BCOM PART - III HONS.

EXAM – 2019

UMESCHANDRA COLLEGE
13,Surya Sen Street,
Kolkata-700 012
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
PROJECT
ON

AIR POLLUTION IN KOLKATA

SUBMITTED
BY

NAME : - ANAND KEJRIWAL

COLLEGE ROLL NO. :- 58 , SECTION :- A

UNIVERSITY REGISTRATION NO. :- 126 - 1121 - 0057 - 16

UNIVERSITY ROLL NO. :- 1126 - 61 - 0110

UMESCHANDRA COLLEGE
13,Surya Sen Street,
Kolkata-700 012

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 CONTENTS
SL.NO PARTICULARS PAGE NO.
1 Introduction 4
2 Sources Of Air Pollution 6
And Pollutants
3 Effects Of Air Pollution 11
On Environment And
Man
4 Air Quality Assessment 20
In Kolkata
5 Preventive Measures 23
6 Conclusion 28
7 Acknowledgement 29
8 Bibliography 30

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 1
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF AIR POLLUTION
“Air pollution means the presence of chemicals or compounds (called pollutants)
in the air which are not naturally occurring, and which lower the quality of air, and
are harmful to all living things in the atmosphere. Air pollution is majorly caused
due to the release of various chemicals into the atmosphere. Air pollution can be
both man-made and naturally occurring.
In our current age of industrialisation and modernisation, the biggest source of
air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels. For example when we burn petrol or
diesel or coal to run our cars, machines, trains, power plants etc. this releases
harmful pollutants into the atmosphere, endangering all living things around.

OVERALL VIEW OF THE AIR POLLUTION IN INDIA

WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS TO WEST BENGAL AND
MORE SPECIFICALLY IN KOLKATA
Urban air quality in most megacities has been found to be critical and Kolkata
Metropolitan City is no exception to this. An analysis of ambient air quality in
Kolkata was done by applying the Exceedance Factor (EF) method, where the
presence of listed pollutants’ (RPM, SPM, NO2, and SO2) annual average
concentration are classified into four different categories; namely critical, high,
moderate, and low pollution. Out of a total of 17 ambient air quality monitoring
stations operating in Kolkata, five fall under the critical category, and the
remaining 12 locations fall under the high category of NO2 concentration, while
for RPM, four record critical, and 13 come under the high pollution category.
Three dispensaries have been surveyed with 100 participants. It shows that
respondents with respiratory diseases (85.1%) have outnumbered waterborne
diseases (14.9%) and include acute respiratory infections (ARI) (60%), chronic
obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) (7.8%), upper track respiratory
infection (UTRI) (1.2%), Influenza (12.7%), and acid fast bacillus (AFB)
(3.4%). Although the pollution level has been recorded as critical, only 39.3%
of the respondents have felt that outdoor (air) pollution has affected their health.

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PRESENT SITUATION OF AIR POLLUTION IN
KOLKATA
A joint study by Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute (CNCI), West
Bengal Department of Environment and the Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) has found that around 70% of people in the city of Kolkata suffer from
respiratory disorders caused by air pollution . In 1995, an estimated 10,647
premature deaths were attributed to air pollution in Kolkata . Studies have
demonstrated that children inhaling polluted air in Kolkata suffer from adverse
lung reactions and genetic abnormalities in exposed lung tissues .
Approximately 47% of Kolkata’s population suffers from lower respiratory tract
symptoms with the lungs of city residents being approximately seven times
more burdened compared to their rural counterparts due to air pollution . Other
air pollution-related health problems, including haematological abnormalities,
impaired liver function, genetic changes, and neurobehavioral problems, are
found to be more prevalent amongst those categories of workers exposed to
high levels of vehicular emission. They include roadside hawkers , traffic
policemen ,and taxi and auto drivers. The vehicular pollution in Kolkata is
attributed to a large number of automobiles plying daily over only 6% available
road space, causing congestion which reduces the average vehicular speed and
also results in heavy vehicular emission

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

It is very important to study about air pollution since air pollution is one of the
greatest crime ever committed. Although people nowadays have become more
concerned about air pollution and trying to stop or deem the causes of such
pollution; but, still the air has become much damaged. This is primarily due to
addition of various pollutants into the atmosphere which has already done (and
continue to inflict) much damage on our environment
Millions of people from every corner of the earth are dying every year just due
to pollution. Furthermore, air pollution is one of the major cause for negative
climate change . Studying of air pollution is hence very important so that we
have a better understanding of its causes, effects, and prevention, and we can
teach our future generations as well

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 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION AND POLLUTANTS

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

A. Non Anthropogenic Sources

 VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS :- Volcanic eruptions release large quantities of

greenhouse gases and other aerosols into the atmosphere, these gases form
massive clouds which accumulate in the atmosphere; this process is referred
to as outgassing or offgassing In addition to magma particulates, known as
ash or pyroclastic flow, volcanic eruptions release water vapor(H₂0), carbon
dioxide(CO₂), sulphur dioxide(SO₂), hydrogen sulfide(H₂S), carbon
monoxide(CO), hydrogen chloride(HCl), and hydrogen fluoride(HF) into the
atmosphere. This combination of outgassed particulates as the ability to
inflict vast detrimental impacts on the rest of the globe. Earth’s biosphere
can be depreciated as a result of volcanic pollution; animals and plant life,
during an outgassing event, are susceptible to toxic and harmful volcanic
pollutants
 DUST STORM:- Dust storms cause soil loss from the dry lands, and worse,
they preferentially remove organic matter and the nutrient-rich lightest
particles, thereby reducing agricultural productivity. Also the abrasive effect
of the storm damages young crop plants. Dust storms also reduced visibility
affecting aircraft and road transportation. In addition dust storms also create
problems due to complications of breathing in dust. Dust can also have
beneficial effects where it deposits: Central and South American rain forests
get most of their mineral nutrients from the Sahara; iron-poor ocean regions
get iron; and dust in Hawaii increases plantain growth. In northern China as
well as the mid-western U.S., ancient dust storm deposits known as loess are
highly fertile soils, but they are also a significant source of contemporary
dust storms when soil-securing vegetation is disturbed
 LANDSLIDES:- Daily variations of temperature cause the rocks to expand
and contract, and fissures open over time. Infiltrating water and roots of
plants further destabilize the cliff or the slope. In many cases, a final trigger,
like an earthquake or heavy rainfall, is needed to cause a landslide, with
eventually deadly results.

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B. ANTHROPOGENIC POLLUTION

 AVIATIONS :- Aircraft engines generally combust fuel efficiently, and jet

exhausts have very low smoke emissions. However, pollutant emissions
from aircraft at ground level are increasing with aircraft movements. In
addition, a large amount of air pollution around airports is also generated
by surface traffic.The main pollutant of concern around airports is
nitrogen dioxide (NO2). NO2 is formed by nitrogen oxide (NOx)
emissions from surface traffic, aircraft and airport operations. PM2.5 is
also of concern, since particulate emissions from jet exhausts are almost
all in this fine fraction.

 INDUSTRIES:- Industries are one of the primary sources of

environmental contamination. This human-made source have
profound effects on the health of living organisms and the entire planet. A
wide range of pollutants are emitted by the human activity on factories
and industries, like carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, ammonia,
particulate matter, lead, hydrocarbons, organic compounds and other
chemicals .Inhaling factories and industries fumes is very dangerous for
humans health, increasing the probability of several diseases like asthma
or bronchitis. However, the world is in permanent disease due to this
issue, and climate change is not going to stop if manufacturing industries
aren’t regulated

 THERMAL POWER STATION:- Thermal power station are the major

sources of the air pollution. Coal is the primary fuel for electricity
generation in India and its usage is continually increasing to meet the
energy demands of the country. Emissions of greenhouse gases and other
criteria .Excessive generation of electricity by thermal power needs more
amount of coal, and burning more amount of coal emit huge amounts of air
pollutants and other greenhouse gases, which leads to environmental
damages, climate change and global warming too.

 AGRTICULTURAL PRACTICES:- Agriculture activities such as use of

natural fertilizer release greenhouse gases . pesticides release persistent
organic pollutants (pop).Enteric fermentation in cattle ranching produces
greenhouse gases mainly methane . Toxic chemicals found in pesticides
and weedcide also reduces the quality of air pollution.

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POLLUTANTS OF AIR

A.PRIMARY AIR POLLUTANTS

 SULPHUR OXIDES
 Sulfur oxides or SOx are a group of pollutants that contain
both sulfur and oxygen molecules. Sulfur dioxide, SO2 is the most
common form in the lower atmosphere.
 Sulfur dioxide is colourless, but has a distinct smell and taste that can be
detected if the gas has a high enough concentration. Sulfur oxides
dissolve readily in water, and result in the atmospheric formation of
sulfurous acid or sulfuric acid - a component of acid rain.
 The majority of sulfur oxides are produced when fuels that contain sulfur
undergo combustion. As well, the roasting of metal sulfide ores is a major
source. Natural sources account for anywhere between 35-65% of total
sulfur dioxide emissions specifically.Natural sources include
volcanoes. Coal burning power plants that burn high-sulfur coal are some
of the main sources of SOx
 CARBONMONO-OXIDE
 Carbon monoxide, or CO, is a gas that forms from the
incomplete combustion of fuels suchas propane, naturalgas, gasoline, oil,
coal, or wood. It is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas, so it cannot
be detected without a specialized piece of equipment.] Exposure to carbon
monoxide can cause serious health problems.
 There are many sources of carbon monoxide that exist,
including furnaces, gas water heaters, wood stoves, and other fuel-
burning appliances. If these devices are not used properly or malfunction,
it is possible for them to release carbon monoxide. Along with these
major sources, blocked chimneys, car exhaust, and tobacco smoke are all
additional sources of carbon monoxide.[2] Carbon monoxide can also
enter the atmosphere from the natural environment. CO is released by
erupting volcanoes, by forest fires, and from marsh gases and
marine algae.
 Industry is also a major contributor to carbon monoxide emissions.
Significant amounts of carbon monoxide are released in metal
manufacturing, ore and coal mining, electricity generation, food

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 manufacturing, chemical production, petroleum refining, and concrete
manufacturing.
 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are organic molecules -
specifically hydrocarbons - that are classified as a pollutant as they
produce undesirable effects in the atmosphere. The are defined
as volatile because they evaporate quickly and easily into the air. They
react with nitrogen oxides in the air to form ground level ozone, another
harmful pollutant, and they also contribute to the formation of
secondary particulate matter.
 VOCs occur in many forms and are emitted from both human sources,
such as power plants, and natural sources, such as trees and plants.
Although natural sources account for about 85% of the VOCs in the air,
the more reactive and therefore concerning ones are those produced by
human activities. Especially in cities where there less plants, the
dominant emissions of VOCs come from anthropogenic sources. These
compounds play a key role in the formation of ozone and photochemical
smog, which are very harmful for human health.
 PARTICULATE MATTER
 Particulate matter, sometimes called particle pollution or simply PM, is a
term that refers to a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets that can
be found in the air. They are classified as pollutants and there are several
different sizes of particulate matter. Some particulate matter, such as dust,
dirt, soot, coal ash, and smoke are large enough to be seen with the naked
eye. Particulate matter can also be extremely small, therefore, can only be
seen with high-powered microscopes. As well as containing acids,
particulate matter can contain hazardous elements such
as arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, and nickel.
 Particulate matter can fall into several different categories depending on
their size. These categories include inhalable coarse particles (PM10) that
are between 2.5 and 10micrometers in diameter and fine particles
(PM2.5) with diameters of less than 2.5 micrometers. In addition,
particulate matter can be separated into 2 categories:

1.primary particulate matter: PM that is emitted directly from sources such

as power plants.

2.secondary particulate matter: PM that is formed by chemical reactions in

the atmosphere.

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 B.SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS
 OZONE
 Ozone is a molecule of oxygen with the formula O3. It is found in
the atmosphere, however the location of it is crucial: near the ground it
can be harmful to humans, yet high in the atmosphere it is vital in
protecting the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. Therefore its use
in conversation can be ambiguous:

 For harmful ozone that is viewed as a pollutant, visit ground level

ozone.
 For ozone that protects the Earth and is important to the success of
living organisms, visit ozone layer.

 NITROGEN DIO-OXIDE
 Nitrogen oxides or NOx are a family of poisonous, highly
reactive gases that form when fuel is burned at high temperatures.
NOx gases are generally brown in colour and are emitted by vehicles as
well as industrial sources such as power plants, industrial boilers, cement
kilns, and turbines. Nitrogen oxides have problematic chemical reactions
in the atmospheric with volatile organic compounds. These reactions
produce smog on hot summer days.
 The two major nitrogen oxides that exist are NO and NO2.Coal and oil,
two major fossil fuels, contain nitrogen. When these fuels are burnt
to generate electricity, the produce a type of NOx known specifically
as fuel NOx. As well, there is another type of NOx known as thermal
NOx which is produced when atmospheric nitrogen
and oxygen recombine under high temperatures (such as in the flame of
fossil fuel combustion) to create NO.
 The combustion of coal and oil produces both thermal and fuel nitrogen
oxides, while natural gas combustion produces only thermal NO x. As
well, uncontrolled oil or coal combustion produces more nitrogen oxides
than the combustion of natural gas.
 PEROXYACYL NITRATES
 Peroxyacyl nitrates or PANs are a component of photochemical smog,
produced in the atmosphere when oxidized volatile organic
compounds combine with nitrogen oxide. They are a secondary
pollutant since they form in the atmosphere after the emission of primary
pollutants. Sources of the pollutants required to create PANs
include motor vehicles, tobacco smoke, and the burning of fossil fuels

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 2
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON
ENVIRONMENT AND MAN

EFFECTS ON ECOLOGY
 ACID RAIN :- is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and
sulfuric acids. These acids are formed primarily by nitrogen oxides and
sulfur oxides released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned.
These acids fall to the Earth either as wet precipitation (rain, snow, or fog) or
dry precipitation (gas and particulates). Some are carried by the wind,
sometimes hundreds of miles. In the environment, acid rain damages trees
and causes soils and water bodies to acidify, making the water unsuitable for
some fish and other wildlife. It also speeds the decay of buildings, statues,
and sculptures that are part of our national heritage. Acid rain has damaged
Massachusetts lakes, ponds, rivers, and soils, leading to damaged wildlife
and forests

 EUTROPHICATION:- is a condition in a water body where high

concentrations of nutrients (such as nitrogen) stimulate blooms of algae,
which in turn can cause fish kills and loss of plant and animal diversity.
Although eutrophication is a natural process in the aging of lakes and some
estuaries, human activities can greatly accelerate eutrophication by
increasing the rate at which nutrients enter aquatic ecosystems. Air
emissions of nitrogen oxides from power plants, cars, trucks, and other
sources contribute to the amount of nitrogen entering aquatic ecosystems.

 Haze:- is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the air.
Haze obscures the clarity, color, texture, and form of what we see. Some
haze-causing pollutants (mostly fine particles) are directly emitted to the
atmosphere by sources such as power plants, industrial facilities, trucks and
automobiles, and construction activities. Others are formed when gases
emitted to the air (such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) form particles
as they are carried downwind.

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 EFFECTS ON WILDLIFE:-. Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils
or surface waters, can impact wildlife in a number of ways. Like humans,
animals can experience health problems if they are exposed to sufficient
concentrations of air toxics over time. Studies show that air toxics are
contributing to birth defects, reproductive failure, and disease in animals.
Persistent toxic air pollutants (those that break down slowly in the
environment) are of particular concern in aquatic ecosystems. These
pollutants accumulate in sediments and may biomagnify in tissues of animals
at the top of the food chain to concentrations many times higher than in the
water or air.

 Ozone depletion:-. Ozone is a gas that occurs both at ground-level and in

the Earth's upper atmosphere, known as the stratosphere. At ground level,
ozone is a pollutant that can harm human health. In the stratosphere,
however, ozone forms a layer that protects life on earth from the sun's
harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. But this "good" ozone is gradually being
destroyed by man-made chemicals referred to as ozone-depleting substances,
including chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons. These
substances were formerly used and sometimes still are used in coolants,
foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, pesticides, and aerosol
propellants. Thinning of the protective ozone layer can cause increased
amounts of UV radiation to reach the Earth, which can lead to more cases of
skin cancer, cataracts, and impaired immune systems. UV can also damage
sensitive crops, such as soybeans, and reduce crop yields.

 CROP AND FOREST DAMAGE:- Air pollution can damage crops and trees
in a variety of ways. Ground-level ozone can lead to reductions in
agricultural crop and commercial forest yields, reduced growth and
survivability of tree seedlings, and increased plant susceptibility to disease,
pests and other environmental stresses (such as harsh weather). As described
above, crop and forest damage can also result from acid rain and from
increased UV radiation caused by ozone depletion.

 Global climate change:-The Earth's atmosphere contains a delicate

balance of naturally occurring gases that trap some of the sun's heat near the
Earth's surface. This "greenhouse effect" keeps the Earth's temperature
stable. Unfortunately, evidence is mounting that humans have disturbed this
natural balance by producing large amounts of some of these greenhouse
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 gases, including carbon dioxide and methane. As a result, the Earth's
atmosphere appears to be trapping more of the sun's heat, causing the Earth's
average temperature to rise - a phenomenon known as global warming.
Many scientists believe that global warming could have significant impacts
on human health, agriculture, water resources, forests, wildlife, and coastal
areas

EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

 LUNG DISEASES :- Research has demonstrated increased risk of
developing asthma and COPD from increased exposure to traffic-related
air pollution. Additionally, air pollution has been associated with
increased hospitalization and mortality from asthma and COPD. Chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes diseases such as chronic
bronchitis and emphysema.[A study conducted in 1960–1961 in the wake
of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with 477
residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with
low reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male
postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from the
outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory
symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung
function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and
purulence. The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to
59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so concluded that air
pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.[ More
recent studies have shown that air pollution exposure from traffic reduces
lung function development in children and lung function may be
compromised by air pollution even at low concentrations. Air pollution
exposure also cause lung cancer in non smokers. It is believed that much
like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health
hazards become more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas
patients suffer mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and
more self-diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.]

 RESPIRATORY DISORDERS ;- Because most of the pollutants enter the

body through the airways, the respiratory system is in the first line of
battle in the onset and progression of diseases resulted from air pollutants.
Depending on the dose of inhaled pollutants, and deposition in target cells,
they cause a different level of damages in the respiratory system. In the
upper respiratory tract, the first effect is irritation, especially in trachea
which induces voice disturbances. Air pollution is also considered as the
major environmental risk factor for some respiratory diseases such as

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 asthma and lung cancer. Air pollutants, especially PMs and other
respirable chemicals such as dust, O3, and benzene cause serious damage
to the respiratory tract. Asthma is a respiratory disease which may be
developed as a result of exposure to air toxicants. Some studies have
validated associations between both traffic-related and/or industrial air
pollution and increasing the risk of COPD. Treatment of respiratory
diseases due to air pollution is similar to the other toxic chemical induce
respiratory disorders.

 CARDIOVASCULAR DYSFUNCTIONS :- Many experimental and

epidemiologic studies have shown the direct association of air pollutant
exposure and cardiac-related illnesses. Air pollution is also associated
with changes in white blood cell counts which also may affect the
cardiovascular functions. On the other hand, a study on animal models
suggested the close relationship between hypertension and air pollution
exposure . The traffic-related air pollution, especially exposure to high
levels of NO2, is associated with right and left ventricular hypertrophy.In
addition to the antidote therapy that exists only for a few cardiotoxic
substances like CO, usual treatment of cardiovascular diseases should be
carried out.

 NEUROPSYCHIATRIC COMPLICATIONS:- The relationship between

exposure to air suspended toxic materials and nerve system has always
been argued. However, it is now believed that these toxic substances have
damaging effects on the nervous system. The toxic effect of air pollutants
on nerve system includes neurological complications and psychiatric
disorders. Neurological impairment may cause devastating consequences,
especially in infants. In contrast, psychiatric disorders will induce
aggression and antisocial behaviors. Recent studies have reported the
relationship between air pollution and neurobehavioral hyperactivity,
criminal activity, and age-inappropriate behaviors. Studies have also
revealed the association between air pollution and higher risk of neuro
inflammation, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Some studies
showed that aggression and anxiety in megacities are in close relationship
with the high level of air pollutants.

 CANCER:- A review of evidence regarding whether ambient air pollution

exposure is a risk factor for cancer in 2007 found solid data to conclude
that long-term exposure to PM2.5 (fine particulates) increases the overall
risk of non-accidental mortality by 6% per a 10 microg/m3 increase.
Exposure to PM2.5 was also associated with an increased risk of

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 mortality from lung cancer (range: 15% to 21% per 10
microg/m3 increase) and total cardiovascular mortality (range: 12% to
14% per a 10 microg/m3 increase). The review further noted that living
close to busy traffic appears to be associated with elevated risks of these
three outcomes – increase in lung cancer deaths, cardiovascular deaths,
and overall non-accidental deaths. The reviewers also found suggestive
evidence that exposure to PM2.5 is positively associated with mortality
from coronary heart diseases and exposure to SO2 increases mortality
from lung cancer, but the data was insufficient to provide solid
conclusions. Another investigation showed that higher activity level
increases deposition fraction of aerosol particles in human lung and
recommended avoiding heavy activities like running in outdoor space at
polluted areas. In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an
increased risk of lung cancer for patients who lived in areas with high
nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this study, the association was higher
for non-smokers than smokers. An additional Danish study, also in 2011,
likewise noted evidence of possible associations between air pollution
and other forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and brain cancer. In
December 2015, medical scientists reported that cancer is
overwhelmingly a result of environmental factors, and not largely down
to bad luck. Maintaining a healthy weight, eating a healthy diet,
minimizing alcohol and eliminating smoking reduces the risk of
developing the disease, according to the researchers.

 OTHER LONG TERM COMPLICATIONS :- skin is the body's first line

of defense against a foreign pathogen or infectious agent and it is the first
organ that may be contaminated by a pollutant. The skin is a target organ
for pollution in which the absorption of environmental pollutants from
this organ is equivalent to the respiratory uptake. Research on the skin
has provided evidence that traffic-related air pollutants, especially PAHs,
VOCs, oxides, and PM affect skin aging and cause pigmented spots on
the face.
 Theoretically, toxic air pollutants can cause damage to organs when
inhaled or absorbed through the skin. Some of these pollutants are
hepatocarcinogen chemicals. There are some proven data which
highlighted the role of air pollutants, especially traffic-related air
pollution on the incidence of autism and its related disorders in fetus and
children. Disrupting endocrine by chemical components of pollutants has
been described as a possible mechanistic pathway of autism or other
neurological disorders. Some studies showed that there are relationships

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 between air pollution exposure and fetal head size in late pregnancy, fetal
growth, and low birth weight.
 Many of the diseases that are linked to immune system dysfunction can
be affected by several environmental factors such as poor air quality.
Poor air quality can cause serious complications in the immune system
such as an abnormal increase in the serum levels of the immunoglobulin
(Ig); IgA, IgM, and the complement component C3 in humans as well as
chronic inflammatory diseases of the respiratory system. Exposure to
these immunotoxicants may also cause immune dysfunction at different
stages which can serve as the basis for increased risks of numerous
diseases such as neuro inflammation, an altered brain innate immune
response. Air pollutants modify antigen presentation by up-regulation of
costimulatory molecules such as CD80 and CD86 on macrophages.
 The eye is a neglected vulnerable organ to the adverse effects of air
suspended contaminants even household air pollution. Clinical effects of
air pollution on the eyes can vary from asymptomatic eye problems to dry
eye syndrome. Chronic exposure to air pollutants increases the risk for
retinopathy and adverse ocular outcomes. In addition, there are now
evidence suggesting the association between air pollution and irritation of
the eyes, dry eye syndrome, and some of the major blinding.

EFFECTS ON FAUNA(ANIMALS)
Along with humans, animals ranging from tiny microbes to large mammals
are also dependent on oxygen that is derived from the air. When
contaminated air is inhaled for breathing oxygen, several harmful gases are
also inhaled along with it. These harmful gases are believed to affect animals
in the same manner as they affect humans. Experts also suggest that the
particulate matter that the animals inhale over a prolonged period can get
accumulated in their tissues and damage their organs in the long run. Other
than inhaling the harmful contaminants directly, animals can also come in
contact with these contaminants from the food that they eat and by
absorption through their skin. More importantly, animals are more
vulnerable to this issue as compared to us humans, as they are not well-
equipped to protect themselves from it as we are.
 ACID RAIN:- While the effects of breathing in harmful gases and
particulate matter on animals are similar to that on humans, animals are
also vulnerable to these harmful gases indirectly. Acid rain, which is
again attributed to air pollution, is one of the major threats for animals.
When contaminants like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are released in
the atmosphere, they start ascending in the air and come in contact with

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 rain bearing clouds. When these clouds start precipitating, the water
droplets react with chemicals that are suspended in the atmosphere and
result in acid rain. With a pH value of 5.5, acid rainwater alters the
chemical properties of ponds and rivers, and result in habitat destruction
for species which inhabit these water bodies

 OZONE DEPLETION AND GLOBAL WARMING :- When

greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide are released in the
atmosphere, they start depleting the ozone layer which blocks
the harmful ultraviolet radiation coming from the Sun. As the
ozone layer starts depleting, the harmful radiation which enter
the Earth's atmosphere harm the plants and animals on the
planet. If experts are to be believed these harmful ultraviolet
radiation can cause skin problems, such as cancer, in animals
as well. At the same time, tropospheric ozone, which happens
to be a greenhouse gas in itself, has the t endency to cause
tissue damage and respiratory infections in animals. Not to
forget, global warming, which happens to be one of the
underlying factors for loss of habitat for numerous species, is
also attributed to unabated release of pollutants like carbo n
dioxide and sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere of the Earth.

EFFECTS ON FLORA(VEGETATION)
Air pollution injury to plants can be evident in several ways. Injury to foliage
may be visible in a short time and appear as necrotic lesions (dead tissue), or it
can develop slowly as a yellowing or chlorosis of the leaf. There may be a
reduction in growth of various portions of a plant. Plants may be killed outright,
but they usually do not succumb until they have suffered recurrent injury.

 OXIDANTS :- Ozone is the main pollutant in the oxidant smog

complex. Since then, ozone injury to vegetation has been reported and
documented in many areas. Throughout the growing season,
particularly July and August, ozone levels vary significantly. Periods
of high ozone are associated with regional southerly air flows that are
carried across the lower Great Lakes after passing over many urban
and industrialised areas of the United States. Localized, domestic
ozone levels also contribute to the already high background levels.
Injury levels vary annually and white bean, which are particularly
sensitive, are often used as an indicator of damage. Other sensitive
species include cucumber, grape, green bean, lettuce, onion, potato,
radish, rutabagas, spinach, sweet corn, tobacco and tomato. Resistant
species include endive, pear and apricot.

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  Ozone symptoms characteristically occur on the upper surface of
affected leaves and appear as a flecking, bronzing or bleaching of the
leaf tissues. Although yield reductions are usually with visible foliar
injury, crop loss can also occur without any sign of pollutant stress.
Conversely, some crops can sustain visible foliar injury without any
adverse effect on yield.

 SULFUR DIOXIDE :- Major sources of sulfur dioxide are coal-burning

operations, especially those providing electric power and space heating.
Sulfur dioxide emissions can also result from the burning of petroleum
and the smelting of sulfur containing ores. Sulfur dioxide enters the
leaves mainly through the stomata (microscopic openings) and the
resultant injury is classified as either acute or chronic.

 Acute injury is caused by absorption of high concentrations of sulfur

dioxide in a relatively short time. The symptoms appear as 2-sided
(bifacial) lesions that usually occur between the veins and
occasionally along the margins of the leaves. The color of the necrotic
area can vary from a light tan or near white to an orange-red or brown
depending on the time of year, the plant species affected and weather
conditions. Recently expanded leaves usually are the most sensitive to
acute sulfur dioxide injury, the very youngest and oldest being
somewhat more resistant.

 Chronic injury is caused by long-term absorption of sulfur dioxide at

sub-lethal concentrations. The symptoms appear as a yellowing or
chlorosis of the leaf, and occasionally as a bronzing on the under
surface of the leaves.

 Different plant species and varieties and even individuals of the same
species may vary considerably in their sensitivity to sulfur dioxide.
These variations occur because of the differences in geographical
location, climate, stage of growth and maturation. The following crop
plants are generally considered susceptible to sulfur dioxide: alfalfa,
barley, buckwheat, clover, oats, pumpkin, radish, rhubarb, spinach,

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 squash, Swiss chard and tobacco. Resistant crop plants include
asparagus, cabbage, celery, corn, onion and potato.

 FLUORIDE:- Fluorides are discharged into the atmosphere from the

combustion of coal; the production of brick, tile, enamel frit, ceramics,
and glass; the manufacture of aluminium and steel; and the production
of hydrofluoric acid, phosphate chemicals and fertilizers.

 Fluorides absorbed by leaves are conducted towards the margins of

broad leaves (grapes) and to the tips of monocotyledonous leaves
(gladiolus). Little injury takes place at the site of absorption,
whereas the margins or the tips of the leaves build up injurious
concentrations. The injury starts as a gray or light-green water-
soaked lesion, which turns tan to reddish-brown. With continued
exposure the necrotic areas increase in size, spreading inward to the
midrib on broad leaves and downward on monocotyledonous
leaves.

 The fluoride enters the leaf through the stomata and is moved to the
margins where it accumulates and causes tissue injury. Note, the
characteristic dark band separating the healthy (green) and injured
(brown) tissues of affected leaves.
 Ammonia :- Ammonia injury to vegetation has been observed
frequently in Ontario in recent years following accidents involving the
storage, transportation or application of anhydrous and aqua ammonia
fertilizers. These episodes usually release large quantities of ammonia
into the atmosphere for brief periods of time and cause severe injury to
vegetation in the immediate vicinity.
 Complete system expression on affected vegetation usually takes
several days to develop, and appears as irregular, bleached, bifacial,
necrotic lesions. Grasses often show reddish, interveinal necrotic
streaking or dark upper surface discolouration. Flowers, fruit and
woody tissues usually are not affected, and in the case of severe injury
to fruit trees, recovery through the production of new leaves can occur
Sensitive species include apple, barley, beans, clover, radish, raspberry
and soybean. Resistant species include alfalfa, beet, carrot, corn,
cucumber, eggplant, onion, peach, rhubarb and tomato.

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 4
AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT IN KOLKATA

Analysis of the official air quality index (AQI) data of different metro cities —
West Bengal Pollution Control Board (WBPCB) for Kolkata and Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) data for rest of the cities — for the months of
January and February found that Kolkata’s average AQI at 295 parts per million
during the period was higher than Delhi at 287 ppm.

The figure was just short of the ‘very poor’ AQI category — which starts at 300
ppm — that may trigger respiratory illnesses among people on prolonged
exposure over and above exacerbating problems of those already affected. Out
of 59 days in January and February, Kolkata’s pollution level was worse than
Delhi on 32 days, and was more than double of Delhi’s pollution level on some
days.

Kolkata’s air stood almost twice as polluted compared with other metros like
Mumbai (AQI of 155), Chennai (127), Bangalore (88) and Hyderabad (130)
during the period. The AQI has been calculated on basis of dominant pollutant,
PM 2.5 in most cases, measured in automatic stations. In the case of Kolkata,
the readings of four manual stations — BehalaChowrasta, Minto Park, Moulali
and Shyambazar — were considered, as the city’s automatic stations have been
non-functional for the past few months.

Considering the two months separately, Kolkata was found to be at par with
Delhi on the pollution count during January. The average AQI values were 328
and 327 in Delhi and Kolkata, respectively. Kolkata’s air worsened in February
with an average AQI score of 260 versus 243 in Delhi. Kolkata’s air quality was
found to be comparable to Faridabad and Ghaziabad, two of the most highly
polluted cities in country as per the CPCB list, which recorded AQI values of
298 and 349 between January 1 and February 28.

xperts are unanimous that Kolkata’s bane is vehicular emission, particularly

from diesel vehicles. The city has a two million strong fleet of vehicles, out of
which about 50% run on diesel. More important, the diesel fleet includes over
95% of the city’s commercial vehicles.

The diesel capital status of Kolkata is the biggest hurdle for the city to combat
burgeoning air pollution, experts say. “Nearly two lakh (200,000) commercial
vehicles, many of which are old and poorly maintained, are the worst offenders
for ultrafine particulates, PM 2.5, pollution,

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Kolkata residents breathe in air which has 3-5 times higher pollution levels than
the ambient level that is already several times higher than the permissible limit.

 Kolkata is in the grip of rising air pollution and multi-pollutant crisis.

Official ambient air quality monitoring has shown 61 per cent increase in
particulate matter in just four years .The levels exceed standards by 2.7
times. NO2 levels exceed by close to two times

 Evidences provide that an average calcuttan breathes on a daily basis in

different parts of the city – 2 to 3 times higher than the ambient level
recorded by official monitors
 With growing vehicle numbers and resultant congestion and dieselisation,
air pollution is a growing concern in the city.
 T he city is losing its inherent advantage of dominant commuting
practices – use of bus and walking – at the cost of clean air and public
health
 Kolkata, like Delhi and other Indian cities, needs second generation
action, including leapfrogging emissions standards to Euro VI, curbing
dieselisation, scaling up of integrated public transport, car restraints and
walking for clean air and public health
New Delhi-based research and advocacy agency Centre for Science and
Environment (CSE) has analysed the official ambient air quality monitoring in
Kolkata. Also over the week, CSE’s air quality team conducted an exposure
monitoring in the city to know how much pollution in air every Kolkata resident
is exposed to.
HIGH POLLUTION LEVELS IN CITIES OF WEST BENGAL: CSE’s has
analysed the data from the official ambient monitoring reported by the Central
Pollution Control Board and West Bengal State Pollution Control Board.
Official monitoring shows that particulate levels (PM10) in 78 per cent of cities
in West Bengal exceed the standards. All cities exceed the NO2 standard .

KOLKATA IS IN THE GRIP OF RISING AIR POLLUTION: Official

ambient air quality monitoring has shown 61 per cent increase in particulate
matter in just four years .The levels exceed standards by 2.7 times. NO2
levels have increased by 13 per cent during these four years. The current
NO2 levels exceed standards by close to two times. West Bengal Pollution
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Control Board has online monitors at Victoria Memorial station and Rabindra
Bharati station. PM10 data shows high night time pollution. Regular data on
PM2.5 levels are not available but the average daily PM2.5 levels recorded at
the American Consulate at 170 µg/m³ is three times the daily standard of 60
µg/m³.
Densely populated pollution hotspots in the city: The Central Pollution
Control Board has classified all the following locations as ‘’critically
polluted” --- Salt Lake, Moulali, Minto Park, Dunlop Bridge, Behala
Chowrasta, Baishnabghata, Cossipore Police Station, B.T. Road, Dalhousie
Square, Lal Bazzar Police Headquarter, Kasba.
The air in Kolkata’s has high levels of air toxins that are cancer-causing:
these toxins are dangerous even in very small doses – benzopyrene, benzene,
carbonyl etc.

Air Quality Index

AQI Air Pollution Level Health Implications

Air quality is considered satisfactory, and air

0 – 50 Good
pollution poses little or no risk

Air quality is acceptable; however, for some

pollutants there may be a moderate health
51 -100 Moderate
concern for a very small number of people who
are unusually sensitive to air pollution.

Members of sensitive groups may experience

101-150 Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups health effects. The general public is not likely to
be affected.

Everyone may begin to experience health

151-200 Unhealthy effects; members of sensitive groups may
experience more serious health effects

Health warnings of emergency conditions. The

201-300 Very Unhealthy
entire population is more likely to be affected.

Health alert: everyone may experience more

300+ Hazardous
serious health effects

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 5
PREVENTIVE MEASURES AND CONTROL OF AIR
POLLUTION

CORRECTION AT SOURCE

A.The forest cover should be protected by restricting deforestation and through

adoption of afforestation programmes. Trees are the best controllers of air
pollution. It is an accepted fact that at least 33 per cent of the land area should
remain under forest/tree cover. It will help in containing air pollution and also
help in maintaining, the ecological balance.

B.There must be a ‘green belt’ around every township and village. Similarly,
industrial areas should be surrounded by green belts.

C. The main source of air pollution is the automobiles; therefore, their engines
should be redesigned in such a way that their emissions cause minimum
pollution. Several steps have been taken and some technology has also been
developed, but still it is in a very preliminary stage.

Apart from technological changes, some steps on individual level

should be taken by vehicle owners, such as:

(i) Regular service of the vehicle,

(ii) Change or replacement of old engines,

(iii) use of filters and after burner,

(iv) Engine should be well tuned, and

(v) Mixing of anti-tibs in diesel and petrol, etc

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important to realise that the sizes of air pollutants range many orders of
magnitude, and it is therefore not reasonable to expect one device to be effective
for all pollutants.

In addition, the types of chemicals in emissions will often dictate the use of
some devices. For example, a gas containing a high concentration of S02 could
be cleaned by water sprays, but the resulting H2SO4 might present serious
corrosion problems.

Many devices appear in the market, the following are the most widely used:
(a) Selling chambers are nothing more than large places in the flues, similar to
settling tanks in water treatment. These chambers remove only the large
particulates.

(b) Cyclones are widely used for removing large particulates. The dirty air is
blasted into a conical cylinder, but off the centerline. This creates a violent swirl
within the cone, and the heavy solids migrate to the wall of the cylinder where
they slow down due to friction and exist at the bottom of the cone. The clean air
is in the middle of the cylinder and exits out the top. Cyclones are widely used
as pre-cleaners, to remove the heavy material before further treatment.

(c) Bag filters operate like the common vacuum cleaners. Fabric bags are used
to collect the dust which must be periodically shaken out of the bags. The fabric
removes nearly all particulates. Bag filters are widely used in many industries;
but are sensitive to high temperature and humidity.

(d) Wet collectors come in many shapes and styles. The simple spray tower is
an effective method for removing large particulates. More efficient scrubbers
promote the contact between air and water by violent action in a narrow section
into which the water is introduced. Generally, the more violent the encounter,

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and hence the smaller the gas bubbles or water droplets, the more effective the
scrubbing.

(e) Electrostatic precipitators are widely used in power plants. The particulate
matter is removed by first being charged by electrons (Jumping from one high
voltage electrode to the other, and then migrating to the positively charged
electrode.

(f) Gas scrubbers are simply wet collectors as described above but are used for
dissolving the gases.

(g) Adsorption is the use of a material such as activated carbon to capture

pollutants. Such adsorbers may be expensive to regenerate. Most of these work
well for organics and have limited use for inorganic pollutants.

(h) Incineration is a method for removing gaseous pollutants by burning them

to C02, H20 and inserts. This works only for combustible vapours.

(i) Catalytic combustion involves the use of a catalyst to adsorb or chemically

change the pollutants.

COLLECTION OF POLLUTANTS
Often the most serious problem in air pollution control is the collection of the
pollutants so as to provide treatment. Automobiles are most dangerous, the only
because the emissions cannot be readily collected. If we could cannel exhausts

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from automobiles to some central facilities, their treatment would be much more
reasonable than controlling each individual car.

One success in collecting pollutants has been the recycling of blowy gases in
the internal combustion engine. By reigniting these gases and emitting them
through the car’s exhaust system, the need of installing a separate treatment
device for the car can be eliminated. Air pollution control engineers have their
toughest time when the pollutants from an industry arc not collected but emitted
from windows, doors etc.

ROLE OF GOVERNMENT TO CONTROL AIR

POLLUTION
Environmental pollution on account of air pollution causes respiratory diseases
in children. Air Pollution in general causes respiratory ailments and also may
affect lung function. Asthma, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, chronic
bronchitis etc. are the diseases caused by exposure to increasing air
pollution. Air pollution is known to be one of the aggravating factors for many
respiratory ailments and cardiovascular diseases.Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB) had conducted an epidemiological study on ambient air quality,
respiratory systems and lung functions of children in association with the
Chittranjan National Cancer Institute, Kolkata.
To minimize the impact of environmental pollution particularly air
pollution, the Government has inter alia taken the following actions:
o Notification of National Ambient Air Quality Standards 2009,
envisaging 12 pollutants;
o Formulation of regulations/statutes;
o Setting up of monitoring network for assessment of ambient air
quality;
o Introduction of cleaner/alternate fuel like CNG, LPG etc. and
promotion of public transport network including Metro;
o Creation of infrastructure for industrial pollution control
incorporating cleaner production processes, setting up of common
pollution control facilities;

The Government after realizing the gravity of pollution, have also

taken the following measures:
o Clean India Mission (Swatch Bharat Abhiyan) has been launched;

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 o Draft Rules for handing and management of municipal waste have
been notified for comments of stakeholders.
o Standards for sewage treatment plants have been notified for
comments of stakeholders.
o Implementation of Bharat Stage IV norms in the 63 selected cities
and Bharat Stage III norms in rest of the country;
o National Air Quality index was launched by the Prime Minister in
April, 2015 starting with 10 cities;
o Banning of burning of leaves/ biomass;
o Relevant draft rules, including those pertaining to construction and
demolition waste have been notified;
o Regular co-ordination meetings are being held at official and
ministerial level with Delhi and other State Governments within
the National Capital Region (NCR) on 6th April, 13th April and
24th July, 2015 to control environmental pollution in NCR adopting
air-shed approach;
o Short-term plan has been reviewed and long-term plans have been
formulated to mitigate pollution in NCR;
o Stringent industrial standards have been formulated and notified
for public/stakeholder’s comments;
o Government is giving high priority for public partnership in lane
discipline, car pooling, vehicle maintenance, pollution under
control certification etc.
o Out of 2800 major industries, 920 industries have installed on-line
continuous (24X7) monitoring devices.

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 6
CONCLUSION
Air pollution is a serious environmental concerns all around the globe. Over the
last few decades, the intensified process of industrialization and urbanization,
coupled with rapid population growth has resulted in sever environmental
degradation. In particular, harmful pollutants such as Sulphur Dioxide (SO2),
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Ozone (O3), Total Suspended Particles Matter
(TSPM) etc, are emitted and these pollutants even exceed air quality guidelines
recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2005).Particulate and
gaseous emissions of pollutants from industries and auto exhaust are responsible
for rising discomfort, increasing airborne diseases, decreasing productivity and
deterioration of artistic and cultural patrimony urban center. India is not an
exception, where majority of the population is exposed to poor air quality. India
faces the similar challenges of both strengthening its economy and protecting its
environment. Air quality has deteriorated in large cities in India.

Few studies establishes the linkages between air pollution and health status of
human being. The global literature available in the area of air pollution and
health economics has generally dealt with the western world. However, in this
field there is no much work carried out for the major cities of India. With the
growing peril of air pollution in India there is serious threat to the health of
Indian citizens. Hence it was utmost important to understand, examine, and
analyses the linkage between air pollutants and health status in India with
special reference to Agra city.

In order to control air pollution following measurers are recommended which

can have a positive impact to lessen the burden of economic cost :
o Use of CNG as fuel for processing /production
o To replace DG sets with Gas generators.
o Restrict supply and usage of coal, coke, wood, rice husk, baggase
to the industries situated in the city limit of Agra.
o All Petha Industries shall be operated by CNG/LPG only. · Setting
up of CNG/LPG retail outlets within Agra City for supplying
CNG/LPG to the vehicles.
o Phasing out grossly polluting vehicles plying within the city.
o Checking for adulteration.
o Strict checking of vehicular emissions.

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 7
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project on “AIR POLLUTION” has been submitted in partial fulfilment
of the requirements of the Bachelor of Commerce (Honours) Course in
Accounting & Finance at UMESHCHNADRA COLLEGE affiliated with
THE CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY

The writing of a Research project work is a physical, emotional and mental

challenge. While preparing the project, I was aided by a certain group of people
belonging to various backgrounds. I am grateful to THE UNIVERSITY OF
CALCUTTA for providing us with such a good project that deals with such
severe issues of air pollution

Secondly, I am grateful to UMESCHANDRA COLLEGE for providing me

with an opportunity to explore into such a project

Thirdly, I express my sincere thanks to my principal DR. MD. TOFAZZAL

HAQUE for providing me with such a golden opportunity which will help me
in future.

Fourthly, I am grateful to PROF. P.R DAS, PROF. MD.FAHAD HAQUE and

also the NON TEACHING STAFF and STUDENT’S UNION. I would like to
convey special gratitude to them as they were always there to correct every
mistake of mine and gave me appropriate suggestions, as a result of which the
project has been presented the way we are seeing it.

Last, but not the least, I would like to thank my parents and friends who freely
shared their insights and shared a common interest in advancing the project
beyond a common path.

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 8
BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS, JOURNALS AND MAGAZINES

 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
 RESEARCH GATE
 YOUR ARTICLE LIBRARY

WEBSITES
 www.nrdc.org
 www.savetheenvironment.com
 www.environmentalpollutioncentres.org
 www.britannica.com
 www.kolkata air.com

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