Effective Vocal Delivery

Effective Vocal Delivery

Volume

Speakers control the production of sound either using their own voice or a microphone so that amplified
sound is loud enough to be heard.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

List methods of using volume to effectively deliver your speech

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

Volume is the perceived loudness of the speaker. Loudness is what the audience actually perceives and it
correlates with the physical strength (amplitude).

When speaking naturally without any amplification, you need to keep in mind the distance to be covered
by your voice and adjust sound production accordingly.

In large rooms or when using videoconferencing equipment, you use a microphone to convert sound into
electrical signals for amplification.

Lavalier mics, commonly used by speakers, are usually attached to collars or ties with small clips. The
cord may be hidden by clothes and either run to a radio frequency transmitter or into a mixer.

Key Terms

Lavalier Mic: A lavalier microphone or lavalier (or lav or lapel mic) is a small electret (electric, magnet) or
dynamic microphone used for television, theater, and public speaking applications, in order to allow
hands-free operation.

amplifier: This is a particular type of speaker used to amplify voices and musical instruments at live
performances.

loudness: The characteristic of a sound that is primarily a psychological correlate of physical strength
(amplitude). More formally, it is defined as “that attribute of auditory sensation in terms of which sounds
can be ordered on a scale extending from quiet to loud. “

Volume
Volume is the loudness of the speaker. It is the psychological characteristic of physical strength
(amplitude). It is perceived as auditory sensation by the listener which can be ordered on a scale from
quiet to loud. Loudness is then a subjective measure of the listener, which is often confused with
objective measures of sound strength such as sound pressure level (in decibels), sound intensity, or
sound power. Amplitude is the strength or power of the wave signal. Higher amplitudes on the wave
graph are interpreted as a higher volume, hence the name ” amplifier ” for a device that increases
amplitude.

A diagram of a sound wave with its frequency (pitch) and amplitude (loudness) labeled.

Determining the Volume: Higher amplitude will be perceived as louder sound.

Using the “Naked” Speaking Voice

When speaking naturally without any amplification you need to keep in mind the distance to be covered
by your voice. You might compare speaking with the act of throwing a ball. Consider how much more
muscular effort is needed to throw the ball a long distance than is required to throw it a short one. As
you speak, think of your words as balls and mentally watch them covering the space between you and
your audience. Notice how you unconsciously lengthen the voice. If speaking in a face-to-face group
without a microphone ask yourself if you are loud enough to be heard by audience members in the last
row. Speaking to a large group will require more energy to breathe and control your sound production.

To become a better speaker with your “naked” speaking voice, try the following techniques:

Practice speaking in a large room with a friend who moves farther and farther away from you until the
friend reaches the rear of the room and can still hear you.

Make sure that you are standing straight and not cramped so you have the maximum capacity for
breathing and forcing air out of the lungs for sound production.

Practice speaking by thinking of people at different distances to you such as at your elbow, across the
room, or in the back of a large hall.

Using a microphone

In large rooms or when using videoconferencing equipment, you will use a microphone to convert sound
into electrical signals for amplification. The signal may then be sent to an amplifier. The electronic
amplifier increases the power of a signal. It does this by taking energy from a power supply and
controlling the output to match the input signal shape but with a larger amplitude. A loudspeaker or
headset receives the input to produce the amplified sound.

image

Microphone: Microphones are used by a speaker for large audiences, during recording, or when
videoconferencing.

There are several different types of microphones that the speaker might commonly use in different
situations, such as:

Hand-held mics – High quality mics usually attempt to isolate the diaphragm from vibrations using foam
padding, suspension, or some other method. Low quality mics tend to transfer vibrations from the casing
right into the diaphragm, resulting in a terrible noise.

Lavalier mics – These are attached by a small clip to the clothing of the speaker, usually to collars or ties.
The cord may be hidden by clothes and either run to a radio frequency transmitter or a digital audio
recorder kept in a pocket or clipped to a belt (for mobile work), or directly to the mixer. These usually do
not have protection from handling noise.

Stationary mics – These are permanently attached to a podium. With an attached microphone, you are
limited to the space immediately in front of the podium. Some stationary mics are in a holder on the
podium, which can be removed to allow you to move around at least the length of the connecting cable.

Microphones can be placed in several different arrangements in the room for recording or
videoconferencing, such as:

In close – The microphone is placed relatively close, within three to twelve inches, which reduces
extraneous noise.

In distant or ambient miking – The microphone is placed at some distance from the speaker. The goal is
to get a broader, natural mix of the sound source, along with ambient sound, including reverberation
from the room or hall.

In room miking – This is used together with a close microphone, sometimes during the speaker Q&A.

To make the most out of a microphone, a speaker should consider these techniques:
Hold the microphone about six to eight inches from your mouth and speak over the microphone.

Make sure you have the right microphone for speaking. Don’t just use whatever mic is at hand.

Note that lavalier mics do not usually have protection from handling noise. It is therefore important to
make sure they will not be moved or bumped.

Conduct a sound check with any microphone. Make sure to test with the speakers in the actual room.

Rate

Rate is the speed of speaking in words per minute from slow to fast, with normal rate averaging about
125 words per minute.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Use variance in the rate at which you speak to convey different emotions or emphasize important parts
of your message

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

You can vary the rate depending of the emotions you are feeling or the type of message you are
communicating. If you are experiencing joy, you will speak at a fast rate compared to a speaker who is
expressing surprise who will speak at a much faster rate.

When speaking you want to speak at a varied rate so that you can emphasize important parts of your
message.

Do you speak fast because you are in a hurry to finish or are nervous? Caution, slow down!

Key Terms

paralanguage: The non-verbal elements of speech used to modify meaning and convey emotion, such as
pitch, volume, and intonation.

rate: speed of speaking, measured in words per minute

Rate is Speed of Speaking Measured in Words Per Minute

Rate is how fast or slow a person speaks. Rate is part of the paralanguage of speech along with loudness
and pitch. It is not language but it accompanies all of your spoken use of language and can convey
attitude and emotion. You can vary the rate depending on the emotions you are feeling or the type of
message you are communicating. For example, if you are experiencing joy, you will speak at a fast rate
compared to a speaker who is expressing surprise who will speak at a much faster rate. Normally, you
speak about 125 words per minute. But you may speak much slower at about 100 wpm if you are giving
a slide presentation.

You will find that the rate of speaking in audiobooks is about 150-160 words per minute whereas
auctioneers can speak at about 250 wpm. According to the Guinness World Record, the current fastest
speaker is Steve Woodmore, who was clocked at a rate of 637 wpm. Caution–slow down a minute to
consider what you might do with your speech rate to be more effective.

image

Warning Sign: Just like a traffic sign warns about certain upcoming speed limits, a speaker needs to
monitor their rate during a speech.

Tips for Speakers

When speaking you want to speak at a varied rate so that you can emphasize important parts of your
message.

You also want to change the rate for the mood or emotion of the message and the occasion. If you want
to show excitement at a pep rally you will naturally speak at a faster rate than if you were speaking at a
funeral where you would speak slower because you are sad or contemplative.

You might also speak slower if you are making choices and thinking carefully about what you are saying;
a slower pace may conveys your thoughtfulness to the audience.

Use a recorder to record your speech so you can clock your actual speaking rate.

Finally, ask yourself if you are speaking too fast because you are nervous!

Pitch

Changing the pitch while speaking can convey shades of meaning such as emphasis or surprise, or
distinguish a statement from a question.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define pitch and describe how pitch changes can change the meaning of sentences

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

Pitch is the auditory attribute of sound ordered on a scale from low to high. You can think about the
notes on a musical score with pitch getting higher as you move up the scale.

For men and women the size difference of the vocal folds, reflecting male-female differences in larynx
size, will influence pitch range so that adult male voices are usually lower-pitched with larger folds than
female voices.

Consciously or unconsciously the speaker will use different patterns of pitch to convey different
meanings to the listener.

In public speaking you can apply changes in pitch not only to a single word such as an exclamation, “Oh!
” but to any group of syllables, words, and even sentences to convey different meanings.

Avoid monotony, speaking with one pitch tone or little variety in pitch. Make sure to vary the speech as
you speak to show emphasis and change in meaning.

Key Terms

intonation: The rise and fall of the voice in speaking. Some texts use “inflection” instead of intonation to
indicate change in pitch.

pitch: The perceived frequency of a sound or note. Higher frequency notes are higher pitch and lower
frequency notes are lower pitch.

Pitch Is Ordered on a Scale from Low to High

Pitch is the auditory attribute of sound ordered on a scale from low to high. You can think about the
notes on a musical score with pitch getting higher as you move up the scale. Pitch is closely related to
frequency of sound waves; it is almost entirely determined by how quickly the sound wave is making the
air vibrate and has almost nothing to do with the intensity, or amplitude, of the wave, which relates to
loudness. That is, “high” pitch means very rapid oscillation, and “low” pitch corresponds to slower
oscillation.

An example of treble and bass clefs with note letters and numbers.

Measuring the Pitch: The higher pitch sounds move up the treble clef and the lower pitch sounds move
down the bass clef.
Pitch for Male and Female Speakers

As a speaker you want to find a pitch that is suitable for speaking. Generally, you want to use a pitch
range that would normally be comfortable for your natural conversation. For men and women the size
difference of the vocal folds, reflecting male-female differences in larynx size, will influence available
pitch range. Adult male voices are usually lower-pitched and have larger folds. The male vocal folds are
between 17mm and 25mm in length. The female vocal folds are between 12.5mm and 17.5mm in
length.

Uses of Pitch for Communicating Different Meanings

The pitch or pitch contour in which a syllable is pronounced conveys shades of meaning such as
emphasis or surprise, or distinguishes a statement from a question. All languages use pitch pragmatically
as intonation (or inflection as is used in some texts) to communicate different meanings—for emphasis,
to convey surprise or irony, or to pose a question. Generally speaking, there are four types of pitch
changes you can make, as follows:

Rising intonation means the pitch of the voice rises over time [↗];

Falling intonation means that the pitch falls with time [↘];

Dipping intonation falls and then rises [↘];

Peaking intonation rises and then falls [↗].

Consciously or unconsciously the speaker will use the different patterns of pitch to convey different
meanings to the listener. Consider the uses of pitch change and the associated meanings in the different
categories as follows:

Informational: for example, “I saw a ↘man in the garden” answers “Whom did you see? ” or “What
happened? “, while “I ↘saw a man in the garden” answers “Did you hear a man in the garden? “

Grammatical: for example, a rising pitch turns a statement into a yes-no question, as in “He’s going
↗home? “

Illocution: the intentional meaning is signaled by the pitch pattern, for example, “Why ↘don’t you move
to California? ” (a question) versus “Why don’t you ↗move to California? ” (a suggestion).
Attitudinal: high declining pitch signals more excitement than does low declining pitch, as in “Good
↗morn↘ing” versus “Good morn↘ing. “

Textual: information not in the sentence is signaled by the absence of a statement-ending decline in
pitch, as in “The lecture was canceled” (high pitch on both syllables of “cancelled”, indicating
continuation); versus “The lecture was can↘celed. ” (high pitch on first syllable of “canceled”, but
declining pitch on the second syllable, indicating the end of the first thought).

In public speaking you can apply changes in pitch not only to a single word such as an exclamation, “Oh!
” but to any group of syllables, words, and even sentences to convey different meanings. You can change
pitch of successive syllables in a word, word groups, or successive sentences. You want to make sure that
you use pitch to convey the intended meaning so that you do not drop the pitch, for example, until you
have completed an idea.

Additionally, in natural conversation pitch changes make some words stand out more than others, you
can do the same in your public speaking for emphasis. You can use pitch to draw the listeners’ attention
to words or phrases that are more important than others. When speaking you will naturally use a range
of pitches to convey different meanings.

Speaker Tips

Avoid monotony, speaking with one pitch tone or little variety in pitch. Make sure to vary the speech as
you speak to show emphasis and change in meaning.

Practice saying sentences with different intonation patterns to change the meaning. For example, if you
make a statement with falling intonation at the end, you can turn it into a question by raising the
intonation at the end. Try for example, “See what I mean,” and “See what I mean? “

Pauses

A speaker may use pauses to enhance the message delivery; a speaker may also user filler words and
pauses that distract from the message.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Classify pauses as effective or ineffective

KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points

You may use a pause to emphasize that the information coming next is important, or to give the
audience time to process what you have just said.

Repetitive, unnecessary pauses like speech disfluencies, filler pauses, false starts—particularly filler
words such as like, you know, and so—can distract from the message.

Record a conversation and count the use of unnecessary pauses and filler words in relation to the other
words in the speech. See if you can reduce the ratio over time.

Key Terms

filler: A sound or word that is spoken in conversation by one participant to signal to others that he/she
has paused to think but is not yet finished speaking.

Pause: Pause may refer to a rest, hesitation, or temporary stop.

disfluencies: Speech disfluencies are breaks, irregularities, or non-lexical vocables that occur within the
flow of otherwise fluent speech. These include false starts, fillers, and repaired utterances (correcting
slips of the tongue or mispronunciations).

Pauses

Pauses can enhance delivery or be filled needlessly and distract the audience.

A pause may refer to a rest, hesitation, or temporary stop. It is an interval of silence and may vary in
length. The speaker may use pauses to enhance the message delivery or fill the pauses needlessly and
distract the audience from the message.

Efficient and Effective Pauses

You may use a pause to emphasize that the information coming next is important, or to give the
audience time to process what you have just said. Consider some of the ways that you might use pauses
effectively in your delivery.

image

Using Pauses: Jimmy Wales pauses for dramatic effect in response to Amanda Cogdon at the 2006 Time
100 gala.
Pause enables the speaker to gather thoughts before delivering the final appeal: pause just before the
utterance, think about what you want to say, and then deliver your final appeal with renewed strength.

Pause prepares the listener to receive your message: pause and give the attention powers of your
audience a rest. The thought that follows a pause is much more dynamic than if no pause had occurred.

Pause creates effective suspense: suspense can create interest. The audience will want to find out the
conclusion or what happened if you pause before the punch line or conclusion.

Pause after an important idea: pausing gives the audience time to process what you have just said before
you continue with your delivery.

Pause at the end of a unit: you may pause to signal the close of a unit of thought, such as a sentence or
main point.

Ineffective Pauses

Different types of pauses that could present problems for the speaker:

Speech Disfluencies

Speech disfluencies are breaks, irregularities, or non-lexical vocables that occur within the flow of
otherwise fluent speech, including false starts (words and sentences that are cut off in the middle),
phrases that are restarted and repeated, grunts, or fillers like uh, erm, and well.

Filled Pauses

Filled pauses are repetitions of syllables and words; reformulations; or false starts, where the speaker
rephrases to fit the representation of grammatical repairs, partial repeats, or searching for words to carry
the meaning.

Filler Words

Filler words are spoken in conversation by one participant to signal to others that he or she has paused
to think, but is not yet finished speaking. Different languages have different characteristic filler sounds.
The most common filler sounds in English are: uh /ə/, er /ɚ/, and um /əm/.
Today’s youth uses other fillers. The following are among the more prevalent:

y’know,

so,

actually,

literally,

basically,

right,

I’m tellin’ ya,

you know what I mean.

Placeholder

Names

Placeholder names are filler words like thingamajig, which refer to objects or people whose names are
temporarily forgotten, irrelevant, or unknown.

Tips for speaker

Record a conversation and count the use of unnecessary pauses and filler words in relation to the other
words in the speech. See if you can reduce the ratio over time.

Remember that as you become more confident and familiar with speaking it will be easier to reduce the
frequency of many of the unnecessary filler words and pauses.

Articulation and Pronunciation

Articulation focuses on making individual sounds and pronunciation focuses on stress, rhythm, and
intonation of the syllables in the word.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Define articulation and pronunciation

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

In articulation you change the sounds coming from your vocal folds by moving the teeth, tongue, and lips
in recognizable patterns.

After practice, if you can not physically produce the sound, then you may want to consult with a
professional speech therapist to help you with articulation.

In pronunciation you change the sounds of words by using stress. rhythm, and tone change on different
syllables of the word.

The syllable is the phonological “building block” of words. It is a unit of organization for a sequence of
speech sounds. For example, the word water is composed of two syllables: wa and ter.

Practice to make sure you are not substituting or omitting sounds when you say a word, and pay
particular attention to common sound substitutions such as ‘tin for thin and d for th so that you do not
say ‘den for then or goin’ for going.

Install an online dictionary with audio pronunciation guides on your cellphone or laptop so you can listen
to words that are troublesome to you when you are practicing.

Key Terms

pronunciation: The way in which the words of a language are made to sound when speaking.

articulation: Use of tongue, lips, jaw, and other speech organs to make a sound. Often the concept is only
used for the production of consonants,

intonation: The rise and fall of the voice in speaking. Some texts use “inflection” instead of intonation to
indicate change in pitch.

A diagram of a human head that shows the lips, jaw, tongue, nasal cavity, palate, oral cavity, pharynx,
epiglottis, larynx opening into the pharynx, larynx, and esophagus.

How Humans Speak: The human pharynx is situated immediately below the mouth and nasal cavity, and
above the esophagus and larynx.
Articulation, the last step in speech production

We as humans are unique in our use of tongue, lips, and other movable parts of the speech mechanism.
The first act of speech is breathing, in which you get air into a storage chamber; second is phonation, the
process by which you force air into vibration by the action of the vocal folds; third, resonation, in which
your mouth,nose and throat cavities amplify the sound so you can hear it; and finally there is
articulation, in which you modify the sound by movement of the teeth, tongue, and lips into
recognizable patterns. There are only forty-four sounds to master, and as young child you started making
them by mastering simple sounds which you later articulated into repetitive sound combinations and
then words.

Here you are concerned with intelligibility. Can the audience comprehend what you are saying? If you
produce the basic sounds of the language in a manner which is different from the language users in the
audience, at the most basic level your speech will not be understood. You might substitute one sound for
another at the beginning of a word such as ‘dis for this and “w” for “r” so you would say “wabbit” rather
than “rabbit. ” Or you might leave a sound off the end of a word, such as in goin’ for going, in casual
speech. But, the real challenge is whether or not you can produce the “correct” sound when it is
required. If you can not physically produce the sound, then you may want to consult with a professional
speech therapist to help you with articulation.

Tips for Speaker

Practice to make sure you are not substituting or omitting sounds when you say a word, or adding
sounds such as needcessity for necessity.

Pay particular attention to common sound substitutions such as t for th so that you don’t say ‘tin for thin
and d for th so that you dont say ‘den for then.

Practice reading and recording passages with the problem sounds. Listen to the practice recording with a
learning partner or tutor.

Pronunciation in spoken language

Pronunciation refers to the ability to use the correct stress, rhythm, and intonation of a word in a spoken
language. A word may be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on many
factors. These factors include the area in which you grew up, the area in which you now live, whether
you have a speech or voice disorder, your ethnic group, your socio-economic class, or your education.

When we talk about pronunciation, we focus on the word rather than the individual sound, as with
articulation. The syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. For example, the
word water is composed of two syllables: wa and ter. A syllable is typically made up of a syllable nucleus
(most often a vowel) with consonants around it at the beginning and end. Syllables are often considered
the phonological “building blocks” of words. A word that consists of a single syllable (like English dog) is
called a monosyllable, and is said to be monosyllabic. Similar terms include disyllable and disyllabic, for a
word of two syllables; trisyllable and trisyllabic for a word of three syllables; and polysyllable and
polysyllabic, which may refer either to a word of more than three syllables or to any word of more than
one syllable. Your job in pronunciation involves recognizing the different syllables that make up a word,
applying the stress to the right syllable and using the right up and down pitch pattern for intonation.

Intonation is also used in English to add function to words such as to to differentiate between wh-
questions, yes-no questions, declarative statements, commands, requests, etc. You can change the
meaning by varying the intonation pattern.

Tips for Speaker

Listen to recordings of different people you admire, to check the pronunciation.

You can connect to one of the online dictionaries which has an audio of the preferred pronunciations if
you are unsure.

You can download an app for your cellphone or tablet so you have it readily available to check
pronunciation and meaning of words.

If you are using a non-English word, you can also use Google’s translate function with audio
pronunciation guide with the translation.

If you spell a word differently than other language users, you may also pronounce the word differently.
Check to determine if the word is pronounced as it is spelled. There are fourty-four sounds in English,
but over five hundred spellings for the different sounds.

You may want to practice reading a story or article aloud with a learning partner or tutor to check your
pronunciation.

Dialect and Vocal Variety

Speakers may use many different English dialects to change the pitch, rate, volume, and use of pauses to
achieve vocal variety.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Employ vocal variety to emphasize key points in your speech and use dialect to relate to your audience
KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

A dialect is a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language’s speakers
and is distinguished by shared vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.

The major native dialects of English are often divided by linguists into three general categories: British,
North American, and Australasian; over two-thirds of English speakers live in the United States.

Though the U.S. federal government has no official language, English is the common language used by
the federal government and is considered the de facto language of the United States.

All dialects have communicative value within the particular dialect community. When a person moves
out of their home dialect community, they may encounter negative evaluations by those in powerful
positions who speak a different dialect and have set a standard for others.

You achieve vocal variety by using any or all of the features of paralanguage — rate, pitch, volume, and
pauses to change the way you deliver your message.

Consider that emphasis allows you to compare and contrast different parts of your speech.

Vocal variety combats monotony, which results from having an unvarying tone in your speech.

Key Terms

paralanguage: The non-verbal elements of speech used to modify meaning and convey emotion, such as
pitch, volume, and intonation.

tone: The manner in which speech or writing is expressed.

dialect: A variety of a language (specifically, often a spoken variety) that is characteristic of a particular
area, community or group, often with relatively minor differences in vocabulary, style, spelling and
pronunciation.

monotony: Tedium as a result of repetition or a lack of variety. The quality of having an unvarying tone or
pitch.

Dialect and Vocal Variety

A Dialect is a Variety of a Language

A dialect is a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language speakers.
A dialect is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation (phonology, including prosody).
Where a distinction can be made only in terms of pronunciation, the term accent is appropriate—not
dialect.
The term dialect is applied most often to regional speech patterns. The major native dialects of English
are often divided by linguists into three general categories: British, North American, and Australasian.
American English is a set of dialects used mostly in the United States. Approximately two-thirds of the
world’s native speakers of English live in the United States and it is the most common language there.
Although the U.S. federal government has no official language, English is the common language used by
the federal government and is considered the de facto language of the United States because of its
widespread use. English has been given official status by 28 of the 50 state governments.

A picture of half an American flag and half of a Union Jack.

English Language: English is not just one language. There are three major dialects in the English language
— North American, British, and Australasia.

There are several dialects associated with the speech communities in different regions. You may have
meet people from different parts of the country who speak a different dialect. Some of the more
common dialects are as follows:

New England includes Boston and Vermont English;

Inland North American includes western and central upstate New York;

Mid-Atlantic includes Baltimore, New York, and New Jersey;

Inland North American includes Michigan, Northern Ohio, and Indiana;

North Central includes primarily Minnesota and Wisconsin;

Midland American covers Nebraska to Ohio;

Southern English across the Southeast;

Western English includes California and Hawaiian Pidgin.

What dialect do you speak? Are you currently living in your native dialect area? What differences of
words or pronunciation do you hear from others in different parts of the United States?

Since there are so many dialects of English, it is difficult to say that one dialect is better than another.
Some dialects may be spoken by persons holding powerful positions in an area, so those dialects are the
ones that become a standard for others. People of one dialect may view speakers with dialects from
different regions, social or cultural backgrounds negatively and treat them accordingly. All dialects have
communicative value within the particular dialect community; it is when the person moves out of their
home dialect community that they may encounter negative evaluation.

Tips for the Speaker

It is important to consider whether the majority of the audience shares the same dialect as the speaker
to make sure that the words and pronunciation match those of the audience.

If you are speaking to a national audience, you will want to make sure that your word choice and
pronunciation is more widely used than that of your home dialect community.

Vocal Variety

Vocalics, or paralangue, refers to the non-verbal elements of speech used to modify meaning and convey
emotion. You achieve vocal variety by using any or all of the features of vocalics: the rate, pitch, volume,
and pauses you use to change the way you deliver your message. Here are methods to help you create
variety in your delivery:

Speak faster or slower at different times;

Speak at a slightly higher or lower pitch;

Use more force to speak louder or softer;

Pause at different points in your speech.

Consider that emphasis allows you to compare and contrast. You might say one phrase at a faster rate in
comparison to another phrase that you speak at a slower rate. You might speak louder at the end of your
speech to create a contrast with the softer delivery in the preceding part of your speech. All of these
vocal changes in paralanguage help you emphasize what is more important compared to another part
that is less important.

The goal here is to avoid monotony, or an unvarying tone, that could bore your audience and fails to
communicate your message clearly.

Tips for the Speaker

Every speech has key points that you want to emphasize. Identify those points by changing the delivery
so they stand out or contrast with the rest of the speech.

Change the rate meaningfully; do not speak faster to finish the speech or to avoid talking about a main
point.

Change in rate is natural in conversation. Notice how you change the rate in your conversation and apply
the natural changes while speaking in public.

Body Language, Posture and ProximitySee also: Non-verbal signals: Face and Voice

Our page on Non-Verbal Communication explains that non-verbal communication is a vital part of
understanding and communication.

Some estimates suggest that speech only makes up about 20 to 30% of communication.
The rest of the information is conveyed non-verbally, by tone of voice, facial expressions, eye-contact,
gestures, how we stand, and so on.

There are many different types of non-verbal communication. This page is one of two on this issue, and
explains the non-verbal communication associated with the body, including body language or body
movements, also known as kinesics, posture, and proxemics, or the message given by how close we
stand to someone else.

Body Language or Body Movements (Kinesics)

Body movements include gestures, posture, head and hand movements or whole body movements.

Body movements can be used to reinforce or emphasise what a person is saying and also offer
information about the emotions and attitudes of a person. However, it is also possible for body
movements to conflict with what is said.

A skilled observer may be able to detect such discrepancies in behaviour and use them as a clue to what
someone is really feeling and thinking.

There are several different categories of body movement, these include:

Emblems

Gestures that serve the same function as a word are called emblems.

For example, the signals that mean 'OK', 'Come here!', or the hand movement used when hitch-hiking.
However, be aware that whilst some emblems are internationally recognised, others may need to be
interpreted in their cultural context.

For more about this, see our page on Non-Verbal Communication.

Illustrators
Gestures which accompany words to illustrate a verbal message are known as illustrators.

For example, the common circular hand movement which accompanies the phrase 'over and over again',
or nodding the head in a particular direction when saying 'over there'.

Regulators

Gestures used to give feedback when conversing are called regulators.

Examples of 'regulators' include head nods, short sounds such as 'uh-huh', 'mm-mm', and expressions of
interest or boredom. Regulators allow the other person to adapt his or her speech to reflect the level of
interest or agreement. Without receiving feedback, many people find it difficult to maintain a
conversation. Again, however, they may vary in different cultural contexts.

Adaptors

Adaptors are non-verbal behaviours which either satisfy some physical need.

Adaptors include such actions as scratching or adjusting uncomfortable glasses, or represent a

psychological need such as biting fingernails when nervous.

Although normally subconscious, adaptors are more likely to be restrained in public places than in the
private world of individuals where they are less likely to be noticed. Adaptive behaviours often
accompany feelings of anxiety or hostility.

Posture

Posture can reflect emotions, attitudes and intentions.

Research has identified a wide range of postural signals and their meanings, such as:

Open and Closed Posture

Two forms of posture have been identified, ‘open’ and ‘closed’, which may reflect an individual's degree
of confidence, status or receptivity to another person.

Someone seated in a closed position might have his/her arms folded, legs crossed or be positioned at a
slight angle from the person with whom they are interacting. In an open posture, you might expect to
see someone directly facing you with hands apart on the arms of the chair. An open posture can be used
to communicate openness or interest in someone and a readiness to listen, whereas the closed posture
might imply discomfort or disinterest.

Mirroring

Notice the way a loving couple relate to each other. You might like to observe a close relationship in
person or on television. You will see that the partners’ postures will match, as if one partner is a mirror
reflection of the other. For example, if one partner drapes an arm over the back of a chair this might be
replicated in the other person’s position. If one partner frowns, it could be reflected in the other
partner’s facial expression. This ‘mirroring’ indicates interest and approval between people.

Closeness and Personal Space (Proxemics)

Every culture has different levels of physical closeness appropriate to different types of relationship, and
individuals learn these distances from the society in which they grew up.

The study of personal space is called proxemics.

In today's multicultural society, it is important to consider the range of non-verbal codes as expressed in
different ethnic groups. When someone violates an ‘appropriate’ distance, people may feel
uncomfortable or defensive. Their actions may well be open to misinterpretation.

In Western society, four distances have been defined according to the relationship between the people
involved.
The Four Main Categories of Proxemics

Intimate Distance (touching to 45cm)

Personal Distance (45cm to 1.2m)

Social Distance (1.2m to 3.6m)

Public Distance (3.7m to 4.5m)

These four distances are associated with the four main types of relationship - intimate, personal, social
and public.

Each of the distances is divided into two, giving a close phase and a far phase, making eight divisions in
all. It is worth noting that these distances are considered the norm in Western society.

Intimate Distance:

Intimate distance ranges from close contact (touching) to the 'far' phase of 15-45cm.

In British society, it tends to be seen as an inappropriate distance for public behaviour and entering the
intimate space of another person with whom you do not have a close relationship can be extremely
disturbing.

Personal Distance:

The 'far' phase of personal distance is considered to be the most appropriate for people holding a
conversation. At this distance it is easy to see the other person's expressions and eye movements, as well
as their overall body language. Handshaking can occur within the bounds of personal distance.

Social Distance:
This is the normal distance for impersonal business, for example working together in the same room or
during social gatherings.

Seating is also important; communication is far more likely to be considered as a formal relationship if
the interaction is carried out across a desk. In addition, if the seating arrangements are such that one
person appears to look down on another, an effect of domination may be created. At a social distance,
speech needs to be louder and eye contact remains essential to communication, otherwise feedback will
be reduced and the interaction may end.

Public Distance:

Teachers and public speakers address groups at a public distance. At such distances exaggerated non-
verbal communication is necessary for communication to be effective. Subtle facial expressions are lost
at this distance, so clear hand gestures are often used as a substitute. Larger head movements are also
typical of an experienced public speaker who is aware of changes in the way body language is perceived
at longer distances.

A Thought about Public Transport

Anyone who lives in a busy city, especially a capital city, will be familiar with overcrowded public
transport.

In London, for example, the Tube is often so crowded during rush hour that complete strangers may be
pressed against each other very intimately.

One interesting phenomenon about rush hour travel in London is that almost nobody speaks, or even
acknowledges the existence of anyone else with eye contact or other non-verbal cues - except very
occasionally to ask them to move further into the carriage.
We might speculate that this could be because acknowledgement of strangers within one’s intimate
space is very uncomfortable, and most people therefore prefer to ignore it.

Understanding these distances allows us to approach others in non-threatening and appropriate ways.
People can begin to understand how others feel about them, how they view the relationship and, if
appropriate, adjust their behaviour accordingly.

Important Clues and Messages

Body language, posture and distance provide important information to supplement words, or verbal
communication. They are a crucial addition to the overall message.

The full picture also includes facial expressions, eye contact and voice.

Read more at: https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/body-language.html

Nonverbal Communication Expresses Our Identities

Nonverbal communication expresses who we are. Our identities (the groups to which we belong, our
cultures, our hobbies and interests, etc.) are conveyed nonverbally through the way we set up our living
and working spaces, the clothes we wear, the way we carry ourselves, and the accents and tones of our
voices. Our physical bodies give others impressions about who we are, and some of these features are
more under our control than others. Height, for example, has been shown to influence how people are
treated and perceived in various contexts. Our level of attractiveness also influences our identities and
how people perceive us. Although we can temporarily alter our height or looks—for example, with
different shoes or different color contact lenses—we can only permanently alter these features using
more invasive and costly measures such as cosmetic surgery. We have more control over some other
aspects of nonverbal communication in terms of how we communicate our identities. For example, the
way we carry and present ourselves through posture, eye contact, and tone of voice can be altered to
present ourselves as warm or distant depending on the context.

Aside from our physical body, artifacts, which are the objects and possessions that surround us, also
communicate our identities. Examples of artifacts include our clothes, jewelry, and space decorations. In
all the previous examples, implicit norms or explicit rules can affect how we nonverbally present
ourselves. For example, in a particular workplace it may be a norm (implicit) for people in management
positions to dress casually, or it may be a rule (explicit) that different levels of employees wear different
uniforms or follow particular dress codes. We can also use nonverbal communication to express identity
characteristics that do not match up with who we actually think we are. Through changes to nonverbal
signals, a capable person can try to appear helpless, a guilty person can try to appear innocent, or an
uninformed person can try to appear credible.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Nonverbal communication is a process of generating meaning using behavior other than words.
Nonverbal communication includes vocal elements, which is referred to as paralanguage and includes
pitch, volume, and rate, and nonvocal elements, which are usually referred to as body language and
includes gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact, among other things.
Although verbal communication and nonverbal communication work side by side as part of a larger
language system, there are some important differences between the two. They are processed by
different hemispheres of the brain, nonverbal communication conveys more emotional and affective
meaning than does verbal communication, nonverbal communication isn’t governed by an explicit
system of rules in the same way that grammar guides verbal communication, and while verbal
communication is a uniquely human ability, many creatures including plants, birds, and mammals
communicate nonverbally.

Nonverbal communication operates on the following principles: nonverbal communication typically

conveys more meaning than verbal communication, nonverbal communication is more involuntary than
verbal communication, nonverbal communication is often more ambiguous than verbal communication,
and nonverbal communication is often more credible than verbal communication.

Nonverbal communication serves several functions.

Nonverbal communication affects verbal communication in that it can complement, reinforce, substitute,
or contradict verbal messages.

Nonverbal communication influences others, as it is a key component of deception and can be used to
assert dominance or to engage in compliance gaining.

Nonverbal communication regulates conversational flow, as it provides important cues that signal the
beginning and end of conversational turns and facilitates the beginning and end of an interaction.

Nonverbal communication affects relationships, as it is a primary means through which we communicate

emotions, establish social bonds, and engage in relational maintenance.

Nonverbal communication expresses our identities, as who we are is conveyed through the way we set
up our living and working spaces, the clothes we wear, our personal presentation, and the tones in our
voices.

EXERCISES

Getting integrated: To better understand nonverbal communication, try to think of an example to

illustrate each of the four principles discussed in the chapter. Be integrative in your approach by
including at least one example from an academic, professional, civic, and personal context.

When someone sends you a mixed message in which the verbal and nonverbal messages contradict each
other, which one do you place more meaning on? Why?
Our personal presentation, style of dress, and surroundings such as a dorm room, apartment, car, or
office send nonverbal messages about our identities. Analyze some of the nonverbal signals that your
personal presentation or environment send. What do they say about who you are? Do they create the
impression that you desire?

4.2 Types of Nonverbal Communication

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Define kinesics.

Define haptics.

Define vocalics.

Define proxemics.

Define chronemics.

Provide examples of types of nonverbal communication that fall under these categories.

Discuss the ways in which personal presentation and environment provide nonverbal cues.

Just as verbal language is broken up into various categories, there are also different types of nonverbal
communication. As we learn about each type of nonverbal signal, keep in mind that nonverbals often
work in concert with each other, combining to repeat, modify, or contradict the verbal message being
sent.

Kinesics

The word kinesics comes from the root word kinesis, which means “movement,” and refers to the study
of hand, arm, body, and face movements. Specifically, this section will outline the use of gestures, head
movements and posture, eye contact, and facial expressions as nonverbal communication.

Gestures
There are three main types of gestures: adaptors, emblems, and illustrators.Peter A. Andersen,Nonverbal
Communication: Forms and Functions (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), 36. Adaptorsare touching
behaviors and movements that indicate internal states typically related to arousal or anxiety. Adaptors
can be targeted toward the self, objects, or others. In regular social situations, adaptors result from
uneasiness, anxiety, or a general sense that we are not in control of our surroundings. Many of us
subconsciously click pens, shake our legs, or engage in other adaptors during classes, meetings, or while
waiting as a way to do something with our excess energy. Public speaking students who watch video
recordings of their speeches notice nonverbal adaptors that they didn’t know they used. In public
speaking situations, people most commonly use self- or object- focused adaptors. Common self-touching
behaviors like scratching, twirling hair, or fidgeting with fingers or hands are considered self-adaptors.
Some self- adaptors manifest internally, as coughs or throat-clearing sounds. My personal weakness is
object adaptors. Specifically, I subconsciously gravitate toward metallic objects like paper clips or staples
holding my notes together and catch myself bending them or fidgeting with them while I’m speaking.
Other people play with dry-erase markers, their note cards, the change in their pockets, or the lectern
while speaking. Use of object adaptors can also signal boredom as people play with the straw in their
drink or peel the label off a bottle of beer. Smartphones have become common object adaptors, as
people can fiddle with their phones to help ease anxiety. Finally, as noted, other adaptors are more
common in social situations than in public speaking situations given the speaker’s distance from
audience members. Other adaptors involve adjusting or grooming others, similar to how primates like
chimpanzees pick things off each other. It would definitely be strange for a speaker to approach an
audience member and pick lint off his or her sweater, fix a crooked tie, tuck a tag in, or pat down a
flyaway hair in the middle of a speech.

Emblems are gestures that have a specific agreed-on meaning. These are still different from the signs
used by hearing-impaired people or others who communicate using American Sign Language (ASL). Even
though they have a generally agreed-on meaning, they are not part of a formal sign system like ASL that
is explicitly taught to a group of people. A hitchhiker’s raised thumb, the “OK” sign with thumb and index
finger connected in a circle with the other three fingers sticking up, and the raised middle finger are all
examples of emblems that have an agreed-on meaning or meanings with a culture. Emblems can be still
or in motion; for example, circling the index finger around at the side of your head says “He or she is
crazy,” or rolling your hands over and over in front of you says “Move on.”

Just as we can trace the history of a word, or its etymology, we can also trace some nonverbal signals,
especially emblems, to their origins. Holding up the index and middle fingers in a “V” shape with the
palm facing in is an insult gesture in Britain that basically means “up yours.” This gesture dates back
centuries to the period in which the primary weapon of war was the bow and arrow. When archers were
captured, their enemies would often cut off these two fingers, which was seen as the ultimate insult and
worse than being executed since the archer could no longer shoot his bow and arrow. So holding up the
two fingers was a provoking gesture used by archers to show their enemies that they still had their
shooting fingers.Allan Pease and Barbara Pease, The Definitive Book of Body Language (New York, NY:
Bantam, 2004), 121.

Illustrators are the most common type of gesture and are used to illustrate the verbal message they
accompany. For example, you might use hand gestures to indicate the size or shape of an object. Unlike
emblems, illustrators do not typically have meaning on their own and are used more subconsciously
than emblems. These largely involuntary and seemingly natural gestures flow from us as we speak but
vary in terms of intensity and frequency based on context. Although we are never explicitly taught how
to use illustrative gestures, we do it automatically. Think about how you still gesture when having an
animated conversation on the phone even though the other person can’t see you.

Head Movements and Posture

I group head movements and posture together because they are often both used to acknowledge others
and communicate interest or attentiveness. In terms of head movements, a head nod is a universal sign
of acknowledgement in cultures where the formal bow is no longer used as a greeting. In these cases,
the head nod essentially serves as an abbreviated bow. An innate and universal head movement is the
headshake back and forth to signal “no.” This nonverbal signal begins at birth, even before a baby has
the ability to know that it has a corresponding meaning. Babies shake their head from side to side to
reject their mother’s breast and later shake their head to reject attempts to spoon-feed.Allan Pease and
Barbara Pease, The Definitive Book of Body Language (New York, NY: Bantam, 2004), 232. This
biologically based movement then sticks with us to be a recognizable signal for “no.” We also move our
head to indicate interest. For example, a head up typically indicates an engaged or neutral attitude, a
head tilt indicates interest and is an innate submission gesture that exposes the neck and subconsciously
makes people feel more trusting of us, and a head down signals a negative or aggressive attitude.Allan
Pease and Barbara Pease, The Definitive Book of Body Language (New York, NY: Bantam, 2004), 232–34.

There are four general human postures: standing, sitting, squatting, and lying down.Owen Hargie,Skilled
Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice, 5th ed. (London: Routledge, 2011), 63. Within
each of these postures there are many variations, and when combined with particular gestures or other
nonverbal cues they can express many different meanings. Most of our communication occurs while we
are standing or sitting. One interesting standing posture involves putting our hands on our hips and is a
nonverbal cue that we use subconsciously to make us look bigger and show assertiveness. When the
elbows are pointed out, this prevents others from getting past us as easily and is a sign of attempted
dominance or a gesture that says we’re ready for action. In terms of sitting, leaning back shows
informality and indifference, straddling a chair is a sign of dominance (but also some insecurity because
the person is protecting the vulnerable front part of his or her body), and leaning forward shows interest
and attentiveness.Allan Pease and Barbara Pease, The Definitive Book of Body Language (New York, NY:
Bantam, 2004), 243–44.

Eye Contact

We also communicate through eye behaviors, primarily eye contact. While eye behaviors are often
studied under the category of kinesics, they have their own branch of nonverbal studies calledoculesics,
which comes from the Latin

word oculus, meaning “eye.” The face and eyes are the main point of focus during communication, and
along with our ears our eyes take in most of the communicative information around us. The saying “The
eyes are the window to the soul” is actually accurate in terms of where people typically think others are
“located,” which is right behind the eyes.Peter A. Andersen, Nonverbal Communication: Forms and
Functions (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), 40. Certain eye behaviors have become tied to
personality traits or emotional states, as illustrated in phrases like “hungry eyes,” “evil eyes,” and
“bedroom eyes.” To better understand oculesics, we will discuss the characteristics and functions of eye
contact and pupil dilation.

Eye contact serves several communicative functions ranging from regulating interaction to monitoring
interaction, to conveying information, to establishing interpersonal connections. In terms of regulating
communication, we use eye contact to signal to others that we are ready to speak or we use it to cue
others to speak. I’m sure we’ve all been in that awkward situation where a teacher asks a question, no
one else offers a response, and he or she looks directly at us as if to say, “What do you think?” In that
case, the teacher’s eye contact is used to cue us to respond. During an interaction, eye contact also
changes as we shift from speaker to listener. US Americans typically shift eye contact while speaking—
looking away from the listener and then looking back at his or her face every few seconds. Toward the
end of our speaking turn, we make more direct eye contact with our listener to indicate that we are
finishing up. While listening, we tend to make more sustained eye contact, not glancing away as regularly
as we do while speaking.Judith N. Martin and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in
Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010), 276.

Aside from regulating conversations, eye contact is also used to monitor interaction by taking in
feedback and other nonverbal cues and to send information. Our eyes bring in the visual information we
need to interpret people’s movements, gestures, and eye contact. A speaker can use his or her eye
contact to determine if an audience is engaged, confused, or bored and then adapt his or her message
accordingly. Our eyes also send information to others. People know not to interrupt when we are in deep
thought because we naturally look away from others when we are processing information. Making eye
contact with others also communicates that we are paying attention and are interested in what another
person is saying. As we will learn in Chapter 5 “Listening”, eye contact is a key part of active listening.

Eye contact can also be used to intimidate others. We have social norms about how much eye contact
we make with people, and those norms vary depending on the setting and the person. Staring at another
person in some contexts could communicate intimidation, while in other contexts it could communicate
flirtation. As we learned, eye contact is a key immediacy behavior, and it signals to others that we are
available for communication. Once communication begins, if it does, eye contact helps establish rapport
or connection. We can also use our eye contact to signal that we do not want to make a connection with
others. For example, in a public setting like an airport or a gym where people often make small talk, we
can avoid making eye contact with others to indicate that we do not want to engage in small talk with
strangers. Another person could use eye contact to try to coax you into speaking, though. For example,
when one person continues to stare at another person who is not reciprocating eye contact, the person
avoiding eye contact might eventually give in, become curious, or become irritated and say, “Can I help
you with something?” As you can see, eye contact sends and receives important communicative
messages that help us interpret others’ behaviors, convey information about our thoughts and feelings,
and facilitate or impede rapport or connection. This list reviews the specific functions of eye contact:

Regulate interaction and provide turn-taking signals

Monitor communication by receiving nonverbal communication fromothers

Signal cognitive activity (we look away when processing information)

Express engagement (we show people we are listening with our eyes)

Convey intimidation

Express flirtation

Establish rapport or connectionPupil dilation is a subtle component of oculesics that doesn’t get as much
scholarly attention in communication as eye contact does. Pupil dilation refers to the expansion and
contraction of the black part of the center of our eyes and is considered a biometric form of
measurement; it is involuntary and therefore seen as a valid and reliable form of data collection as
opposed to self-reports on surveys or interviews that can be biased or misleading. Our pupils dilate
when there is a lack of lighting and contract when light is plentiful.Laura K. Guerrero and Kory Floyd,
Nonverbal Communication in Close Relationships (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2006): 176. Pain,
sexual attraction, general arousal, anxiety/stress, and information processing (thinking) also affect pupil
dilation. Researchers measure pupil dilation for a number of reasons. For example, advertisers use pupil
dilation as an indicator of consumer preferences, assuming that more dilation indicates arousal and
attraction to a product. We don’t consciously read others’ pupil dilation in our everyday interactions, but
experimental research has shown that we subconsciously perceive pupil dilation, which affects our
impressions and communication. In general, dilated pupils increase a person’s attractiveness. Even
though we may not be aware of this subtle nonverbal signal, we have social norms and practices that
may be subconsciously based on pupil dilation. Take for example the notion of mood lighting and the
common practice of creating a “romantic” ambiance with candlelight or the light from a fireplace. Softer
and more indirect light leads to pupil dilation, and although we intentionally manipulate lighting to
create a romantic ambiance, not to dilate our pupils, the dilated pupils are still subconsciously perceived,
which increases perceptions of attraction.Peter A. Andersen, Nonverbal Communication: Forms and
Functions(Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), 40–41.

Facial Expressions

Our faces are the most expressive part of our bodies. Think of how photos are often intended to capture
a particular expression “in a flash” to preserve for later viewing. Even though a photo is a snapshot in
time, we can still interpret much meaning from a human face caught in a moment of expression, and
basic facial expressions are recognizable by humans all over the world. Much research has supported the
universality of a core group of facial expressions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust. The first
four are especially identifiable across cultures.Peter A. Andersen, Nonverbal Communication: Forms and

Functions (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), 35. However, the triggers for these expressions and the
cultural and social norms that influence their displays are still culturally diverse. If you’ve spent much
time with babies you know that they’re capable of expressing all these emotions. Getting to see the pure
and innate expressions of joy and surprise on a baby’s face is what makes playing peek-a-boo so
entertaining for adults. As we get older, we learn and begin to follow display rules for facial expressions
and other signals of emotion and also learn to better control our emotional expression based on the
norms of our culture.

Smiles are powerful communicative signals and, as you’ll recall, are a key immediacy behavior. Although
facial expressions are typically viewed as innate and several are universally recognizable, they are not
always connected to an emotional or internal biological stimulus; they can actually serve a more social
purpose. For example, most of the smiles we produce are primarily made for others and are not just an
involuntary reflection of an internal emotional state.Peter A. Andersen, Nonverbal Communication:
Forms and

Functions (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), 35. These social smiles, however, are slightly but
perceptibly different from more genuine smiles. People generally perceive smiles as more genuine when
the other person smiles “with their eyes.” This particular type of smile is difficult if not impossible to fake
because the muscles around the eye that are activated when we spontaneously or genuinely smile are
not under our voluntary control. It is the involuntary and spontaneous contraction of these muscles that
moves the skin around our cheeks, eyes, and nose to create a smile that’s distinct from a fake or polite
smile.Dylan Evans, Emotion: The Science of Sentiment (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 107.
People are able to distinguish the difference between these smiles, which is why photographers often
engage in cheesy joking with adults or use props with children to induce a genuine smile before they
snap a picture.

We will learn more about competent encoding and decoding of facial expressions in Section 4.3
“Nonverbal Communication Competence” andSection 4.4 “Nonverbal Communication in Context”, but
since you are likely giving speeches in this class, let’s learn about the role of the face in public speaking.
Facial expressions help set the emotional tone for a speech. In order to set a positive tone before you
start speaking, briefly look at the audience and smile to communicate friendliness, openness, and
confidence. Beyond your opening and welcoming facial expressions, facial expressions communicate a
range of emotions and can be used to infer personality traits and make judgments about a speaker’s
credibility and competence. Facial expressions can communicate that a speaker is tired, excited, angry,
confused, frustrated, sad, confident, smug, shy, or bored. Even if you aren’t bored, for example, a slack
face with little animation may lead an audience to think that you are bored with your own speech, which
isn’t likely to motivate them to be interested. So make sure your facial expressions are communicating an
emotion, mood, or personality trait that you think your audience will view favorably, and that will help
you achieve your speech goals. Also make sure your facial expressions match the content of your speech.
When delivering something light-hearted or humorous, a smile, bright eyes, and slightly raised eyebrows
will nonverbally enhance your verbal message. When delivering something serious or somber, a
furrowed brow, a tighter mouth, and even a slight head nod can enhance that message. If your facial
expressions and speech content are not consistent, your audience could become confused by the mixed
messages, which could lead them to question your honesty and credibility.