5.2 .
' Opencast Mining
Elements of Mining Technology
Opencast Mining
Opencast m i n i n g or quarrying o f minerals is easier than mining
by underground methods. D u r i n g quarrying the a l l u v i u m and rocks
below w h i c h the minerals lie, are removed and dumped, i n the initial
stages, in a place which is not required i n future for quarrying, residential
or other purposes. The m i n e r a l exposed is completely extracted.
Opencast m i n i n g is also k n o w n as open-put mining, open-cut m i n i n g ,
surface m i n i n g and also as strip mining, the later term being commonly
used i n the U.S.A. for opencast m i n i n g o f coal. The oveiburden and
the mineral, coal, are excavated i n long strips of a few metres thickness
and hence the operations are termed strip mining. The operation of
removing overburden and extracting mineral is done by one of the
following methods.
1. M a n u a l q u a r r y i n g : I n t h i s case m a n u a l l a b o u r is
employed. Small d r i l l i n g machines, drilling 1.2 m tc 1.8 m deep holes,
37 m m diameter, are used and the holes are blasted w i t h gun-power
or other explosives. The overburden and mineral are manually loaded
into tubs w h i c h are hauled by rope haulages or locomotives. Tipping
trucks are also sometimes employed and manually loaded.
2. Mechanical opencast working ; I n this m e t h o d hea
earth moving machineiy like draglines, power shovels, rear-dumping
trucks (common type being Haulpaks), well-hole drills etc. are used.
The blast holes are 6 m to 18 m deep, and 125 m m to 250 m m diameter.
The rock is blasted by liquid oxygen, open cast gelignite or other high
explosives. Mineral and overburden are transported by locomotives,
belt conveyors or large t r u c k s k n o w n as dumpers. Bucket wheel
excavators are used in some mines for soft rocks e.g. at Neyveli lignite
project.
5.1
A method o f surface m i n i n g k n o w n as placer mining involves
m i n i n g a n d w a s h i n g t o g e t h e r o f g e n e r a l l y u n c o n s o l i d a t e d or
lemiconsolidated rock near the g r o u n d surface and the method is
normally not treated as opencast m i n i n g but a variation of it.
Glory hole mining is a method where the mineral is excavated
In s m a l l o p e n p i t s b u t is t r a n s p o r a t e d t o the surface t h r o u g h
underground excavations and transport system.
Nearly 7 0 % of the mineral production i n the w o r l d comes by
opencast m i n i n g and i n India this method of mining accounts for nearly
75% of our mineral output.
Quarriable Limit
The cost o f removing overburden to extract mineral lying below
ii goes up as the quarrrying operations extend to the dip side of the
property and the thickness of overburden increases. The stripping ratio,
thickness of overburden; thickness o f mineral deposit therefore decides
i he economic w o r k i n g l i m i t o f quarrying, i.e. the quarriable l i m i t .
The softer the rocks, the less is the expense of oberburden removal
.ind higher is the stripping ratio. The wages of labour, the selling price
of mineral and the margin of profit and the major considerations in
deciding the l i m i t i n g ratio w h i c h is as follows in coal mines :
i. Manual quarrying 1.5 : 1
ii. Semi-mechanised quarrying 2 : 1
iii. Mechanical q u a r r y i n g :
W i t h dipper-shovel, dumper
combination : 4 to 5 : 1
W i t h draglines : 8 to 10 : 1
W i t h bucket wheel excavators : 3 to 4 : 1
The m a x i m u m depth from the surface i n existing mines i n our
i ountry is 120 m but future mines are planned to reach a depth of
nearly 480 m.
Advantages Of Quarrying
There is no problem of roof control or ventilation. Full extraction
of mineral is possible. No mineral is blocked in shaft pillars, support of
main roadways, etc. as i n underground mining. Quick return on capital
 5.:
Elements of Mining Technology
and early extraction are possible w i t h o u t the need to w a i t for a lonj
period of development w o r k or unproductive -work like shaft sinking,
etc. Large ouput is available from a small area and supervision is eas
owing to concentrated w o r k . Artificial lights are necessary only aftei
dark.
Dangers and hazards are less as compared to undergrounc
m i n i n g . There is no risk of gas explosion. Very few stringent mining
regulations are applicable t o quarries. For example, compared t<
u n d e r g r o u n d m i n i n g less n u m b e r of competent persons are to b<
appointed and less number of statutory inspections are necessary.
Better sanitary conditions can be maintained.
High efficiency o f mine workers; ease i n loading the tubs ii
unconfined space and n a t u r a l l i g h t gives h i g h O.M.S. ( o u t p u t pej
manshift).
Female labour can be employed. A l l the members of a famil
are often employed and the accommodation problem is simplified.
Once the mineral is exposed, o u t p u t can be easily varied t(
meety wagon supplies, or consumer demand.
Training of operatives is easier.
Large scale mechanisation is possible as there is no restrictior
on the dimensions of machines to be used. Unlike i n undergrounc
mines, machinery w o r k i n g at h i g h voltage can be employed.
Disadvantages
Among the disadvantages of quarrying are :
Work is affected by weather. D u r i n g w i n t e r nights, and summ<
mid-days efficiency of workers is very low. During rainy season unlesj
effective steps are taken to dewater the mine mineral w h i c h is at thj
l o w e r levels, cannot be w o r k e d and m i n i n g comes pratically to
standstill.
Surface land is destroyed and is rendered unfit for agricultunj
and residential purposes.
M i n i n g lease gives only underground r i g h t s ; surface rights ha\
to be acquired for quarrying.
The method is uneconomic for w o r k i n g mineral beds at depth,
5.4 Opencast Mining
Where quarrying aims at quick r e t u r n o n capitcal, outcrop
mineral is also mined. As it is inferior i n quality due to weathering and
percolating of water, the overall quality available to the consumers is
affected i n earlier phases of m i n i n g .
The quarried area and the OB heaps present an unpleasant sight.
In some foreign countries the m i n i n g law requires that the quarried
area should be filled up w i t h overburden and restored to the prequarry
state f i t for agriculture. Marshy land, after extraction o f underlying
mineral and restoration of surface has, i n a few cases, resulted i n a
Kood agricultural area. Such l o w requiring surface restoration to pre-
quarry stage does not exist i n India.
The overall O.M.S. is l o w due to a large labour force engaged
in OB removal i n manual quarrying.
A property w i t h extensive area on the strike and containing a
11 lick mineral bed moderately inclined, lying at shallow depth, is ideal
for quarrying. I n India coal seams w i t h inclination as steep as 1 i n 3
have been w o r k e d b y mechanised opencast m i n i n g m e t h o d s i n
Karanpura field. Seams at shallow depths w h i c h are actively gassy,
liable to spontaneous heating or w i t h bad roof should preferably be
I xiracted by q u a r r y i n g as the m i n i n g legislation for u n d e r g r o u n d
working o f such seams is stringent.
Before the quarrying operations are undertaken it is necessary
io vacate buildings and divert electric overhead lines, aerial ropeways,
water mains, telephone lines, roads, railway lines, streams, etc. f r o m
the area w h i c h has to be quarried. The trees have to be cut. Sufficient
*|>nce for d u m p i n g of overburden, not far from the quarry, has to be
• i msidered. Where mechanised opencast m i n i n g is to be adopted, plans
In 'iild be prepared to show the contour lines and the thickness of coal
mil overburden and good roads w i t h o u t steep inclinations and sharp
« H I ves should receive attention. D u m p t i n g yard for OB should be so
irlected t h a t w i n d does n o t carry the dust to residential colony.
Mv dumping of OB i f the ponds, paddy fields, mango/coconut groves,
lioi under the ownership o f the mine owner, are likely to be affected,
ill-- compensation payable should not be ignored.
If heavy explosive charges have to be blasted as i n mechanised
•Miiilies, the quarry site has to be far away from residential area (beyond
loo m). Such heavy blasting may cause cracks i n old buildings resulting
in demand for compensation.
Elements of Mining Technology
On the surface referecne lines have to be marked on a square
pattern, every 30 m apart, for monthly measurement of the excavation
and they should extend 50 m beyond the limits o f the proposed quarry.
Junctions of the squares should be marked by permanent pegs i n brick
pillars.
Formation of Benches :
The overburden and m i n e r a l deposit can be extracted by
formation of benches or by keeping the surface sloped so that the angle
of slope does not exceed 45° from the horizontal. A bench has t w o
elements, the floor and the face (high w a l l ) . The w i d t h o f the floor
should not be less than the height o f the face (high w a l l ) and the
heights of benches are as follows :
1. Loose material: I n alluvium, m o r r u m , loose earth, etc. w h i c h is
likely to slide the bench height should not exceed 1.5 m. During
the rainy season, there is possibility of land slide of the loose
debris and it is desirable to keep the w i d t h of the floor much
larger than the height of the bench.
2. Coal: The height of coal bench, i.e. the coal face, should no
exceed 3 • e t r e s .
3. Sand stone and hard rock : Benches i n sand stone and hard
rocks are rarely vertical but generally sloping at a small angle
w i t h the vertical. The m i n i n g regulations do n o t stipulate
definite bench heights in hard rocks except that the bench w i d t h
has to be more than the bench height. I n manual quarry the
bench height is usually 3 metres to 4.5 metres and i n mechanised
quarries, more than 5.5 metres and depends upon the height
o f the boom of shovel above the bench floor. Suitable bench
height for a 2 m shovel is 6 to 8 m and for a 3.5 m shovel, about
3 3
12 m. The slope of the high w a l l is usually 20° off vertical and
depends u p o n t h e t r a v e l o f the b u c k e t d u r i n g l o a d i n g .
The w i d t h of bench floors i n mechanised quarries is usually
15 metres and preferably more for movement of dumpers,
tractor loaders and other equipment.
Gradients of roads in quarries for tyred vehicular traffic should
not exceed 1 to 10.
5J_ 5.6 Opencast Mining
Manual Opencast Working in Coal
The quarriable area is divided into sections along the strike so
that overburden extraction takes place i n some sections and coal
e x t r a c t i o n i n others w h i c h have the coal already exposed after
overburden removal. Small pillars of the rocks excavated are left for
measurement. These are called witness or 'Sakhi' i n Hindi, t h e y are
removed after measurement of excavated area, usually once a week, is
over. The height of such 'sakhi' should not exceed 2.5 m and where the
height of such pillar exceeds 1.25 m its base should not be less than
1.5 i n diameter.
Removal Of Overburden
The soft material like earth and weathered rock is cut by earth
1
cutting picks. A team of workers consits of 3 or 4 members, one cutting
and t w o loading. As female workers are allowed in quarries, a team of
3 workers usually includes one or t w o females members w h o are
n normally permitted to w o r k only between 5 a.m. and 7 p.m. under the
Mines Act. Each team is allowed a small plot usually 4.5 m x 4.5 m .
The average output per worker in soft rock or earth is about 2.8 m 3
(in situ) per day.
•
In the hard rocks w h i c h need blasting holes are drilled.
(a) manually w i t h the help of hexagonal steel rod w i t h chisel end
or
(b) by compressed air hammer d r i l l (jack hammer).
M e t h o d (a) is used in a small quarry where the output is only
SO to 100 te of coal per day, electricity or compressed air is not available
and labour is cheap. A hole is 1.2 m to 1.5 m deep and one m a n can
ill ill 5 to 8 holes, each 1.2 m deep in a shift (8 hrs.) Method (b) is
uow-a-days commonly employed. Compressed air is supplied by steel
pipes 50 to 100 m m dia, up to central places and branch pipes supply
air to drills through hose pipes. Two workers (one driller and one helper)
drill 40 to 50 holes, each 1.5 m deep, i n one shift. The holes one
placed 1.2 to 1.5 m apart and are blasted w i t h gun powder or other
•.uitable explosives. Blasting is done d u r i n g the rest interval o f the
workers to prevent frequent interruption of w o r k .
Elements of Mining Technology 5.7 Opencast Mining
5.8
The overburden is loaded into tipping tubs (0.73 m capacity) 3

w h i c h are.hauled by direct or endless haulages. I n seams of m i l d

gradients locomotives may be used. The haulage track is taken to each
bench or alternate benches. Blasted overburden of higher bench is
sometimes d r o p p e d o n the l o w e r b e n c h f o r l o a d i n g i n t o t u b s .
Overburden is d u m p e d to the rise o f the o u t c r o p or beyond the
quarriable l i m i t but as the coal extraction proceeds, the overburden
m a y b e dumped i n the area from w h i c h coal is extracted - an operation
k n o w n as back filling. The overburden should be so dumped that it
does not r o l l d o w n at the coal benches w h e n i t assumes its angle o f
repose, nor should i t choke water courses or damage paddy fields,
other agricultural area or water reservoirs.

Extraction Of Coal:
The coal w h i c h is exposed after removal of overburden is blasted
after d r i l l i n g holes. The same drills w h i c h are used for stone may be
utilised for coal also b u t i f the compressor has a l i m i t e d capacity
electrically operated drills are used for coal due to their relative lightness
and better performance. The spacing of holes i n coal is 1.5 m to 2.2 m,
the depth varying from 1.2 m to 2 m. The coal available per kg of high
explosive like special gelatine (60 to 80%) is generally 10-12 tonnes.
With blasted coal, the average loading performance per loader is nearly
4 tubs (1.1 m capacity).
3

Fig. 5.1 shows the layout of a large manual quarry, after it has
advanced some distance along the dip. The entrance to the w o r k i n g
places is by steps and inclined roads. The permanent installations like
haulages, compressors, power transmission lines, etc. are installed in
such places that their frequent shifting is not necessary when the stone
benches or coal benches advance. On a level track hand pushing of
empty tubs having pedestal bearing is not u n c o m m o n for a distance
of 100 m . I f the same t r a c k is used for loads as w e l l as empties,
the gradient of the track should be nearly 1 i n 80 i n favour of loads.
These factors l i m i t the length of benches.

The property is divided i n t o blocks, each 120 to 180 m long

. i long the strike. Each block has a direct or endless haulage in the middle
i n d the benches are formed along the strike on either side of the haulage.
Mock A w h i c h is shown more advanced than Block B, raises coal from
I lie coal benches CB1, CB2, CB3, CB4. Each bench is 3 m high and has
Elements of Mining Technology
a haulage track on its floor. From the clipping point P I to the j u n c t i o n
P2 the haulage track is either level or slightly rising inbye at 1 in 80 or
so. The stone benches SB1, SB2, are ahead of the coal benches so that
the exposed coal lasts for 2-4 weeks. Stone from the higher bench SB2,
is dropped o n the lower bench SB1 w h i c h has haulage tracks on its
floor. The stone is taken i n tipping tubs along a level track TA by hand
pushing for d um p i n g i n the de-coaled area. The track TA is along the
barrier. The tubs cross the direct haulage track over a bridge K to fully
utilise the decoaled area for dumping. As the stone benches advance
the position of the bridge K has to be shifted to the dip side. Another
x
level haulage track is taken from the stone bench SBj to the decoaled
area over a ledge L L r This ledge is 3 m wide at the top and is a solid
barrier of coal and stone left between blocks A and B. The coal of the
ledge is not recoverable.
I n block B, there is emphasis on r e m o v a l o f o v e r b u r d e n .
The direct haulage track is along the floor o f the coal seam and more
stone benches than i n block A are provided for employment o f a large
number of workers on overburden removal. The stone benches SB ,
S B , SB are served by the central direct haulage. Stone benches SB
6 8
and SB are worked by a level track T and another level track passing
4 B
over the ledge LL stone is taken over these level tracks i n tipping tubs
X
for d um p i n g in the decoaled area i n the same manner as described for
block A. The bridge I t , serves the same purpose as bridge K i n block A
x and sciapers i f the rocks are soft. I f they are hard, blast holes are
and is advanced towards the dip at intervals.
During rainy season coal raising may be suspended i n block A
w h i c h is o n the dip side, and only overburden removal may take place
from the higher stone benches w h i c h are free from water. From block
B, only coal raising may take place d u r i n g monsoon and the block can
be kept free from water and making a through connection 1.8 m high
i n the ledge LL, for the water to gravitate to block A.
Drains for wa t e r, as s h o w n i n the f i g u r e , called garland
drains are cut to minimise i n f l o w of surface water into the quarry.
Pumps are installed at possible places of heavy accumulation of water.
The installation of compressed air pipes and the overhead power l i n e |
is as shown in the figure.
5.9 5.10 Opencast Mining
MECHANISED OPENCAST MINING
Opencast m i n i n g is the oldest method of excavating minerals
but the m i n i n g operations have been mechanised by the use of heavy
earth moving machinery during the last 50 years resulting in excavations
on a scale w h i c h was unthinkable half a century ago.
Some of the coal mines planned for large production
x (million tonnes per year) are : Kusmunda - 6.0, Mukunda - 15.1,
Gevra - 14.0, Nighai-12, Rajmahal-10.5, Jayant/Dhudhichuva /
Khadia-10.0 each,
Dipka Expansion/Anant-8.0
For mechanised quarries, e m p l o y i n g heavy e a r t h m o v i n g
machinery the DGMS makes byelaws coverings bench sizes, roads, etc.
These have to be s t u d i e d before p l a n n i n g a mechanised quarry.
Mechanised opencast m i n i n g is preferred w h e n there is a thick mineral
bed o f m i l d inlcination, practically continuous and not i n pockets, at a
low depth and the reserves are plentiful. For coal, a seam of less than
5
6 m thickness and w i t h less than one m i l l i o n tonnes o f quarriable
3
reserves w i l l not justify the heavy capital expenditure, large amount of
interest o n it and the depreciation charges.
The overburden may be removed by a combination o f dozers
drilled by wagon drills or w e l l hole drills and blasted w i t h explosives.
The blasted rock is loaded into dumpers by dipper shovels or tractor
shovels. Draglines are also used where the overburden is alluvium sand
or soft rock, but i f it consits of hard rock i t is loosened by sprase blasting
lor loading.
The equipment commonly used i n a mechanised quarry for
11 rilling, loading and trasporting is briefly described below.
Crawler Chain Vs Pneumatic Tyred Equipment
The machines employed in a mechanised quarry are mounted
mi pneumatic tyred wheels i f they have to be towed from one place to
iinother e.g. compressors, wagon drills, etc. Self propelling units having
Iheir o w n engines (line tractors, dozers, shovels, cranes, etc.) may
Elements of Mining Technology 5.11
5.12 Opencast Mining
however be mounted on pneumatic tyres or crawler chains. Table 1
Diesel-Driven Vs. Electrical Equipment
shows the approximate rolling resistance of various road surfaces to
pneumatic tyres and crawlers. The equipment used i n quarries may be diesel operated or
electrically operated. Machines w h i c h have to move frequently from
Table 1 R o l l i n g r e s i s t a n c e place to place are operated by diesel engines e.g. bulldozers, scrapers,
graders, dumpers, tractors dozers. But the equipment w h i c h has to
Pull in kgf per 1,000 kgf of gross weight w o r k from one site over long periods i n a shift may be electrically
L o w pressure tyres C r a w l e r chains operated or diesel operated e.g. dipper shovels, draglines, compressores,
Types o f surface
well hole drills, bucket wheel excavators. Permanent or semi-permanent
Smooth concrete 18 28
machines are always powered electrically e.g. large centrally located
Good macadem . 30 35 compressors, pumps, etc.
Earth roads, dry, dusty 40 43 A n electric shovel avoids fuelling problem, is comparatively
55 quiet, simple and maintenance cost is cheaper than for the diesel one.
Unplough earth . 60
In electric shovel motors can be placed so as to eliminate complex
Earth road, rutted, uneven 90 70
gear t r a i n s a n d c h a i n drives, and controls are easy to operate.
Loose sand and gravel 110 85 Initial cost of electric shovel is however higher than for a diesel unit.
Construction haul roads Ward-Leonard system is the standard method of drive and control on
large H.P. shovels and draglines. Dipper shovels of smaller size (upto
or roads i n loose soil 145 * 112 .
3.5 m ) are usually diesel driven, b u t electric drive is preferred for
3

A resistance of 9 kgf per 1,000 kgf is roughly equivalent to that
offered by an upgradient of 1 % i.e. a road rising 1 m vertical through
100 m horizontal.
It w i l l be seen that the advantage of pneumatic tyres receders
rapidly as the ground conditons worsen and for rough roads a crawler
unit is at an advantage. Machines using crawler chains are not allowed
to cross public roads which are damaged by the cleats of grouser plates
and the latter should be replaced by plain plates preferably w i t h rubber
soles, for such crossing. Speed of crawler chains is slower than that o f
tyres. Where public roads have to be crossed often, or where the flitting
is frequent, i t is an advantage to use pneumatic tyred equipment.
I n the field crawler mounted equipment scores over the tyred one for
climbing steep gradients and has better traction on rough roads and
better gripping capacity on bench floor w he n the machine has to dig
hard, e.g. when extracting toe. Crawlers can negotiate sharp turns, a
big advantage in a quarry of limited size. The quantity o f mineral and
rock that remains frozen in the roadways of quarry where tyre mounted
,J
dozers and tractor shovels are used is much larger compared to that
w h e n similar equipment on crawlers is deployed.
larger machines. The electric shovel, due to l i mi ted length of the trailing
cable, operates only w i t h i n a restricted area and the trailing cable being
heavy needs men to handle it d u r i n g movement f r o m one place to
"another. Some shovels are diesel-electric. I n this type of drive a diesel
engine mounted on the shovel itself drives a generator that supplies
electricity to motors w h i c h to the heavy w o r k of the machine and the
various controls on the I h o v e l . Such drive is found in m e d i u m large
.shovels.
The voltage of small machines is usually m e d i u m , 400 or 500,
though H.T. voltage (3300-6600) is often essential for large machines
like dipper shovels w h i c h have to move very l i t t l e d u r i n g a shift.
The bucket wheel excavators at Neyveli are supplied power at 11 kV
through T.R.S. cables and transformers-in the machine step do wn the
voltage to 3.3 kV for some motors and to 400 V for some other motors.
' l\d power transmission lines bring the power to a convenient
point near the quarry and from there the pliable armoured cables which
.ne sufficiently flexible carry it to the machines. I n mechanised quarries
ii is difficult to construct the power lines entirely outside the blasting
rone as trailing cable lengths are restricted by the Electricity Rules and
inch overhead lines and the insulators sometimes break due to flying
••lones of blasting.
Elements of Mining Technology 5.13 5.14 Opencast Mining

Buldozer 3 m to 22 m and it takes nearly one minute for loading. When the
3 3

scraper is fully loaded its b o t t o m opening is closed by the operator

A buldozer is often referred to simply as a dozer. I t is a tractor
through manipulation o f a cable (rope) and the loaded scraper, w i t h
w i t h a pusher blades attached to the front portion. The tractor is the
the b o w l lifted, travels to the d u m p i n g yard on its o w n power. At the
diesel-operated power u n i t equipped w i t h either crawler chains or
dumping yard, as the scraper moves, the bottom opening of the b o w l
rubber tyred wheels for liftting. The pusher blade can be raised or
is opened and the contents are unloaded i n a layer 150 m m to 250
lowered or tilted through small angles horizontally by rams operated
m m thick, over a distance of 30 to 70 m . The b o w l is always b o t t o m
through hydraulic pressure or by ropes. The dozer blade is used for
discharging. Scrapers are unsuitable i n soils w i t h stumps, large boulders
pushing loose material or for digging i n earth, sand and soft weathered
and hard rocks. When the ground is hard, it is necessary to rip the
rock. The machine is also engaged for levelling or spreading earth, for
surface w i t h the help of a ripper before loading by a scraper. Sandy soil
levelling of rock spoil i n the d u m p i n g yard, grading and compacting
is best for a scraper w h i c h has to be stopped during rains, i f engaged i n
t e m p o r a r y roads, p u s h i n g m i n e r a l i n t o sub-ground level bunkers
alluminum. (Fig. 5.3).
through grizzly, for t o w i n g dumpers, etc. I t also serves the purpose of
pushing boulders, pulling d o w n trees, and is an essential equipment
to push scrapers. A dozer equipped w i t h a fork like attachment is k n o w n
as ripper and operates like a plough to loosen moderately hard rock.
The loosened rock may be loaded by a scraper. A.dozer can dig 1.2 m
to 1.5 m below ground i n earth or weathered rock. (Fig. 5.2).

Fig. 5.2 Bulldozer
Scraper
This machine is diesel-operated w i t h pneumatic tyred wheel;
and has at the centre a b o w l fitted w i t h a cutting blade at bottoi
The blade is reversible and can be replaced w h e n blunt. Its working
may be compared to that of a l a w n power. As a scraper is pushed
forward by a dozer, its blade cuts a thin slice of earth usually betwedl
75 m m and 225 m m thick over a d i s t a n t of nearly 30 m. The earth I
automatically collected in a central bowl whose capacity ranges f r o J
blade
Fig. 5.3 A scraper showing the bowl (a cutaway view) getting loaded.
Scrapers are used i n coal mines for cutting and transporting
weathered sandstone as w e l l as coal. The coal excavated by it is however
smaller i n size. A Scraper may take 5 to 6 minutes for a complete cycel
of loading and unloading i f the total up-and-down distance of a trip is
nearly 300 m . One-way traffic of loaded and empty scrapers is desirable
lor good results. One dozer is normally sufficient for every two scrapers
used.

Elements of Mining Technology 5.15
The scraper manufactured by BEML has the following main
specifications.
Flywheel H.P. o f engine 332 at 2100 r p m ;
Capacity : payload 23000 kg; struck 11.5 m , heaped 16 m
3 Thus poorly consolidated material w i t h low seimic wave velocities could
Max. travel speed (forward) 44 km/hr
Overall dimensions m m : length 12600; w i d t h 3470; height 3890.
Net weight (no load) 26584 kg.
Ripper
A ripper is a machine w h i c h cuts, as i t travels, 0.6 to 1 m deep
furrows in the ground, and i t can be w e l l compared w i t h the farmer's
plough. The ripper is essentially a crawler mounted heavy duty diesel
tractor w i t h a ripper attachment as shown i n Fig. 5.4. Like a farmer's
plough, the r i p p e r ' w i t h the ripping t o o l thrust into the ground by
hydraulic pressure, travels along close paths, 1.2 to 1.5 m apart and
during the travel rips open the ground. The broken ground or rock can
be dozed to form a stockpile for convenience of loading or can be
loaded by a scraper. I f the overburden or mineral is suitable for ripping
its breaking is possible w i t h the help o f a ripper and the process of
drilling and blasting can be dispensed w i t h . Soft rocks and medium
hard rocks, below hardness 5 on Moh's scale, w h i c h are laminated and
stratified, provide suitable material for ripping. The alluvial surface
deposits, weathered sandstones and shales underlying t h e m i n the
coalfields can be easily ripped and the relative rippability of the rocks
can be k n o w n w i t h the help of an instrument k n o w n as Refraction
Seismograph.
Fig. 5.4 Ripper attachment
516 Opencast Mining
The Refraction Seismograph operates on the principle that
"Sound waves travel subsurface material at different velocities, depending
upon the degree o f consolidation of the material". It is believed that
the same factors t h a t affect c o n s o l i d a t i o n also affect r i p p a b i l i t y .
be ripped easily, w h i l e highly consolidated material w i t h high velocities
would be difficult to r i p .
Equipment needed for seismic analysis includes a source of a
sound or Shockwave, a receiver, an electric counter, and a set of cables.
The m a i n items are :
1. Refraction Seismograph: A n electronic counter that determines
the time interval between the strike of the hammer and the
arrival of the seismic wave at the geophone.
2. Geophone : Receiver of sound waves. A geophone is a velocity
gauge suitable for detecting frequencies i n the range of 1-100
Hz. The geophone converts the mechanical vibrations into its
electrical analogue. The electrical signal is then amplified and
transmitted to the monitoring station.
3. Sledge Hammer and Impact Plate : Source o f sound wave
transmits sound t h r o u g h earth and also t h r o u g h an impact
switch having direct connection w i t h seismograph, through a
connecting wire.
4. A 30 m Tape : For measuring distances between the geophone
and various impact points (wave sources).
The seismic wave is produced by a sledge hammer striking a
Heel plate at various distances from a geophone receiver. Immediately
upon impact, a wave "front" composed o f innumerable seismic waves
iMvels i n all directions away from the point of impact, or source. Some
nl l lie waves are refracted into the layers of sub-surface materials and
angle of refraction is determined by Shell's law w h i c h gives the
owing relationships.
Sine of angle of incidence _ Sine of angle of refraction
Wave velocity i n upper layer Wave velocity in lower layer
The geophone receiver is sensitive only to the first seismic wave
•'•iireaches it. Thus, either the wave which travels the shortest distance,
c which travels a longer path but w h i c h includes a high velocity
M n e n t , arrives first at the geophone.
Elements of Mining Technology 5.17

I n a d d i t i o n to d e t e r m i n i n g the degree o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n o r
rippability of each layer, it is also possible to determine the depth o f
each layer.

I n i r o n ore areas of Goa the practical results obtained w i t h !

s e i s m o g r a p h w e r e as f o l l o w s : Seismic v e l o c i t y i n o v e r b u r d e n
(practically laterite) was 600 to 1,200 m per second. I n i r o n ore it was
1,050 to 1,500 m per second, but in some cases velocities as high as
1,800 to 2,100 m per second were also recorded.

W h e n selecting a tractor for ripping purposes, i t is necessary to

consider (1) the d o w n pressure on the t o o t h to determine whether
penetration can be accomplished, (2) the tractor H.P. w h i c h should be
capable of advancing the tooth through the rock and break it, (3) tractor
weight w h i c h provides traction for full use of the H.P. i n advancing the
tooth.

The tractor speed is 0.8 to 2.5 km/hr d u r i n g ripping. I f the

rock is soft it is advisable not to increase the speed b u t to add one o r J
more r i p p i n g teeth. The distance between adjacent furrows d u r i n g
ripping may be 1 to 2 m and the harder the rock, the closer are the furrows.

I n some rock formations ripping is possible after sparse blasting

of widely spaced charges.

Tractor Shovel
It is essentially a diesel operated tractor w i t h a bucket as the
front attachment and is called a front-end loader or payloader. I t may
be on pneumatic tyres or crawler chains. The tractor shovel attachments
consists of a push frame and a bucket that can be raised, lowered and
dumped hydraulically or mechanicaly. The shovel usually has a pusher
fan so that the dirt falling form the bucket w i l l not be sucked back
Fig. 5.5 Tractor shovel
towards the operator and engine air intake (Fig. 5.5).
Tractor shovels have been employed i n some mines to load
For digging, the complete tractor shovel has to move forwa
I lie stacked mineral at the siding into railway wagons or to push it into
toward the bench and for unloading the contents of the bucket tin y.iound-level bunkers. Capacities o f the buckets are from 0.57 m 3

entire unit has to come back and position itself conveniently to emptjj upwards. Heavy rock buckets for handling blasted rock carry teeth as a
the bucket on to a dumper. Its rate of digging and loading cannoq standard equipment though the buckets used for coal handling need
therefore, be as fast as w i t h a revolving shovel, described later. not be so equiped.
Elements of Mining Technology 5.19
5.20 Opencast Mining
Main specifications of t w o wheel-loaders (B.E.M.L.) The m a i n components are :

WA 200-1 Model-3035 1. Propelling arrangements consisting o f either crawler chains o r

pneumatic tyres.
Bucket capacity m 3 1.5 3.3 2. A deck o r cab mounted o n a t u r n table and housing the prime
Heaped 2:1 (SAE) m 3 1.7 3.8 mover, all the controls for operation, cable (wire rope) drums
and the operator's seat. The deck or cab can swing through
Flywheel H.P. 108 at 2,400 RPM 300 at 2,100 RPM
360° independently of the propelling crawler chains or tyres.
Max. Travel Speed -
3. Deck swinging mechanism. W h e n the deck swings, a l l the
Forward, k m / h r 37 31.6 equipment mounted o n i t , including the boom and the bucket,
also swings.
D u m p i n g Reach, m m 1,025 1,300
A shovels is made i n three structural divisions. A n automatically,
Turning Radius, m m 5,620 6,300
the top or revolving unit is the head and torso, the m o u n t i n g or travel
Overall Height, m m 3,190 4,075 unit is the legs, and the various attachments are the arms and hands.
Length, bucket o n A revolving and a travel unit together make u p a basic shovel w h i c h
9,200 may be fitted w i t h any of the five front attachments shown i n Fig. 5.6.
ground, m m 6,715
The machine may thus become any one of the following : a crane, a
• d a m shell, a dipper shovel, a drag line, a pull shovel or a back-hoe.
A n excavator, technically speaking, is a n y machine w h i c h
excavates the rock or earth and swings or transports i t , w i t h i n narrow
limits, to an adjacent place or dumps it on to a receptacle like a dumper
or railway w a g o n . I n this sense, a tractor shovel w h i c h cuts or digs to
some extent below the flow on w h i c h it stands, may w e l l be considered
an excavator - the name traxcavator for the tractor shovel manufactured
by one c o m p a n y a p l y conveys the m e a n i n g - b u t , i n e a r t h m o v i n g
terminology the term excavator covers machines o f the following type :

1. Power shovels like dipper shovels, stripper shovels and back-

hose or p u l l shovels.

2. Draglines
3. Bucket wheel excavators

A p o w e r shovel is a shovel using electric or diesel motive power

for its operation, as distinct from a hand-operated shovel. The functions
o f p o w e r shovels are v e r y s i m p l e . Basically, these machines lift
fragmented rock, and swing i t to a different location such as dumpers
or spoil heaps.
I 'i|i|)«;r shovel

Fig. 5.6 Various front attachments possible on a basic shovel.

Elements of Mining Technology 5.21 5.22 Opencast Mining
Dipper Shovel Hydraulic shovels w h i c h eliminate use o f wire ropes (cables)
have become popular in recent years. The electric motor or diesel engine
This is a machine employed for excavating soft rock or loading
mounted on the shovel drives the hydraulic p u m p and the pressure
fragmented rock from a bench and is very commonly used i n mines.
developed is utilised for varous operations of the shovel. Hydraulic
It is usually mounted on crawler chains. Fig. 5.7 B shows the principle
motors are o f l o w speed, h i g h torque w i t h h y d r o s t a t i c b r a k i n g .
parts and controls. The cab carries the power unit w h i c h may be an
One example o f such hydraulic excavator is Poclain shovel o f Larsen
electrical motor at 3300 V, supplied w i t h power from an external source Toubro L t d .
t h r o u g h a flexible electric cable, or a diesel engine. The b u c k e t
f- B c
(also called dipper) commonly used may be of 1 m to 4.5 m capacity.
3 3

It is used for loading dumpers and for this purpose i t has to stand on
the floor of the bench. Watery conditions i n the quarry are not suitable
for efficient operation of this machine, as dumpers have to move inside
the quarry. D u r i n g operation, the crawlers are stationary w i t h i n 3 to
5m of the toe of the bench. To load the bucket, the operator crowds it
into the fragmented rock w i t h the dipper stick and hoists it. As i t moves
through an arc i n the rock pile, it gets loaded Fig. 5.6(a). It is then
retracted and the cab, along w i t h all the machinery mounted on i t , the Fig. 5.7 (A) Working ranges of a dipper shovel (maximum).
boom and the bucket, is swung horizontally t h r o u g h nearly 90° to
poistion the bucket over the dumper. The bucket is b o t t o m discharging Figures i n brackets show the w o r k i n g ranges in m of Tata dipper
and its door is opended by the trip cable. Normally five buckets are shovel, model 1055 B, at a boom angle of 50°. Boom length is 8.53 m .
required to load a dumper. The teeth of the bucket wear out fast and A - Cutting height (10.83)B - Cutting radius, (11.96)
when w o r n out, have to the built up to size by welding. The trip cable C - Dumping radius (9.51) D - D u m p i n g height (7.25) E - Cutting
lasts for nearly 35 hours and the hoist cable, for nearly 100 hours. In depth below.crawler level (2.51)
one shift a shovel loads 450 to 500 buckets. Where the d u m p i n g yard
is away f r o m the quarry a dipper shovel loading i n t o dumpers is
advantageous.

Fig. 5.6 A Dipper shovel in operation Fig. 5.7 'B) A dipper shovel, model TATA 1050 B
Elements of Mining Technology 5.23 Opencast Mining
Dipper shovels commonly employed i n our mines are of 2 m 1 3 M a i n specifications of some shovels of B . E . M . L .
4.6 m bucket capacities. Only a few mines employ shovels of 8.3 m or
3 3

Pull shovel Loading shovel Dipper shovel

10 m capacity, e.g. Malanjkhand Copper Project employs 10 m dipper shovels.
3 3
(Backhoe) PC220-3 PC 650-3 182 M-HR-17
diesel (Elec.)

Bucket capacity
SAE-Heaped, m 3 1.0 3.8 10
Operating Weight kg 22,000 67,000 3,27,500
Flywheel
1 lorsepower (H.P.) 148 at 2,100 RPM 404 at 1,800 RPM 600
Iloom Length, m m 5,850 8,400 12,240
Arm Length, m m 3,045 3580 • 8,230
Max. Travel
.Speed km/hr 3.4 4.1 1.61
Operating Data
Max. digging/
mtting height.m 9.18 10.68 12.70
Max. dumping
height, m 6.36 7.71 7.65
Max. digging
depth, m 6.70 3.43 -
Max. digging
n-ach, m 10.18 10.00 17.42
' iverall length.mm 10,000 9,540 N.A.

Pig. 5.8 Working ranges of L & T 1 7 0 CK-II bottom dumping shovel A-8.67
A'-5.63 m, B-7.45, B'-7.06 (in m)
Hydraulic excavator. G r o s s power 240 H.P.
Under conditions existing i n India the loading capacity of 2
shovel i n good condition and w e l l fragemented rock is as follows :
Per hour 80 passes of bucket.
Per shift (8-hours) 500 passes
Per day (2-shifts) 950 passes or 190 dumper loads or 1070 m soli3

Per week 5,800 m 3

Per month, dry 23,000 m 3

Per year 2,53,000 m 3

Loading capacities or performance of other shovels may be consider

as follows :
3.5 m capacity
3 400,000 m per year. 3

4.5 m 3 550,000 m per year. 3

Fig. 5.9 A pull shovel or back hoe
 5.25
Elements of Mining Technology
Fig. 5.10 Above shovel (Backhoe) Model PC-1000-1 of Bharat Earth Movers
Ltd. Hydraulic Wt. 95,000 kgf, k/W, bucket capacity 4.3 cubic metres.
Working ranges of the s a m e backhoe.
Stripper Shovel
A stripper shovel is only a modification of dipper shovel w i t h
long boom and is used for casting fragemented rock or earth into a
d u m p of overburden. It is mostly deployed for overburden.
Fig. 5.10 Quarry working with stripper and dipper shovels
5.26 Opencast Mining
Pull Shovel or Hoe
Fig. 5.9 shows a pull shovel, w h i c h is also k n o w n as a hoe,
back hoe, drag shovel. It is used for loading dumpers and its best
application is for digging below the level on w h i c h it stands. The shovel
and the dumpers can stand at a higher level free from water and m u d
of the quarry floor. As the attachments to the bucket are by dipper
stick and not by cables, the bucket is under positive control of the
operator and therefore suitable for hard digging.
The shovel is used for stripping top soil, and making shallow
cuts and trenches upto a depth of 3.5 to 6 m. Compared to dipper
shovel, the hoe is slower in digging and less efficient for loading trunks.
I n deep digging, the face should be kept fairly straight and the
shovel should be as far back from the edge as possible, otherwise there
may be danger of caving of the edge.
Dumpers or Tippers
These are heavy duty trucks w i t h a container-body of steel open
at the top for receiving material loaded mechanically by tractor shovel,
dipper shovel, dragline, etc. A l l dumpers/tippers are provided w i t h
•uragements to lift the loaded body by utilising hydraulic pressure to
lorce a ram out. The body swings from its horizontal position round a
luicrum through nearly 70° to d u m p its load and the hydraulic system
idso functions to p u l l the body back o n its seat i.e. the chassis.
Tig. 5.11 shows a typical hydraulic system layout for the t i p p i n g gear
of a dumper. From an oil tank o i l flows by gravity to hydraulic pump.
When the driver engages the power take off (P.T.O.) control lever, power
liom the engine is transmitted from the transmission countershaft to
die power take off w h i c h drives the p u m p . The oil under high pressure
horn the pump goes to the control valve whose lever can be manipulated
lor 4 different possition.
(a) Raise position : High pressure oil goes through the hose pipes
to tjie b o t t o m of the hoist cylinder and the ram is then forced
out. O i l at the top of the hoist travel back to the control valve
through the hose connected to the piston rod.
(b) Hold position : Both the passages between the control valve
and hoist are closed so that o i l at the bottom and top of the
hoist is at a stand still and the latter is unable to move i n
either direction.
 5.27 5.28 Opencast Mining
Elements of Mining Technology
(c) Float position : B o t h hose passages b e t w e e n the c o n t r o l Brakes o n dumpers are operated by compressed air (Fig. 5.12).
Some dumpers are equipped w i t h hydraulic retarder (hydrotarder).
valve and hoist are open so that o i l at either end of the hoist
This is a device used o n some trucks and dumpers to prevent the speed
can flow either way. The hoist can then travel i n either direction
from exceeding certain limits w h e n travelling a steep down-slope and
depending upon the direction i n w h i c h the force is applied.
" o r Pressure gauge also t o produce a breaking action o n the vehicle. I n a way, i t acts as a
• alinl Malua ~"
governor. It uses the hydraulic friction to produce the breaking action.
Unline the regular brakes, the hydrotarder w i l l n o t completely stop
die vehicle but w i l l slow it d o w n preparatory to stoppings w i t h the
familiar f r i c t i o n brakes, operated by compressed air or h y d r a u l i c
pressure. The retarder essentially consists of a vane type rotor turned
by the driven shaft, a fixed casing or stator fitted w i t h vanes and an o i l
circulation system.

The machines deployed in the opencast mines, at the crushing

and ore p r e p a r a t i o n p l a n t h a v e t o be o f m a t c h i n g c a p a c i t i e s .
At Kudremiikh Iron Ore Project, one of the largest opencast mines i n
India, the capacities o f some o f the machines are : shovels 10.7 m , 3

production trucks 108 te, front end loaders 10 m , electric drills for
3

310 m m dia. blast holes, gyratory crushers 4000 te/hr.

Fig. 5.11 The tipping gear for dumpers

(d) Lower position : High pressure oil goes to the top of the hois
w h i c h then telescopes itself by the oil pressure and the oil a
the bottom o f the hoist travels back t o the tank via the contrc
valve. The body is thereby lowered on to the chassis.

Steering o n a l l the heavy d u t y dumpers is mechanical bu

assisted by hydraulic power, generated by the engine. The dumpd
operator's e x e r t i o n i n thereby considerably reduced. Mechanics
transmission from the engine to the rear wheels is the standard practid
now-a-days, though for some years the rear wheels were driven I
individual electric motors controlled from operator's cabin. M e d i u i
sized mechanised quarries e m p l o y dumpers of 25-50 te carryii
capacity. 50-60 te coal haulers are on the manufacturing line of B.E.M.
and H i n d u s t h a n M o t o r s . F u t u r e p l a n n i n g of large projects is fi
employment o f 100-150 te dumpers w h i c h w i l l be fed by shovel of
10 m capacity. Bottom discharging coal haulers of 55 te payloa
3

43 m struck capacity (model GB 60C) are manufactured by BEML.

3
Fig. 5.12 Schematic arrangement of compressed air brake

Bements of Mining Technology
Drage Line
A drag line is a machine used for excavating earth, sand or soft
rock and consists essentially o f a revolving deck, a l o n g light b o o m ,
crawler chains, and a special type o f bucket h e l d i n p o s i t i o n a n d
controlled by cables (Fig. 5.13). The bucket, w h e n it has to be loaded,
is lowered in the earth or loose rock by manipulation of the cables and
is dragged by t h e m . As i t is dragged i t gets loaded. Hence the name
dragline. A dragline is operated by diesel engine or a m o t o r w h i c h is
supplied power at high voltage from external source t h r o u g h a trailing
cable. The depth to w h i c h a dragline digs is limied by the capacity o f
the d r u m s t o hold the hoist cable. W h e n digging, the bucket, after i t is
loaded, is hoisted up, the boom given a swing through 90° and the
contents then unloaded by manipulation o f the cable.
20°-30°
Fig. 5.13 Working ranges of a dragline
A-DigglngdepthC-Dumping^ddlggingradli D - Dumping height
" of the boom bucket unloaded on a spoil heap.
5.30 Opencast Mining
A d r a g l i n e is s u i t a b l e for d i g g i n g a l l u v i u m , sandy s o i l ,
unconsolidated rock or blasted coal/rock. It digs below the level, at
which i t stands and from position can dig over a wide w o r k i n g place
and cast the earth over a w i d e area w i t h i n the reach of the boom. It is
v
generally not employed to load dumpers as the accurate positioning of
the dragline bucket over a l i m i t e d area of the dumper delays the cycle
j of operation and the common application is for d u m p i n g overburden.
It is suitable for w o r k i n g a quarry w i t h watery conditions as the dragline
works from a higher and,, therefore, dry position.
I
J Loading capacity of a dragline
> A dragline is capable of dealing w i t h the following quantites of
rock/earth (solid) in a year (12 to 14 hours w o r k daily).
Bucket size Million m 3
4.5 to 7.5 m (6 to 10 cyd)
3 0.25 to 0.75
11.5 to 15 m (15 to 20 cyd)
3 1.5 to 1.7
23 to 30 m (30 to 4 0 cyd)
3 3 to 4.5
A d r a g l i n e may be c r a w l e r m o u n t e d or Of w a l i n g type.
1 i.iwler mounted machines have travelling speeds of 0.25 to 5 km/hr.
A walking dragline has a travelling speed of 0.18 to 0.6 km/hr.
Road Grader
This is a machine for levelling the road surface by smoothening
• "ii ilie ups and downs and for casting aside the boulders on the road,
ii is always pneumatic tyre mounted w i t h only rearwheel drive and
front wheels are small. The grading blade is attached to a circle
lli.ii is hung from the overhead frame and pulled by a drawbar fastened
ilie front of the frame. The blade is usually 3.5 to 4 long having
i'I.treble edges on the sides and bottom. Steering is direct-connecting
lianical by a hand wheel though a hydraulic booster is fitted on
!<• models (Fig. 5.14).
 5.31
Elements of Mining Technology
Fig. 5.14 Road grader
The m o t o r grader (Mode GD 605 R-2) o f B.E.M.L. has. the
following main specifications : Engine flywheel HP 145 at 1800 RPM;
operating weight 12,650 k g ; Max. Drawbar p u l l 7,280 k g ; Max. speed
forward - 43.6 k m p h ; steering - f u l l hydraulic; overall length-8415 m m ;
w i d t h 2375 m m ; height-3200 m m , m i n i m u m t u r n i n g radius 10.4 m.
Rock Drills „ i
Rock d r i l l is the t e r m applied to a l l machines using compresse
air for d r i l l i n g holes into rock by combined percussive and rotary action.
The hole diameter is normally upto 100 m m .
The rock drills are classified mainly as follows :
1. Jack hammers (also called Sinkers) 2. Drifters.
3. Stopers. 4. Wagon drills
A jack hammer, so familiar to mine workers, is a hand-held an
unmounted d r i l l used for vertically d o w n w a r d drilling. It weighs fro
15 to 25 kgf and is used for d r i l l i n g upto a depth o f 2 m (rarely 3 m
hole dia. is generally 30 to 37 m m and rarely 50 m m . I n a few cases
jack hammer may be mounted on an air leg. Though ordinary used f
dry d r i l l i n g , i t can be adapted for wet drilling as.well.
5.32 Opencast Mining
A drifter is a mounted d r i l l , generally designed for horizontal
drilling. I t is heavier than the Jack hammer and is used i n quarries and
for tunnel driving. The widely used m o u n t i n g is the column and a r m
and the d r i l l may be used for wet as w e l l as dry drilling. Its w o r k i n g is
like a jack hammer.
A stoper is a d r i l l for drilling upward and derives its name from
its widespread use i n mine stopes. It is used normally for w e t drilling.
A w a g o n d r i l l is essentially a d r i f t e r type d r i l l capable o f
movement up and d o w n a vertical guide and mounted on a portable
frame fitted w i t h wheels. The hole dia. is from 50 to 100 m m and the
depth drilled ranges from 3 to 15 m.
Compressed air was the motive power for w a g o n drills t i l l
recently but now-a-days some wagon drills are operated by hydraulic
power, as hydraulic power is more efficient than compressed air power.
Jack Hammer Drill
It is a compressed air operated d r i l l to w h i c h air is supplied
from external compressors through hose pipes at a pressure of about 6
kgf/cm . The d r i l l weighs 15 to 25 kgf and drills holes of dia. 30 m m to
2
.'18 m m (rarely upto 50 m m ) upto 3 m depth. The d r i l l rod is hexagonal
In cross-section, suitably shaped at one end to form the shank and the
• )i her end is so shaped as to f o r m a non-detachable single chisel b i t
with a tungsten carbide insert. D r i l l rods may also be equipped w i t h
detachable X type tungsten carbide d r i l l bits. In a shift of 8 hrs, t w o
workers w h o hold the d r i l l can d r i l l 60 holes, each 1.2 to 1.5 m deep i n
•..ind stone, laterite, etc. When hand-held, the machine drills vertically
downward holes only but i f mounted on air legs, it may be used for
•hilling inclined holes. A n oil bottle placed between the d r i l l and the
mi receiver, and connected by hose pipes to both, provides lubrication
i " i he d r i l l w h e n w o r k i n g . For dust suppression a jack hammer can be
•• fipted to wet drilling by some modifications so that the d r i l l cuttings
MMixcd w i t h water come out of the hole i n the form of a slugde. The air
foiisnmption is generally 2-2.5 m of free air/min. (See v o l 3 for more
3
ili '.eription).
 \34 Opencast Mining
Elements of Mining Technology
Wagon Drill
A compressed air operated drifter mounted o n a mobile frame
and capable of travel up and d o w n a mast is k n o w n as wagon d r i l l .
The frame is usually t y r e d w h e e l m o u n t e d t h o u g h crawler chain
mounting is provided in a few models. Tyred wheel mounted wagon
drills can be pulled by the operator and his helper to the hole sites o n
.i level ground. A wagon d r i l l , as stated earlier, is used to d r i l l holes
of dia. varying from 50 m m to 100 m m for depth o f 3 m to 15 m.
The mast for the drifter is usually 3 m long providing for nearly 3 m
vertical travel o f the latter. This travel is possible w i t h the help o f a
I < impressed, air driven feed motor through chain ( k n o w n as chain feed).
The drifer provides the rotary m o t i o n as w e l l as the percussive action
l<> the d r i l l rods, and i n t u r n , to the d r i l l bit. The d r i l l b i t is detachable
type w i t h tungsten carbide insert. Compressed air fed t h r o u g h the
hollow d r i l l rods blows away the cuttings to the surface. Total meterage
Fig. 5.15 Common Types of drill bits drilled i n an 8-hours shift is 60-70 m in rocks like sandstone, coal, etc.
m/luding the t i m e spent o n shifting the d r i l l f r o m hole to hole,
lie mast is capable o f swivelling from vertical to a horizontal position
mid it can be kept fixed at any angle between the horizontal and the
vertical, thereby facilitating vertical, horizontal or inclined drilling upto
40°. The d r i l l is not self propelling, and receives air f r o m external
•ompressor (Fig. 5.16).
The m a x i m u m air consumption is 8 to 19 m /s m i n . of free air
3

m 6 kgf/cm including air b l o w i n g for d r i l l b i t o f 60-70 m m dia.

2

Though a detachable X-bit is the d r i l l b i t o n most o f the w a g o n

B i s , some wagon drills used for 100 m dia. holes used d o w n the hole
I.immers. Such down-the-hole hammers are used for larger dia. holes
also and are described a little later.

IDown-The-Hole Hammers
In a large size wagon d r i l l using a drifter a considerable portion
W the drifter's energy is utilised i n overcoming the inertia of the d r i l l
tiling making up the column of the d r i l l rods and i n rotating them,
mu-li loss of the d r i l l energy increases w i t h depth. This waste of energy
Fig. 5.16 Wagon drill Model BVE • considerably reduced by the use o f the down-the-hole hammer,
25 of Atlas C o p c o suitable for
drilling holes of dia. 50 to 1.15 mm.
in drill b i t used may be a carset bit (a X-bit w i t h little modification)
It may be fitted with a heavy duty n .i button b i t w h i c h is fitted i n the hammer. The compressed air
rock drill (drifter) or with a down-] §g do wn the h o l l o w d r i l l rods forces the piston w h i c h directly
the-hole-hammer.
Elements of Mining Technology 5.3

hammers the d r i l l b i t w i t h o u t any d r i l l rod in-between. The number o 5.36

blows is from 500 to 2400 per m i n . When using down-the hole hamme Opencast Mining
the drifter is replaced b y a rotary head placed at the t o p of the d r r
Feed motor
string and driven by a built-in piston type air motor. The rotation and gear
speed of the d r i l l rods is neary 15-25 r.p.m. The rotary head is als
used to tighten and loosen threaded joints on rods. The up and dow
travel of the drillrods is by a chain feed. Fig. 5.17 shows down-the KuSrimTh* h ° ' '"
e d n * at
S i n , n d l a a r

fori O ^ H ' T , ° P J ' - ^ t r i c rotary drills

hole hammer, type 100 ASS used o n HALCO drills for holes o f 100 m
r e R O e c t e l

to 125 m m dia. Its specifications: Outside dia. 89 m m , length w i t h o u at Kudrpm T b{T h 0 , e S " T h e m a t c h i n 9 ^Uent
e

bit 9 4 cms; weight w i t h o u t b i t 3 1 k g .

Rock drill
COP 1038HB roadetTol ° Pr dUCt,0ntrUCkS " 1 0 8 te;fronf e n d

Air consumption at 7 kgf/cm is 5.5 m / m i n .

2 3
Fig. 5.18. Hydraulically operated wagon drill-
model ROC 810 H
Hydraulic Wagon Drill
Some of the heavy duty wagon drills are powered by hydrauli Courtesy of Atlas Copco (India) Ltd.

pressure system. Fig. 5.17 shows a hydraulic wagon d r i l l , model R O

810 H manufactured by Atlas Copco (India) Ltd. I t is equiped w i t h
rock d r i l l model COP 1308 H B manufactured by the same compan
I n the d r i l l , compressed air is replaced by hydraulic pressure and t h
prime mover for the hydraulic power pack is an air cooled diesel engin
The absence of exhaust air results i n a m u c h lower noise level w h
compared w i t h air-powered rockdrill. I t can d r i l l holes of dia. 65 m
to 127 m m and can therefore be used as a w e l l hole d r i l l for 127 mil Controls for
dia. holes for d e p t h u p t o a b o u t 12 m . The hole is flushed w i t rock drill
compressed air at 10 kgf/cm . The rate of penetration i n hard rock
2

generally 1 m / m i n using 90 m m dia b i t . The rock d r i l l 1038 H B

equiped w i t h a hydraulic system incorporates indicators rock conditiol
The hydraulic system incorporates indicators w h i c h p o i n t out any fau
or malfunction i n the system. The boom system is operated b y hydrauli
pressure.
Automatic disc brakes contribute towards increased safety fi
the operation w h e n travelling along steep inclines.

Well Hole Drill "iwler track'

< -'ontrol panel
This is usually a crawler mounted d r i l l operated by a dies* for diesel engine
engine or by an electric motor w h i c h is supplied power from an externl ".ind pump
source through a trailing cable. I t drills holes of 125 m m to 3 0 0 mi
• lylraul oil tank Dust
diameter, depth varying from 6 m to 18 m. It has a long mast, 3 m j suction fan
Hydraulic pumps
6 m , to accommodate the length o f the drill rod. The mast is collapsibl
and the d r i l l should not be moved over an appreciable distance w i l I>|<•sol engine
Control panel f ™ , H y d r a u l i c
for diesel W j h
n c

engine
 5.37
Elements of Mining Teclmology
the mast raised. The drills are of percussive as w e l l as rotary type b u t I
the latter is common i n coalmining areas. The d r i l l i n g tool of rotary
d r i l l is a tricone bit on most of the drills b u t on the machines w h i c h are
k n o w n as "down-the-hole percussive drills" (sometimes called "down-
the-hole hammer d r i l l " ) , the d r i l l i n g tool is a cross bit, (carset b i t ) , or a
b u t t o n bit. I n down-the-hole hammer d r i l l the assembly of the d r i l l
and its short length pipe is called down-the-hole hammer (see Fig. E l 8 ) .
I n the rotary d r i l l the string is rotated by the prime mover,
t h r o u g h suitable gearing. The tricone b i t attached at the end of the
d r i l l string is thus rotated a n d i t is kept pressed against the rock b j
hydraulic or pneumatic pressure.
I n down-the-hole precussive d r i l l the rotation o f the hollo
d r i l l rods is provided by a rotary placed at the top o f the d r i l l strin
and driven by a built-in air motor. The air motor is also used t o tighte
and loosen threaded joints on rods and bits. The. up or d o w n travel <
the d r i l l rods is by a chain, operated by a reversible piston type
motor (Chain Feed). A compressor mounted on a w e l l hole d r i l l her
to clean the hole as it is drilled. During d r i l l i n g , the meachine is levell<
w i t h the help of 3 hydraulic jacks. Normally twenty holes, each 9
deep, can be drilled in one shift i n sand stone, shale and coal. O n f l
vertically d o w n w a r d d r i l l i n g is possible on most models though h o l d
20° off vertical can be drilled by a few machines. O n some m a c h i n j
the drill-rods and the tools are at one end and on others, i n the m i d d l
of the machine. The latter arrangement is permissible where the b u r d ^ l
of blast hole is large and the ground at the quarry edge strong e n o u f l
to support the weight o f the machine; but where this is not practicahl
drills rigs w i t h the d r i l l rods and tool at one end have to be used.
Fig. 5.18 Down-the-hole-hammer ^
A w e l l hole d r i l l appears like a wagon d r i l l suitable for lai
diam. holes, e.g. the w a g o n d r i l l shown i n Fig. 5.17.
A rotary w e l l hole d r i l l can d r i l l i n a shift of 8 hours nearly I
holes, 200 m m dia. each 9 m deep, i n sandstone, coal, shale and sirm
rocks.
5.38
Opencast Mining
Inclined Drilling
Where the o v e r b u r d e n consists o f soft r o c k w h i c h can be
conveniently removed by ripper and scraper-dozer combination an
alternative to ripper and scraper-dozer combination a n alternative t o
ripper is the method of drilling nearly horizontal.blast holes and blasting
them. Vertical (or nearly-vertical) blast holes have to be drilled where
the overburden consists o f hard rock like sandstone, laterite, etc.
30° off vertical may be considered t o be the l i m i t for inclined
drilling o f nearly-vertical holes o n a bench. Larger angle increases the
leiigth o f the hole, difficulties i n charging i t w i t h explosives o f fixed
shaped cartridges, p r o p o r t i o n o f stemmed section o f the hole and gives
face inclination unsuitable for travel o f the shovel bucket.
The toe o f a bench can be removed by extra drilling o f short
length horizontal holes o n l y i n the toe and blasting them, or by resort
to inclined d r i l l i n g o f the mai n (nearly vertical) blast holes. I n vertical
IS w e l l as inclined blast holes for the face, i t is always essential to extend
the hole slightly beyond the level o f bench floor t o secure proper
fragmentation o f toe i f the hole is terminating in h a r d rock.
Layout of a mechanised quarry
The layout o f a quarry depends primarily on
1. shape, size and d i p o f the deposit.
2. proposed d e p t h u p t o w h i c h m i n i n g a c t i v i t i y is planned to
extend.
3. thickness o f the overburden,
k surface topography,
desired production,
transport system for mi ner al and OB,
arrangement for disposal o f debris,
type of mechanisation and finance available for i t .
 5.40
Opencast Mining

Elements of Mining Technology 5.39

Boundary

Fig. 5.19 Layout of a mechanised quarry with separate trenches

The layout o f a quarry should depict the following :

1. Position of OB benches and mineral benches.
2. Access to the benches and exit roads for the dumpers.
3. Position of back filling area.
4. Location o f machinery w h i c h operates f r o m one site over j
long period such a sovel, dragline, bucket wheel excavator, ii
relation to the benches.
Fig. 5.19 shows the layout of a mechanised quarry using dippe
shovels, dumpers and w e l l hole drills, the common equipment i n mol
of our mines. The property is divided into areas along the strike, ead
area being nearly 100 to 300 m long. I n the initial stages a box cd
(trench) R K is made w i t h the help o f scraper, dozers or small capacil
(2 m ) shovels to suit the depth of the trench. Such trench is essentu
3 rust mines these days. Mineral is then transported by conveyor belts
for a shovel w h i c h stands on the floor of the quarry and operates c
benches. Some amount o f blasting may be necessary i n m a k i n g a tren<
i n hard rocks. I n the advanced stage of the quarry t w o trenches R K an
R J K J are i n use, one for the OB and the other for the mineral whii
Fig. 5.20 Switch back layout (Vertical section exaggerated)
I n the figure, h 1 a n d h are OB bench a n d m i n e r a l bench
2
i«-:;pectively. I f the OB and mineral are o f considerable thickness, there
may be t w o or more benches for OB as w e l l as for the mineral. I n such
rases r a m p s have t o be p r o v i d e d b e t w e e n adjacent benches.
1'iovision of t w o trenches, one for OB and the other for mineral, avoid
<< ingestion o f dumpers o n the h a u l roads. This layout can be modified
in have a crusher and outgoing belt conveyor o n the lower end o f
mineral trench. In-pit crusher w i t h feeder breaker is the trend i n open
|o coal h a n d l i n g p l a n t or m i n e r a l processing p l a n t . Some o f the
mirhanised opencast mines in South Eastern Coalfields Ltd., are now
| n m g in-pit crushers.

goes to the crushing plant. The OB bench and the mineral bench a
usually parallel to each other and advance towards the quarriable lim
of the mine.
Elements of Mining Technology 5.41
5.42
Opencast Mining

O/H power line rj|'|'{'|i|M»rrrrnr

O/B
bench
Traling
I cable
\l
4.5 m 3 Coal

exposed

A mobile crusher in a mechanised quarry receiving

finishing touches in the manufacturing shop
Courtesy of Simplex Engg. & Foundry Works ltd. Bhil,

Strip N coal

Such layout of t w o trenches is not suitable i f the mineral is

much depth as formation of trenches w o u l d involve removal of larg
m
volume of earth and rock. Layout of one trench for b o t h mineral
l drill 8g&l
OB may then be adopted.
For deeper quarries switchback system o f t r a c k l a y o u t
advantageous. Fig. 5.10 b shows the tracks as they w o u l d appear i n
vertical projection (exaggerated) for a locomotive-minecar combinatio:
of transport system.'.Numbers 0,1,2,3, mark the levels of the floo
Thus to get from level 0 to w o r k i n g floor 3 a train must follow ti
route marked by the arrows. Switchback entails a big loss of time f
shunting operations. Each switchback should be sufficiently long
boundary of lease
hold a train and railway switches, or else to allow enough room
minecars to t u r n r o u n d : " ' • Fig. 5.21 Quarry at an advanced stage with
Fig. 5.21 shows a modified layout depicting the position dumper-dipper shovel combination

various coal and OB benches i n a quarry (shovel-dumper combinatio

at an advanced stage if OB is backfilled i n the decoaled area. The se I 1 B ench No
T b Ch2eS a s Bench
is considered to be 18 m thick dipping at 1 i n 5.
ich e T 0 0 m e , T * ^ ° ^ ^
e.g. 500 metre bench, 510 metre bench, 520 metre bench, etc
7 r e d U C 6 d , e V e l f t h e floor

Elements of Mining Technology 5.43
Pumps are installed i n the quarry w h i c h has to be kept nearly
dry for operation of shovel and dumpers. The usual arrangement is to
have two or three pumps as a semi permanent installation fed by small
portable pumps.
The area may be divided into strips of 45 to 60 m w i d t h along
dip rise. A w i d t h of 45 to 60 m permits easy movement of dumpers,
the m i n i m u m w i d t h required being 18 metres. Each strip provides a
bench, w h i c h is equipped w i t h a shovel and a w e l l hole d r i l l . Daily
progress o f shovel in the strips L, N, is along d i p rise direction, b u t the
advance o f the bench is along the strike w h e n considered over a quarter
or half year. The quarry excavation of course advances towards the dip
to the quarriable l i m i t .
The shovels Sj and S w o r k on stone benches and the others
3
(2 m ) w o r k on coal benches. The overburden may be taken to dumping
3
yard away from the quarry, or dumped i n the decoaled area. Suitably
graded roads, not steeper than 1 i n 10, w i t h ramps between the strips,
are provided as shown i n the figure. Shortage of shovels and ancillary
equipment may require the management to w o r k only a few benches
at a time and not as many as shown i n the figure.
Fig. 5.22 shows a spiral layout for dumper transport. As t h
haulraod runs along the periphery o f the quarry, excavation should
commence from the boundary of the quarry and proceed d o w n w a r d
forming one bench at a time. Such layout is an advantage in hill-tod
deposit w h i c h may be worked i n horizontal slices.
Fig. 5.22 A spiral layout for shovel-dumper combination
5.44
Opencast Mining
LIGNITE MINING AT NEYVELI
AND BUCKET WHEEL EXCAVATORS
In India lignite is excavated on a large scale at Neyveli Lignite
Project b y mechanised opencast m i n i n g e m p l o y i n g bucket w h e e l
excavators and other heavy duty matching equipment. India is among
the four countries after West and East Germany and Austrialia to engage
in lignite m i n i n g on a large scale and Neyveli mines are the largest
lignite mines i n Asia worked by Neyveli Lignite Corporation.
The Neyveli Lignite Project is located at Neyveli in South Arcot
Distric of Tamil Nadu. Situated i n far South, having no coal mines, the
project fulfils to a great extent, the requirements of solid mineral fuel
in that region and has, therefore, a special significance. Lignite based
i wo pit-head thermal power stations, one of 600 M W and the other of
1470 M W capacity contribute nearly 4 0 % o f electricity consumption
of Tamilnadu. Lignite is a low calorific fossil fuel w i t h a gross calorific
value o f 2600 to 3000 kcl/kg (as received samples) w i t h the following
proximate analysis :
' Moisture 45-60%; ash 3-6% (in some cases even less than 3%,
V.M. 2 2 - 2 6 % ; EC. 2 0 - 2 6 % ( i n a few cases even less than 18%;)
Voidability index 108 to 127.
The average b u l k density (in-situ) is 1.15 gm/cc or 1.15 te/m . 3
total on lignite ( i n 1995).
1. Opencast m i n i n g project, No. 1 Mine, to extract 6.5 m i l l i o n
tonnes/year of lignite proposed to be expanded to 8.5 MTe/yr
i n the second expansion scheme. Ultimate planned capacity
10 Mte/yr.
2. No. 2 Mine Project. It has an installed capacity for producing
10.5 m i l l i o n tonnes/yr lignite. This mine caters to the require-
ments o f thermal power station I I w h i c h has been expanded
from initial installed capacity o f .3 x 210 M W to 8 x 210 MW.
I. Two thermal power stations, one o f 600 M W and the other o f
1470 M W capacity, as stated above.
•I. Fertiliser plant to manufacture urea; capacity 1,30,000 te/yr.
5. Briquetting and L.T. carbonisation plant producing carbonised
briquettes called LECO for domestic use. Capacity 2,62,000
te/yr. Certain carbochemicals are produced as byproducts.
Clay washing plant, capacity 6 0 0 0 te/yr o f washed clay.
Elements of Mining Technology , 5.45 . Opencast Mining
Reserves of lignite at and around Neyveli spread over 400 k m 2
and a spreader o f 11,000 TPH capacity. The fourth bench (Bottom Bench)
are estimated to be around 3300 m i l l i o n te. Out o f these, mineable is equipped w i t h t w o 700 litres BWEs, a system o f 2000 m m w i d t h
reserves w i t h i n the parameters of not less than 8 m lignite thickness and conveyors and a spreader of 11,000 TPH capacity. The lignite bench
not more than 110 m overburden thickness w o r k to be 1500 million te. has three 700 litres BWEs and a system of 2000 m m w i d t h conveyors
No. 1 mine is spread over an area of about 15 k m w i t h deposits
2 The excavated lignite is transported to a storage bunker o n the surface
of 230 m i l l i o n te o f l i g n i t e . Average thickness o f l i g n i t e seam is of the mine. From there, lignite is reclaimed to the Thermal Power
about 15 m at a depth o f 70 m and the lignite bed dips at 1 i n 100. Station I I by t w o Reclaimers of 2000 TPH capacity each and a system
The overburden thickness increases from 50 to 100 m at the rate of 1 of 1800 m m w i d t h belt conveyors.
i n 100 towards south-south west direction of the mine field. The lignite
thickness ranges from 11 to 25 m . No 1 mine is placed to produce
ultimately 10 M te of lignite per year.
The ratio of o v e r b u r d e n t o l i g n i t e is n e a r l y 5:1 and quite
favourable for extraction by bucket wheel excavators w h i c h remove,
w i t h o u t blasting, the overburden as it consists mostly of soft rocks.
Lignite being soft, needs no blasting and i t also is excavated by bucket
wheel excavators.
The project is situated near the sea and c o n t r o l of artesian
w a t e r u n d e r h i g h pressure b e l o w l i g n i t e is a serious p r o b l e m .
The artesian water exerts an u p w a r d thrust of nearly 6-8 kgf/cm on 2

the base o f lignite and there is risk or water bursting t h r o u g h the

lignite seam o n removal of overburden. Nearly 1,35,000 l i t / m i n of
water is pumped out w i t h the help of nearly 50 bose hole pumps,
most of them located around the area being w o r k e d out, to maintain
pressure of water below the lignite at a safe level. Water table is kept
below the lignite floor by such peripheral bore hole p u m p i n g and
15-20 te of water has to be pumped out for each te of lignite mined.
The second mine is p l a n n e d for a n i n i t i a l capacity o f 4.
m i l l i o n te/yr of lignite (1st phase) and the final capacity i n 2nd phas
w i l l be 10.5 m i l l i o n te/yr. This second mine w i l l extract lignite froP
26 k m area south of the first mine and the deposits of extractabl
2

lignite are 390 millions te.

Excavation And Transportation:

Presently (10.5 Mte/year stage) the overburden is removed i
4 benches (Surface, Top, M i d d l e & B o t t o m ) . The Top t w o benche
(Surface and Top) are equipped w i t h t w o 1400 litres bucket whe
excavators (BWE), a system o f 2 4 0 0 m m w i d t h conveyors and
spreader of 20,000 TPH capacity each. The third bench (Middle bene
comprises one 1400 litres BWE, a system of 2000 m m w i d t h conveyoi Fig. S.23 Plan of s e c o n d mine cut at Neyveli Lignite Corporation Ltd.
Elements of Mining Technology
Dewatering Arrangements :
The principle of controlling the ground water is depressurisation
by dewatering w i t h large scale continuous p u m p i n g from a series o
pump wells situated at hydrological calculated distances around the
mine. The pumpage o f ground water is presently at the rate of about
150 Cu. m/minute f r o m about 35 to 40 p u m p w e l l i n the Second
Mine. By the large scale pumping operation a ll that is achieved is keeping
the pressure under control locally below lignite.
S t o r m Water C o n t r o l : Neyveli, being close t o the eastern
coastal area and being i n the cyclonic belt, has a normal annual rainfall
of 1200 m m to 2000 m m . The rain water during the monsoon months
(October to December) posses many problems i n the operation of the
mine. This storm water is coursed to the deepest p oint of the mine by
a pattern of toe and cross drains, where pumps mounted o n pontoons
are deployed i n these sumps a n d the p ont oon pumps are shifting
according to the configuration of the lignite floor. Storm water from
the sumps can be pumped direcdy to the surface w i t h high head pumps
mounted on pontoons.
D r i l l i n g a n d B l a s t i n g : The o v e r b u r d e n i n t h e N o r t h e r n
half of the mine consists o f hard Cuddalore Sandstone w h i c h needs
blasting before excavation. Presently 3 0 % of the total overburden is t<
be blasted i n the Surface and Top benches.
C o m m u n i c a t i o n : Due to enormous size a n d m u l t i f a r i o u
activities special communication facilities are provided through wireless
between various machines, Conveyors, drive head/train end stations
and service yards to the Control Room for smooth co-ordination of all
activities i n the mines. Separate frequencies/channels have been
p r o v i d e d so that there exists no interference i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n
amongst various machines and yards. Paging system is also planned |
be introduced for quicker contacts.
Exploration w o r k is going on for the t h i r d mine of propose
10 m i l l i o n te/yr capacity. The third mine, area 25 k m 2 , w i l l be locate
to south of the second mine.
5.47
5.48 Opencast Mining
Bucket Wheel Excavator
Fig. 5.24 General arrangement of a bucket wheel excavator
(i) Boom which can be raised and lowered (ii) Superstructure with machinery houses,
ballast and winches (iii) Under-carriage with crawler travel gear control equipment,
cabins for switch gear, workshops and crew (iv) Operation cabin (v) Discharge end.
Working Ranges (Figures) in bracket relate to 700 lit. B.W.E. at Neyveli)
A - Cutting height (20 m) B - Cutting radius C - Dumping radius
D - Dumping height E - Cutting depth (3m)
Neyveli lignite project is the only m i n i n g field i n India where
bucket wheel excavators are used.
A bucket wheel excavator is perhaps the most spectacular of
•ill the excavating machines. I t is used for the excavation and removal
of soft or unconsolidated overburden, coal and soft ores i n benches of
upto 90 metres.
The bucket wheel excavator essentially consists of 3 units :
1. The bucket wheel,
2. The connecting belt to the mai n crawler mounted carriage, and
3. The l o a d i n g belt w h i c h disposes o f the excavated material
c o n t i n u o u s l y i n t o r a i l wagons or conveyor belts t h r o u g h
hopper cars.
The bucket wheel may be compared w i t h the Persian wheel
U M ' d i n the past o n large wells and is a large wheel k n o w n as bucket
wheel w i t h 6 to 12 buckets. The bucket has a lip w i t h manganes esteel
Ircth for cutting the rock and these are faced w i t h tungesten carbide
lot hard rocks. The m a x i m u m life of teeth w i t h t.c. inserts is 250 hours
In soft sandstone at Neyveli. The wheel is mounted at the end of a
Elements of Mining Technology 5.49
boom w h i c h can be (a) pushed o u t or p u l l e d back (b) lowered or
raised (c) swung t h r o u g h 90° i n a horizontal plane depending u p o n
design. The dumps/min by the buckets vary f r o m 70 i n small models
to 27 in large models. The hourly capacity o f an excavator is equal t o
the total volume o f all buckets x wheel speed per hour. The h o u r l y
capacities of small lmodels is. only 100 m , b u t i n large models, i t is
3

nearly 4000 m (3720 m solid for 1400 l i t . bucket capacity B.W.E.) hr.
3 3

The excavators are crawler mounted. Fig. 5.25 shows relative positions
of the various units o f a bucket wheel excavator.
The excavated rock is transporated by a system of belt conveyors
mounted on the machine to hopper cars, belt conveyors, or rail wagons.
Power is supplied to bucket wheel excavators at A.C. voltage
upto 25 k V though motors operate at 3300 V and 500 V. At Neyveli
the B.W. Excavators are supplied electric power at 11 kV through T.R.S.
cables and transformers i n the machine step d o w n the voltage to 3.3
kV for some motors and to 400 V for some others.

Methods of working with a bucket wheel excavator

A bucket wheel excavator is employed to operate on
1. full block method, or 2. the lateral block method.

Full Block Method ~)

T h i s is c o m m o n l y a d o p t e d a n d is s h o w n i n F i g . 5.26
The p o s i t i o n o f the excavator is s h o w n by the numerals 1, 2, 3.
Fig. 5.26 A shows the f u l l block method is practised w i t h a bucket
wheel excavator having a boom that can be pushed out and pulled
back, i.e., capable of thrust forward. Fig. 5.26B shows the full block
method as practised w i t h an excavator having a bucket wheel boom
that can be lifted and lowered but has no thrust movement.
Where selective w i n i n g of minerals is not necessary, full block
method is employed so that the bucket wheel cuts i n full blocks and in
parallel operation w i t h cuts w h i c h are made as w i d e as possible.
The blocks removed by giant bucket wheel excavators have a w i d t h of
45 m to 100 m . This large w i d t h of cut w h i c h can be, maintained alonfl
the whole face, not only reduces the travel way jfor the crawlers, and
consequently, the time required for this displacement, but also the Fig. 5.25
shifting w o r k required for the transport system used to dispose of t h f D u r i n g cutting, the excavator cuts its o w n ramp o f 1:20 i n t o
mineral. The method is therefore simple and economical. iIn' new block and finally excavates the ramp also.

Elements of Mining Technology
Lateral Block Method
I n order to remove continuously waste partings or m i n e r a l
seams of minor thickness selectively, the excavator adopts the method
of cutting lateral blcoks. Both bucket wheel excavators w i t h thrust or
w i t h o u t thrust-can dig the necessary lateral slopes. The w i d t h of the
block depends, however, always on the length of bucket wheel boom
(Fig. 5.26). Bucket wheel excavators w i t h a short bucket-wheel boom
are not suitable for cutting lateral blocks. Should the level of the selected
5.52 Opencast Mining
5.51 When starting the quarrying activity in an area, i f reclamation
is one of the final objects, the top soil is removed by rippers and scrapers
and collected at a suitable place where it w i l l not be carried away by
w i n d and w i l l not prove a nuisance to nearby localities and dwellings.
In suitable cases such soil can be sold away, thus doing away the need
to stack i t over a long period of the life of the quarry. Small grass is
allowed to grow over i t so not raised and carried away by the w i n d .
After the mineral is excavated and the quarried area backfilled,

seam lie high above the travel-way of the machine, and t a k i n g into it is compacted by rollers. Tamping or sheepsfoot rollers are the standard

account the necessary slope angle, a "super" bucket wheel w o u l d be tools for compacting fills. They consists o f steel drums fitted w i t h
required, i.e., w i t h a diameter larger than that w h i c h w o u l d actually be . projecting "feet" and towed by means o f box trames. The portions
needed for the output required. earmarked for roads and houses are further compacted, but the areas
reserved for agriculture, farm land or plantation of trees are covered
I n any case, the a m o u n t o f c r a w l e r t r a v e l increases w i t h
w i t h 1-1.5 m o f soil transported from other places. Such soil is often
decreasing w i d t h of blocks. The travel-way is reduced i f an excavator
mixed w i t h appropriate type of manure to suit the agriculture or
w i t h thrust is employed.
vegetation planned.
The excavated rock is transported by a system of belt conveyors
mounted on the machine to hopper cars and then to belt conveyors or
rail wagons. The loading belt of the machine is also mounted on a
boom.

Reclamation
Reclamation is the act of restoring the quarried area to the
prequarry state and render it useful for different purposes. I n USA and
other foreign countries, the m i n i n g laws require that the quarried area
is restored to the pre-quarry state. As already stated, such law area is
restored to the pre-quarry state. As already stated, such law does not
exist in our country and the abandoned quarries present unsightly Fig. 5.26 A sheepfoot roller for compaction

appearances of hillocks of overburden and vast ponds of stagnant water.

Only in Neyveli Lignite Complex the quarried area has been reclaimed
and turned into pleasant parks, mini-forests, zoos and recreational
centres. I n fact, w i t h a little foresight and planning, the quarried area
can be rendered more useful and valuable than in the original pre-
quarry state. Thus vast marshland, after the underlying mineral is
excavated, can be turned into a profitable agricultural land.
Drains are provide all around the reclaimed area. In the areas
earmarked for houses, and roads compaction by rollers is carried out
lor 2 or 3 seasons after the rains w i t h a view to consolidate the back
lillcd debris nearly as compact as in the pre-quarry state.
 5.53 Access to a Mineral Deposit & Pit-Top, Pit-Bottom Layouts
Elements of Mining Technology
<$> Q U E S T I O N S ^

1. What is the scope and w h a t are the limitations of w o r k i n g a

seam by opencast m i n i n g ? What is quarriable l i m i t ?

2. What is the common type of equipment used i n a mechanised Access to a Mineral Deposit &
quarry? State the purpose for w h i c h i t is used. Pit-Top, Pit-Bottom Layouts
3. Un d e r w h a t c o n d i t i o n s w i l l the f o l l o w i n g e q u i p m e n t s be
used ?
Access to a mi ner al deposit is afforded by
(a) A dipper shovel
1. H a u l roads and steps - i n the case of an opencast mine
(b) A scraper
2. Incline and adit - i n the case o f shallow underground
(c) A dragline
mine.
(d) A wagon drill
3. Pit o f shaft - i n the case of deep underground mine.

4. What is the reasonable performacne of a 2 m shovel i n (a) an 3

Incline And Adit
A mineral bed w h i c h is at a shallow depth can be approached
8 hours shift (b) a week lc) an year.
hy an incline or adit. A n incline is a sloping road driven from the surface
to the deposit t h r o u g h the alluvium and the rocks overlying the mineral
deposit, unless i t is for locomotive, an incline is usually steeply dipping
•ii 1 in 4 or 1 i n 5. The normal practice is to have an incline along the
11 ue dip of the deposit though the shape o f the property may sometimes
necessitate its drivage along an apparent dip. I n the case of steep beds,
usually w i t h gradients o f 1 i n 4 and steeper, a haulage incline is along
l he apparent d i p to have milder inclination o f the haulage road. Inclines
which touch a coal seam at a vertical depth of 30 m are common i n
Smgareni group of mines. The trends now-a-days is to approach mineral
|M'd upto a depth (vertical) o f 200 m by inclines.

»lg. 6.1 Property A has an incline along the dip but shape of property B
Ittas incline to be along an apparent dip to have equal area on either side.