinetic energy can be measured
• Finalize
– This allows a method for measuring the coefficient of
kinetic energy
 Energy Bars for the Connected Objects
Initially (a) there is nothing moving in the
system, therefore the kinetic energy is zero.
The total energy is potential
In (b), all four types of energy are present.
The system has gained kinetic energy, elastic
potential energy and internal energy.
In (c), the gravitational potential and kinetic
energies are both zero.
The spring is stretched to its maximum
amount.
Internal energy has increased as one block
continued to move over the surface.
Section 8.5
Power
• Power ≡ Rate at which work W is done or
rate at which energy E is transformed:
Instantaneous Power: P ≡ (dE/dt) = (dW/dt)
• For work W done in time Δt:
Average Power: Pavg = (W/Δt)
SI power units: P = (Energy)/(time) = (Work)/(Time)
Unit = Joule/Second = Watt (W). 1 W = 1J/s
British units: Horsepower (hp). 1hp = 746 W
“Kilowatt-Hours” (from your power bill). Energy!
1 kWh = (103 Watt)  (3600 s)
= 3.6  106 W s = 3.6  106 J
• Convenient to write power in terms of force &
velocity v. For force F & displacement Δr making
angle θ with F. We know:
W = FΔr = FΔr cosθ
Instantaneous Power:
 P = (dW/dt) = F(dr/dt) = Fv
Average Power:
 Pavg = (W/Δt) = F(Δr/Δt) = Fvavg
vavg ≡ Average velocity of object
 Ex. 8.10: Power Delivered by Lift Motor

Lift cabin, mass mc = 1,600 kg, carries

passengers of mass mp = 200 kg.
Constant friction force fk = 4,000 N acts
against motion.
(A) Find power needed for a motor to
lift car + passengers at a constant
velocity v = 3 m/s.
(B) Find power needed for motor to
lift car at instantaneous velocity v at
upward acceleration a = 1.0 m/s2.
 Example: Power Needs of a Car
Calculate the power required of a car of
mass, m = 1,400 kg:
a) climbing a hill with θ = 10° at
constant velocity v = 22 m/s.
Solution: ∑Fx = 0
 F – FR – mg sinθ = 0
Gives required force F = 3,100 N
Power: P = Fv = (3,100)(22) = 6.8  104 W
b) When accelerates on level ground from vi = 25.0 m/s to vf = 30.6 m/s
in t = 10 s with a retarding force FR = 700 N
Solution: Now, θ = 0. ∑Fx = ma or F – FR= ma  F = FR+ ma (1)
Also, vf = vi + at  a = (v - v0)/t = (30.6 – 25)/(10) = 0.93 m/s2
Now, (1) gives required force F = 2,000 N
Maximum Power: P = Fvf = (2,000)(30.6) = 6.12  104 W