Vector Analysis

Syllebus: Tripe products, their geometric interpretation and

application. Differentiation and Integration of vectors, Line,
surface and volume integrals. Gradient, Divergence, Curl and their
Physical Significance. Green’s theorem, Stokes theorem,
Divergence theorem and their applications.

Books: Vector analysis- by Spiegel-Second edition

Vector analysis- by Raisinghania-Third edition
Advanced Engineering Mathematics by H. K. Das

Vector Algebra
The quantities are classified into two classes Scalars and Vectors

Scalars: The quantities having magnitude only are called Scalars.

Examples-length, mass, temperature, time etc.

Vectors: The quantities having both magnitude and direction are

called Vectors. Examples-displacement, force, velocity,
acceleration etc.

Representation of vectors: A vector quantity can be represented

by a directed line segment as shown in the fig.

A B
The vector from the initial point A to the terminal point B is
denoted by AB. Its length is AB or AB called the magnitude or the
modulus and its direction is from A to B as shown by arrow head.
Unit vector-Unit vector is that vector whose magnitude is
unity. Unit vector is obtained when a given vector is

divided

by its length. Along the vector a it is denoted by â
a
aˆ 
a

a  aaˆ =magnitude x unit vector along that direction

Fig1.

Equal vector- Equal vectors are those vectors which have

equal magnitude and same direction. a=b

Fig2.

Like vectors-Like vectors are those vectors which have

same directions but magnitude may be different.

Fig3.

Unlike vectors-Unlike vectors are those vectors which

have opposite directions but magnitude may be different.

Fig4.

Negative vector- Negative vector is a vector whose

magnitude is equal to that of the given vector but having
opposite direction.

Fig5.

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Position vector-Let O be the origin of the coordinate
system. Then the vector r joining the origin to any point P
is called the position vector of the point P. OP=r is the
position vector of the point P sometimes denoted as P(r).

Fig6.

Zero vector or Null vector

The vector whose length or modulus is zero is called a Zero
vector or Null vector and it is denoted by O

Addition of vectors
Triangle law of addition
Parallelogram law of addition
Polygon law of addition

Fig7.

If a particle is displaced from A to B and then B to C

ultimately it is from A to C. This suggests that
AB+BC=AC

Subtraction of vectors

Fig8.

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AB in cartesian form- Let O be the origin of the
coordinate system and the coordinates of A and B are
(a1, a2, a3) and (b1, b2, b3) respectively.
OA=a= a1i+ a2j+ a3k
OB=b= b1i+ b2j+ b3k
OA+AB=OB
AB=OB-OA= b-a=(b1i+ b2j+ b3k)-(a1i+ a2j+ a3k)
= (b1-a1)i+ (b2- a2)j+ (b3-a3)k

Fig9.

Scalar multiplication of vector-Let a be a vector and 

is a scalar then  a is a vector parallel to a whose
magnitude is  times magnitude of a

Fig10.

Vectors in rectangular cartesian coordinates-

Let i, j be the unit vectors along x and y respectively
Then r=xi+yj. In three dimensions r=xi+yj+zk

Fig11.

Product of vectors
1. Scalar or dot product
a.b=abcos 

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 Fig12A.

a.b=ab
a.b=0
i.i=j.j=kk=1

Analytic form of the dot product

a=a1i+a2j +a3k b=b1i+b2j +b3k
a.b= (a1i+a2j +a3k).( b1i+b2j +b3k)= a1b1+ a2b2+ a3b3
abcos  = (a1b1+ a2b2+ a3b3)/ a  a  a . b  b  b .
1
2
2
2
3
2
1
2
2
2
3
2

Geometrical interpretation
a.b=abcos  =a(bcos  )= a xProjectiona b
a.b=bacos  =b(acos  )= b xProjectionb a

Physical interpretation:
W=Force x displacement=Fd
W=Fcos  x d=F.d Fcos  is the effective force

Fig12B.

2. Vector or Cross product

axb=absin  n bxa=-absin  n axb=- bxa if  =0 axb=0
axa=0
ixi=jxj=kxk=0 ixj=k jxi=-k

Analytic form of the cross product

a=a1i+a2j +a3k b=b1i+b2j +b3k
axb= (a1i+a2j +a3k)x( b1i+b2j +b3k)= a1 b2 k- a1 b3j-
a2b1k+a2b3i+a3b1j-a3b2i
=i(a2b3-a3b2)+j(a3b1- a1 b3)+k(a1 b2--a2b1)

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 i j k
=a 1 a2 a3 axb = (a 2 b3  a 3 b2 ) 2  ( a3 b1  a1b3 ) 2  ( a1b2  a 2 b1 ) 2
b1 b2 b3

axb =absin 
sin  = (a 2 b3  a 3 b2 ) 2  ( a 3 b1  a1b3 ) 2  ( a1 b2  a 2 b1 ) 2 / 2 2
a1  a 2  a 3
2
x
2 2 2
b1  b2  b3

Geometrical interpretation of the cross product

Area of a parallelogram
If a, b are the adjacent sides of a parallelogram then axb

represents the area of the parallelogram

axb =absin  =Area of the parallelogram having a and b as the

adjacent sides.
axb=absin  n = Vector area of the parallelogram having a and b as
the adjacent sides.

Fig13A.

Area of a triangle
1
If a, b are the adjacent sides of a triangle then 2
axb represents the
area of the triangle.

axb =absin 
1 1
Area of the triangle 2
absin  = 2 axb

Fig13B.

Physical interpretation of the cross product of two vectors

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Let a particle be moving in a circular path about an axis passing
through the centre of the circle and perpendicular to the plane of
the circle.
Let the particle at P describes an arc s in time t . If  is the
central angle subtended by s then

 
d  v
ds
s=a 
dt dt
ds d
a v  a
dt dt

v is along the tangent to the circle

 is perpendicular to the plane of the circle
Let r be the position vector of P inclined at an angle  with the
direction of 
a=rsin  v   rsin  v=  xr

From the fig it is seen that v has the direction of  xr

Fig14.

Scalar triple product

Analytic form of the Scalar triple product

a=a1i+a2j +a3k b=b1i+b2j +b3k c=c1i+c2j +c3k

bxc=i(b2c3-b3c2)+j(b3c1- b1 c3)+k(b1 c2--b2c1)

a.(bxc)= a1(b2c3-b3c2)+a2(b3c1- b1 c3)+a3 (b1 c2--b2c1)

a1 a2 a3
=b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3

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Problem
Prove that in scalar triple product dot and cross can be
interchanged.

a.(bxc)= a1(b2c3-b3c2)+a2(b3c1- b1 c3)+a3 (b1 c2--b2c1)

a1 a2 a3
=b 1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3

b1 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3 a1 a2 a3
b.(cxa)= c1 c2 c3 =- a 1 a2 a3 = b1 b2 b3
a1 a2 a3 c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3

c1 c2 c3 a1 a2 a3 a1 a2 a3
c.(axb)= a1 a2 a3 =- c1 c2 c3 = b1 b2 b3
b1 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3 c1 c2 c3
a.(bxc)= b.(cxa)= c.(axb)= (axb).c
a.(bxc)= (axb).c a.bxc= axb.c proved

Geometrical interpretation of the Scalar triple product

If a, b, c are the edges of a parallelepiped then a.bxc represents the
volume of the parallelepiped

Fig15.

If A is area of the base and h is the height of the parallelepiped then

volume of the parallelepiped V=Ah
bxc=bcsin  n
Area of the base=A= bcsin  h=acos 
a.(bxc)= a. bcsin  n= bcsin  a.n= bcsin  acos  =Ah=V=Volume
of the parallelepiped
For this reason it is also known as box product.

a.(bxc)=[abc] [aab]=0 [ijk]=1

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[abc]=[bca]=[cab]

Coplanarity condition [abc]=0

Problems
1. If three vectors a=i-j+k, b=2i+j-k and c=  i-j+  k are
coplanar find the value of  .
If a, b, c are coplanar then [abc]=0
1 1 1
2 1 k =0 3  -3=0,  =1
 1 

2. If the volume of the parallelepiped with edges a=2i-j-k,

b=3i+2j+2k and c= 5i-  j+3  k is 4 find  .
2 1 1
1
here [abc]=4 3 2 2 =4 28  =4 
7
5  3

Volume of a tetrahedron
If A is area of the base triangle and h is the height of a tetrahedron
1
then volume of the tetrahedron V= 3 Ah
bxc=bcsin  n
1
Area of the base triangle=A= 2 bcsin  h=acos 
a.(bxc)= a. bcsin  n
= bcsin  a.n
= bcsin  acos 
=2Ah
1
= 6 3 Ah
=6V

1 1
V= 6
a.(bxc)= 6 [abc]

Fig16.

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Problem
Prove that [(a+b)(b+c)(c+a)] = 2[abc]
Or, Prove that the volume of the parallelepiped whose edges are
the vectors a+b, b+c, c+a is twice the volume whose edges are a,
b, c

[a+b b+c c+a]

=(a+b).(b+c)x(c+a)
= (a+b).(bxc+bxa+cxc+cxa)
=(a+b).(bxc+bxa+cxa)=a.bxc+a.bxa+a.cxa+b.bxc+b.bxa+b.cxa
= a.bxc+b.cxa
=[abc]+[bca]
=[abc]+[abc]
= 2[abc]

Vector triple product

Prove that ax(bxc)=(a.c)b- (a.b)c
a=a1i+a2j +a3k b=b1i+b2j c=c1i
bxc=-b2c1k
ax(bxc)= (a1i+a2j +a3k).( -b2c1k)=a1b2c1j-a2b2c1i
(a.c)b- (a.b)c=(a1c1)( b1i+b2j)-( a1b1+ a2b2) c1i= a1b2c1j-a2b2c1i
ax(bxc)=(a.c)b- (a.b)c
ax(bxc)+ bx(cxa)+ cx(axb)
= (a.c)b- (a.b)c +(b.a)c-(b.c)a+(c.b)a-(c.a)b
=0

Product of four vectors

1. Scalar Product of four vectors

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(axb).(cxd)= axb.(cxd)= a.bx(cxd)=a.{(b.d)c-(b.c)d}= (b.d)(a.c)-
(b.c)(a.d)
a.c a.d
= b.c b.d

2. Vector product of four vectors

(axb)x(cxd)=(axb.d)c-(axb.c)d=[abd]c-[abc]d
(axb)x(cxd)=-(cxd)x(axb)=-{(cxd.b)a-(cxd.a)b}=[cda]b-[cdb]a

Problem
Prove that [bxc cxa axb] = [abc]2
Or, Prove that the volume of the parallelepiped whose edges are
the vectors axb, bxc, cxa is twice the volume whose edges are a,
b, c

[(bxc)(cxa)(axb)]
=(bxc).{(cxa)x(axb)}
=(bxc).{[cab]a-[caa]b
=[cab][bca]
= [abc]2

Problem:
Prove that d.[ax{bx(cxd)}]=(b.d)[acd]
d.[ax{bx(cxd)}]
= d.[ax {(b.d)c- (b.c)d}]
=d.{(b.d)(axc)- (b.c)(axd)}
= (b.d)(d.axc)- (b.c)(d.axd)}
=(b.d)[acd]

Prove that (bxc)x(axd)+ (cxa)x(bxd) +(axb)x(cxd)=-2[abc]d

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(bxc)x(axd)- (bxd)x(cxa)+ (axb)x(cxd)
=[bcd]a-[bca]d-[bda]c+[bdc]a+[abd]c-[abc]d
=[bcd]a-[abc]d-[bda]c-[bcd]a+[bda]c-[abc]d
=-2[abc]d

Reciprocal vector

b2 xb3 b xb b xb
If a1  a 2  3 1 a3  1 2 then the set a1, a2 and a3 are
[b1b2 b3 ] [b1 b2 b3 ] [b1b2 b3 ]
called reciprocal set of b1, b2 and b3
a2.b2  1
b xb .b
a .b 
1 1
[b b b ]
 1 2

1
similarly
3

2 3
1
a3.b3  1

[b2 xb3 b3 xb1 b1 xb2 ] (b2 xb3 ) .{(b3 xb1 ) x (b1 xb2 )}
[a1 a2 a3]= [b1b2 b3 ] 3 = [b1b2 b3 ] 3

(b2 xb3 ).{[b3b1b2 ]b1  [b3b2b1 ]b2 [b1b2 b3 ] 2 1

= = [b b 3 = [b b b3 ]
3 b3 ]
[b1b2b3 ]
1 2 1 2

Problem:
Obtain the set of vectors reciprocal to the set of vectors –i+j+k, i-
j+k and i+j-k
Let b1=–i+j+k, b2=i-j+k and b3=i+j-k

b2 xb3 b3 xb1 b1 xb2

a1  a2  a3 
[b1b2b3 ] [b1 b2 b3 ] [b1b2 b3 ]

1 1 1
[b1b2b3 ] = 1 1 1 =4
1 1 1

i j k
1 1
b2x b3= 1 1 1 =2j+2k a1= 4 (2j+2k)= 2
(j+k)
1 1 1

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 1 1
Similarly a2 = 2
(i+k) a3 = 2
(i+j)

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