Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Course Notes - 1B PDF
Course Notes - 1B PDF
Fire 1B1
Explosion 1B2
Major Accident Hazards 1B3
Emergency Control 1B4
Work Equipment 1B5
Occupational Transport and Driving 1B6
Mechanical Handling and Lifting Operations 1B7
Electrical Safety 1B8
Pressure Systems 1B9
Carriage of Dangerous Goods 1B10
Construction and Demolition 1B11
Working at Height 1B12
Working in Confines Spaces 1B13
Lone Working 1B14
Violence against Employees 1B15
Reporting and Investigating Incidents 1B16
C O N T E N T S
1B1 Fire
FIRE PRINCIPLES ............................................................................................................................................... 3
PHYSICS OF FIRE – FIRE TRIANGLE ............................................................................................................................. 3
FIRE PROPAGATION (FIRE SPREAD) .............................................................................................................................. 4
IGNITION TEMPERATURES ......................................................................................................................................... 5
FIRE CLASSIFICATIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 7
FIRE RISK ASSESSMENT ..................................................................................................................................... 8
FIRE HAZARDS AND ASSESSMENT OF RISK ..................................................................................................................... 8
SYSTEMS FOR THE PREVENTION, DETECTION AND CONTROL OF FIRE ........................................................... 11
MEANS OF DETECTION AND RAISING THE ALARM ........................................................................................................... 11
DESIGN AND APPLICATION OF FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS .................................................................................. 11
PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF SYSTEMS – DETECTION AND SIGNALLING ................................................................................. 11
MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC ALARM SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................. 14
WHEN AND HOW TO FIGHT A FIRE ............................................................................................................................ 15
HOW TO ESTABLISH MEANS OF ESCAPE FROM FIRE ........................................................................................ 19
GENERAL PRINCIPLES ............................................................................................................................................ 19
PROTECTION OF ESCAPE ROUTES .............................................................................................................................. 19
EMERGENCY LIGHTING........................................................................................................................................... 20
SIGNS/ NOTICES.................................................................................................................................................. 20
DISABLED PERSONS .............................................................................................................................................. 20
FIRE EMERGENCY ARRANGEMENTS ................................................................................................................. 22
GENERAL EVACUATION PROCEDURES .......................................................................................................................... 22
FUNCTIONS OF FIRE WARDENS AND FIRE MARSHALS ...................................................................................................... 22
POST-EVACUATION DEBRIEF .................................................................................................................................... 23
PRINCIPLES OF FIRE SAFETY TRAINING ......................................................................................................... 24
EXTINGUISHER TRAINING ....................................................................................................................................... 24
EVACUATION PROCEDURE ....................................................................................................................................... 24
BSC International Diploma – Element 1B | Applied Health and Safety Management
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
1.B.1.2 Describe the process and main stages of a fire risk assessment
1.B.1.3 Advise employers on systems for the prevention, detection and control of fire
Unit 1:
Fire Principles
Physics of Fire – Fire Triangle
What do we need to start a fire?
First, we need a combustible substance or fuel (wood, paper, plastics, etc.).
Secondly, we require oxygen (usually from air).
Then we have to apply an ignition source.
After which, if the conditions are right, the substance will catch fire, i.e. heat and light will
be evolved, accompanied by volumes of smoke and gases which will rise away from the
fire.
The first three factors above form the basis of the Fire Triangle, and all must be present to
produce and sustain a fire.
Convection Currents
Conduction
Heat may be transmitted along certain materials, known as conductors, without those
materials themselves actually burning. This is particularly the case with metals. Thus, the
heat generated by a fire (or any other process producing heat) may be transferred to a
separate location where it can act as a source of ignition.
This has considerable implications for many buildings, where there is widespread use of metal
within both the structure of the building (for example, steel girders) and the services that run
through it, such as pipes and various types of ducting.
Conduction
Ignition Temperatures
Flash Point
Flash point is the lowest temperature at which sufficient vapour is given off to flash, i.e. ignite
momentarily, when a source of ignition is applied.
Substances which have a flash point below ambient temperature will pose a hazard as they will
be producing a flammable vapour. Liquids which produce flammable atmospheres have their
flash point measured in a standard test. The usual test utilises a small container about half full
of liquid which is slowly warmed up, the atmosphere above the liquid level being tested at
regular intervals with an igniter. When the flash occurs the temperature is noted. The test is
carried out in an Abel apparatus.
In the UK Liquids with a flash point lower than 0ºC and a boiling point lower than or equal to
35ºC are classified as extremely flammable. Those with a flash point below 21ºC but which
are not extremely flammable are classified as highly flammable. Those with a flash point
between 21ºC and 55ºC are classified flammable. Some common flash points are given in the
following table.
Some Common Solvents and their Flash Points
FLASH POINT
SOLVENT (ABEL CLOSED CUP) (°°C)
Note that:
Petrol is far more dangerous than diesel oil if it is spilled because the vapours from petrol
will ignite from any fortuitous ignition source, whereas those from diesel will not.
Contemplate such a spillage into the bilges of a boat and you can see why the insurance
premiums are higher if the boat has a petrol engine.
Substances with very low flash points are very volatile. Ether, acetone and carbon
disulphide are all notoriously dangerous.
Flash point tests may be applied to any liquid and not just hydrocarbons.
Fire Point
Fire point is defined as the lowest temperature at which the application of an ignition
source will lead to continuing burning. The temperature is usually just above the flash
point and, when the vapours are ignited, the heat of the flash raises the temperature of the
liquid surface to a point where sufficient vapour is given off to sustain combustion.
Auto Ignition Temperature (AIT)
This is the lowest temperature at which the substance will ignite without the
application of an ignition source. Different substances have different AITs.
The material can be a solid, liquid or gas, and once ignition has taken place, the material will
sustain the self-ignition in the absence of spark or flame.
The value is influenced by the material's size, the shape of the heated surface and, in the case
of a solid, the rate of heating and other factors.
A chemical reaction can supply the heat to raise a substance above its auto ignition
temperature. Haystacks have been known to ignite due to bacteriological action causing
internal heat rises. This phenomenon is termed “spontaneous combustion”.
On a more practical note, the relatively low AIT of diesel, which is, surprisingly, lower than
petrol, means that diesel engines do not have to have a spark plug. The action of compressing
the fuel/air mixture in the cylinders of the engine is enough to raise it above the AIT and cause
ignition.
Fire Classifications
Fires are commonly classified into five categories according to the fuel type. The classification
also serves as the basis for identifying the means of extinguishing different types of fire. The
fire categories are:
Class A
These are fires involving solid materials, normally of an organic nature, such as paper,
wood, coal and natural fibres. These fires usually produce burning embers.
Class B
These are fires involving flammable liquids or liquefied solids, such as petrol, oil, grease,
fats and paint.
Class C
These are fires involving gases or liquefied gases, such as methane, propane, and mains
gas.
Class D
These are fires where the fuel is a metal such as aluminium, sodium, potassium or
magnesium.
Class F
These are fires fuelled by cooking fats, such as in the case of chip pan fires.
Fires are generally classified within Classes A to D, with Class F and electrical fires added solely
for the purposes of fire extinguisher selection.
The risk assessment must be suitable and sufficient and allow suitable additional control
measures to be introduced, where necessary.
Likely Sources of Ignition
We considered likely sources of ignition earlier in this Study Unit. To recap here, sources of
ignition include:
Open flames - matches, welding torches.
Electrical sparking sources.
Overheating of surfaces due to excessive temperatures.
Hot surfaces – dryers.
Spontaneous ignition.
Sparks from grinding or tools.
Static electricity.
Friction.
Fuels That May Be Present
Fuel consists of flammable materials that cover all states of matter. They include:
Solids such as: wood, plastics, paper and wrapping and packaging materials, soft
furnishings and fabrics and even metals, for example, magnesium.
Liquids such as: petroleum and its derivatives, paints, solvents, oils, etc.
Gases such as: hydrogen, LPG, methane and oxygen. Although oxygen is not strictly a
flammable gas, oxygen enrichment can increase the flammability of a fuel.
Work Activities That Could Increase Risk
Various activities in the workplace, both those directly related to the work being conducted and
non-related activities can increase the risk of fire. Particular people may be at higher risk due
to their activities at work, including, for instance, people who work:
Near a furnace, for instance, or any sort of incinerator.
In the nuclear industry.
In the kitchens of a restaurant.
With chemicals.
With portable appliances.
Site Plan
The location where workers carry out their activities may also affect their likelihood of being at
risk. The risk assessment should include a detailed plan of the site, with all principal sources
of ignition clearly marked. The plan should show all electrical appliances, heating plant, site of
hazardous processes, location of the electric mains switches and the main gas control valves.
It should also show waste disposal areas and the location of fire extinguishers and all site
accommodation.
It should also include the names and positions of responsible persons and their duties.
In premises where much of the work is carried out within a single area, it may be adequate to
carry out the assessment of a building as a single unit. However, in most cases, it will be
necessary to subdivide the building into discrete areas or rooms. It is particularly important
not to lose sight of the effects that adjacent work or storage areas, or some normally
inaccessible areas, may have on the rest of the building – for example, in respect of roof voids,
boiler rooms or fuel storage.
Fire Precautions in Place
As part of the risk assessment, it is important to consider whether existing fire safety measures
are suitable and sufficient. This would include considering:
Control of ignition sources and sources of fuel.
Existence of fire detection and warning.
Means of escape.
Means of fighting fire.
Maintenance and testing of fire precautions.
Fire safety training of employees.
Changes
Once the existing fire precautions have been evaluated, the risk assessment must consider
whether any increased fire precautions are necessary, as well as how to go about
implementing any changes. Improvements made will need to be maintained to ensure the
ongoing safety of workers.
Recording and Review
The result of the assessment, as well as actions to be taken, should be recorded. Similarly, the
assessment should be revised if there are any significant changes or after a suitable period of
time. Various aspects of the work should be considered, as all may increase the risk of fire, for
example:
General working policies: for instance, no smoking.
Specific working practices: for instance, the removal of waste on a more frequent basis,
reducing the use of flammable substances where alternatives are available, using fixed
electrical installations (as opposed to portable appliances), or use of flame-resistant
material on scaffolding.
The physical condition of the premises: for instance, the sealing of any gaps around the
pipe-work running between rooms.
Movement of people and transport.
Radiation detectors.
Heat detectors.
The most common types of detector system in use at present are those actuated by smoke
and those actuated by heat.
The final choice is based on the risk to be protected and the individual circumstances of each
case (see the following table).
Not all detectors will be equally sensitive in every possible situation. In some cases a
combination of different detectors may be required. Smoke and heat detectors are suitable for
most buildings. Radiation detectors are particularly useful for high-roofed buildings, e.g.
warehouses, and situations in which clean-burning flammable liquids are kept. Laser infra-red
beam detectors appear to have advantages where there are tall compartments or long cable
tunnels, for example.
Such generalisations should be considered in conjunction with the nature of the risk to be
protected in order to establish:
The reliability required. A more robust detector is necessary in an industrial setting than
is required for hotel purposes. Dusty or damp atmospheres will affect some detectors
more than others.
The sensitivity required. It would obviously be undesirable to install a smoke detector set
at high sensitivity in a normally crowded hotel bar (or similar conditions).
The location of detectors. The detectors should be located so they are in the best
possible position to perform their function.
All alarm systems must be maintained and tested regularly, and the results recorded. Any
faults discovered must be rectified and the system rechecked.
All staff must know how to raise the alarm and what to do when the fire alarm
sounds.
Staff with hearing or other physical disabilities must be accommodated within an evacuation
plan (e.g. people in wheelchairs cannot use stairs if a lift is inactivated). Emergency lights or
vibrating devices may be used in addition to bells or sirens.
Manual and Automatic Alarm Systems
Manual Systems
Manual systems are suitable for small workplaces.
The purely manual means for raising an alarm involve the use of the following basic devices:
Rotary gongs that are sounded by turning a handle around the rim of the gong.
Hand strikers, e.g. iron triangles suspended from a wall accompanied by a metal bar that
is used to strike the triangle.
Hand bells.
Whistles.
Air-horns.
These devices are normally found on the walls of corridors, entrance halls and staircase
landings, in a situation where they are readily available to anyone who may need to raise an
alarm. While they give an alarm over a limited area, operation of one of them is rarely
adequate to give a general alarm throughout the premises. As a person is required to operate
them, a continuous alarm cannot be guaranteed for as long as may be necessary.
Manual/Electric Systems
These are systems which, although set in motion manually, operate as part of an electrical
alarm circuit. The call points in a manual/electric system are invariably small wall-mounted
boxes which are designed to operate either:
Automatically, when the glass front is broken.
When the glass front is broken and the button pressed in.
Most available models are designed to operate immediately the glass front is broken.
In order to raise an alarm, it is possible to use facilities that may already be installed in a
building for other purposes, e.g. a telephone or public address system. With automatic
telephone systems, arrangements can be made for a particular dialling code to be reserved for
reporting a fire to a person responsible for calling the emergency services and sounding the
general alarm. Alternatively, it can be arranged that use of the code automatically sounds the
general alarm.
Automatic Systems
An automatic fire alarm system may be designed to respond to heat, smoke and the products
of combustion and flames. The system will give warning of a fire, and some more elaborate
designs do incorporate a facility for additional functions, such as activating water sprinkler
systems, closing down ventilation, or air conditioning plant or activating automatic door
releases.
of risk may be encountered and the person, who is operating under pressure, is faced with a
choice of extinguisher. It could well be that the wrong choice could render the efforts wasted
or even expose the person to danger!
Firstly, we will identify the nature of the risk and the choices of agent which are available.
The Nature of Risk
FIRE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES EXTINGUISHING
CLASS AGENTS
A Solid - carbonaceous-based Wood, paper, fibres, Water, also foam, dry
rubber powders and CO2
B Flammable Those Alcohol, acetone, methyl Dry powders, special
liquids miscible with acetate foam, vaporising liquids,
water water, CO2
Liquefiable Those Petrol, diesel, oil, fats Dry powder, foam,
solids immiscible and waxes vaporising liquids, CO2
(greases, etc.) with water
C Gases and liquid gases Natural gas, liquefied Dry powder, carbon
petroleum gases, e.g. dioxide and foam
butane, propane
D Flammable metals Potassium, sodium, Inert dry powder with
magnesium, titanium special applicator, dry
sand
F Cooking oils and fats Deep fat fryers Wet chemical
Gas fires can be difficult to deal with. Whilst dry powder and carbon dioxide may be used to
knock the flame down there is a risk of a build up of gas if it cannot be turned off. In some
situations, it may be preferable to allow the fire to continue and to call the emergency
services.
You will notice that electrical fires are not listed; this is because electricity is not a fuel, it will
not burn. However, it can cause fires and it can be present in fires so we have to take it into
consideration when fighting fires.
Identification of Fire Extinguishers
In order to identify the different types of fire extinguisher in some countries a colour coded
systems is used, this indicates the type of extinguishant inside. Where a colour code systems
is not in use it is essential that the extinguisher contents are easily identifiable
The following table shows typical colour coding for the common types of extinguishant.
Colour Coding for Fire Extinguishants
It should be noted that across EU member states new fire extinguishers will be red in colour
but with an identifying band.
Siting of Extinguishers
The correct type of extinguisher should be available for the risk it is going to protect against.
The fire-fighting equipment should be sited in an easily seen and reached position, usually by
an escape route. The location should be marked and should not be further than 30 metres
from an alternative equipment location.
The lack of back pressure from the nozzle makes it easy for persons of limited strength to
handle it.
The control of the water at the nozzle of a hose reel will limit water damage.
Automatic Sprinklers
There are several different types of sprinkler system, but essentially they all involve fixed pipe
work in the ceiling of each part of the protected building. The pipe work is connected via
control valves to a water supply and sprinklers are spaced at intervals along the pipe work so
that the discharge patterns overlap and leave no part unprotected. They are activated by
automatic fire detectors.
The quantity of water discharged is designed to at least control any fire in the protected area,
if not to extinguish it.
Drenchers
These are designed to provide a coverage of water over areas of a building or structure which
could be damaged by radiant heat from a fire in close proximity. Normally adequate spacing
limits the radiation hazard and, therefore, only vulnerable areas need be covered, such as
unprotected doors and windows.
Hydrants and Foam Inlets
These are provided on the outside of buildings to allow the emergency services easy access to
a supply of water or foam close to a potential fire hazard, with the type of extinguishing agent
being appropriate to the type of hazard.
Where only a single escape route is provided 18m in normal fire-risk areas
If the fire risk is more or less than the guidelines shown then the travel distances would need
to be adjusted.
When assessing travel distances you must consider the distance to be travelled, allowing for
walking around furniture etc and should be measured from the furthest point to the nearest
place of reasonable safety which is:
a protected stairway enclosure
a separate fire compartment from which there is a final exit to a place of safety
the nearest available fire exit
Emergency Lighting
Emergency (or safety) lighting should be provided where failure of the normal system would
cause problems, e.g. in buildings used after dark, or darkened, e.g. cinemas, hospitals, and
sections of buildings used for means of escape. The purposes of emergency lighting are:
To identify the escape route.
To provide illumination along the route.
To ensure that alarm call points and fire-fighting equipment can be easily located.
Emergency escape lighting should be provided in those parts of buildings where there is
underground or windowless accommodation, core stairways or extensive internal corridors.
Generally the need for such lighting will arise more frequently in shops than in factories and
offices because of the greater likelihood of people in the building being unfamiliar with the
means of escape.
Emergency lighting is only designed to ensure that people can find their way out of a
building, and so the light requirement is much lower than for normal use. The level of
emergency illumination should be related to the level of normal illumination to avoid panic
whilst eyes adapt to the reduced light.
Signs/ Notices
It is commonly expected that emergency signs are square or rectangular with a green
background and white symbols. The ‘running man’ sign (see the figure that follows)
usually appear over all fire escape exits, and the ‘door and arrow’ sign is used to mark escape
routes. To ensure that speakers of all languages are able to understand the signage it is
advisable, where possible, not to use words.
Disabled Persons
Provision needs to be made for means of escape for disabled persons to ensure the safe
evacuation of disabled persons from the workplace in a fire situation,. This may include:
Means of communication with people with a hearing disability must be considered.
Alarms using sound cannot be relied in such a case. Such means could include:
− Face-to-face communication.
− Equipment such as: induction loops, textphone, TV subtexting, amplifiers, flashing
lights.
When people may be asleep, special consideration must be given as to how they would be
woken in case of emergency.
Floor surfaces should be even, non-slippery and free from obstacles to aid visually
impaired people and wheelchair-users.
Sufficient space and time should be allowed for wheelchair-users when planning escape
routes, including width of corridors and doors.
Means of communication with visually impaired people must be considered. This could
include: taped messages, tactile surfaces and audible instructions.
Unlike normal passenger lifts, which are usually made inaccessible in the event of fire, it is
essential that a lift that may be used to evacuate disabled people can still be operated
safely if there is a fire in the building, as this may be the disabled person’s main means of
escape.
Refuges:
− As disabled people will often need others to assist them to evacuate from a place of
work, a refuge provides a temporary, safe area for disabled people to wait. The area
should be both separated from the fire by fire-resisting construction, and provide
access via a safe route to a storey exit.
− As wheelchairs may well be used by disabled workers, the refuge should be big
enough to allow wheelchair use and manoeuvrability within the space without
difficulty. It is also essential that the location of any wheelchair spaces within refuges
does not affect the means of escape for other people.
Deputies should be nominated to take over all these responsibilities when the marshal/warden
or senior person is absent.
Post-Evacuation Debrief
After any ‘real’ or pre-planned fire evacuation, it is essential that the management review the
event to learn lessons for the future. For this to happen effectively, fire marshals, wardens and
any others involved in the event should be de-briefed. The event should then be analysed for
strengths and weaknesses, and actions for improvement identified. Feedback on the event
and the identified improvements must be provided to all involved personnel. These de-briefs
should be recorded to demonstrate best practise – and may be a requirement of the Fire
Certificate.
Evacuation Procedure
Training in fire safety procedures is necessary for everybody. It is essential that key personnel
who are responsible for implementing safety procedures are given adequate training in order
to perform their duties. The skill is in identifying the level of training required. This can range
from induction training for new employees, to more specialised training for members of staff
with specific safety responsibilities; for example, fire wardens and people dealing with
specialist processes or equipment. Training must be monitored and updated as necessary (e.g.
when circumstances change in premises or staffing) and should be modified to suit individual
requirements.
Keeping records of the training given to individuals will not only ensure that all employees are
made aware of their responsibilities, it also provides proof of provision of adequate training.
The records will also be invaluable in dealing with investigations of any incidents or accidents.
Carrying out and recording the results of regular risk assessments can also help identify
training needs.
Training should be specific to the particular premises and all staff should receive training at
sufficiently regular intervals to ensure that existing members of staff are reminded of the
action to take, and that new staff are made aware of the fire routine for the premises.
Training should be given at least once in each period of 12 months; but in some circumstances
where there is high turnover of staff, or where there is a high fire risk, or material changes
which significantly affect the fire safety arrangements, training may have to be more frequent.
Instruction and training should be based on written procedures and should be appropriate to
the duties and responsibilities of the staff.
It is particularly important that all staff (including those casually employed) should be shown
the means of escape and told about the fire routine as soon as possible after they start work.
It is also necessary to ensure that occasional workers, those on shift duties and others who
work in the premises are similarly instructed. Special consideration should be given to any
employees with language difficulties or with any disabilities that may impede their
understanding of the information.
Instruction should be given by a competent person and the following topics, where
appropriate, should be covered in each training session with practical exercises where possible:
Action to take on discovering a fire.
How to raise the alarm and the procedures this sets in motion.
Action to be taken upon hearing the fire alarm.
Procedures for alerting members of the public including, where appropriate, directing
them to exits.
Arrangements for calling the emergency services.
Evacuation procedure for the premises to an assembly point at a place of safety.
Location and use of fire-fighting equipment.
Location of escape routes, including those not in regular use.
How to open all escape doors.
The importance of keeping fire doors closed.
How to stop machines and processes and isolate power supplies where appropriate.
The reason for not using lifts (other than those specifically provided or adapted for use by
people with disabilities in accordance with BS 5588: Part 8).
The importance of general fire precautions and good housekeeping.
A fire drill should be carried out at least once and preferably twice a year simulating
conditions in which one or more of the escape routes from the building is obstructed. During
the drills the fire alarm should be operated by a member of staff who is told of the supposed
outbreak, and thereafter the fire routine should be rehearsed as fully as circumstances allow.
The training and instruction given should be recorded in a log or other suitable record, which
should be available for inspection. The following are examples of matters that should be
included in a fire record-keeping book:
Date of the instruction or exercise.
Its duration.
Name of the person giving the instruction.
Names of the persons receiving the instruction.
On all premises, one person should be responsible for organising fire instruction and training,
and in larger premises a person or persons should be nominated to co-ordinate the actions of
the occupants in the event of a fire.
Printed notices should be displayed at conspicuous positions in the building stating in concise
terms the action to be taken upon discovering a fire or on hearing the fire alarm. The notices
should be permanently fixed in position and suitably protected to prevent loss or defacement.
Written instructions may be supplemented by advice in pictogram form.
C O N T E N T S
1B2 Explosion
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
1.B.2.2 Outline the principles of risk assessment and risk control in relation to explosion
Unit 1:
Deflagrations
A deflagration is the very rapid auto-combustion of particles of explosive as a surface
phenomenon. It may be initiated by contact with a flame or spark, and may be caused by
impact or friction. Deflagration is a characteristic of low explosives.
Exothermic reactions can lead to high temperatures and, in the case of large fires, to extensive
loss of property and severe damage from radiant energy. However, in many plant accidents it
is the sudden generation of pressure that leads to severe damage, injury and deaths. So it can
be said that pressure blows up plants, not temperature. Of course, temperature and pressure
are closely related, but it is the pressure effect that concerns us here.
Deflagration is a reaction which propagates to the unreacted material at a speed less than the
speed of sound in the unreacted substance. The conditions for a deflagration to occur are that
the gas mixture is within the flammable range and that there is a source of ignition or that the
mixture is heated to its auto-ignition temperature.
In the absence of explosion relief, the deflagration explosion of a hydrocarbon-air mixture is
easily capable of bursting a vessel if it is operating near its design pressure when the
deflagration takes place. For reactions operating at or near atmospheric pressure, such as
many drying and solids processing operations, it may be practical to construct facilities that will
withstand the maximum explosion pressure of most dust-air and flammable gas-air mixtures.
Detonations
A detonation is the extremely rapid, self-propagating decomposition of an explosive
accompanied by a high pressure-temperature wave that can move at 1,000-9,000 m/s. It may
be initiated by mechanical impact, friction or heat. Detonation is a characteristic of high
explosives, which vary considerably in their sensitivity to shock.
A detonation is a reaction that propagates to unreacted material at a speed greater than the
speed of sound in the unreacted material; it is accompanied by a shock wave and extremely
high pressures for a very short time. It is debatable whether the flammable range is the same
as the detonable range. Detonation limits are normally reported to be within the flammable
limits, but it is widely held that separate detonation limits do not exist.
Detonation of a gas-air mixture may occur by direct initiation of detonation by a powerful
ignition source, or by transition from deflagration. This transition is much more likely to occur
in pipelines than in vessels. Two useful rules are:
Almost any flammable gas mixture is detonable if initiated with a sufficiently energetic
source.
Detonation of a gas-air mixture is possible in pipelines but is unlikely in vessels.
With a flammable mixture of gases burning in a pipe with one end closed, a series of pressure
waves travelling at the speed of sound moves through the unburnt gas. Later waves travelling
through the unburnt gas, which has been heated by compression from the earlier waves,
speed up because of the higher temperature and overtake the first wave, and a shock wave
develops. Flame then follows the shock wave and catches up with it, forming a detonation
wave. A stable detonation wave may develop, which moves with supersonic speed relative to
the unburnt mixture, and peak incident (side-on) pressures can be of the order of 30 times the
initial absolute pressure.
here will heat up rapidly and weaken. The metal contacting the liquid will heat up much more
slowly. There is, therefore, a dilemma in that a BLEVE may occur sooner in a partly full vessel
than a full one, but a full vessel will contain more fuel for the resulting fireball and fire than will
a partly empty vessel.
Dust Explosions
Factors of Importance
Some dusts are capable of producing explosions that are every bit as destructive as those from
gases or vapours. Most organic solids, most metals, and some combustible inorganic salts can
form explosive dust clouds. The dust must be explosible. (The ignition energy can be
determined experimentally in test apparatus.) Other factors that affect the possibility of dust
explosions are discussed here.
Particulate Size
The dust particles must be of a suitable size. Solids do not have the divisions of flammability
that liquids do. Dusts, however, are finely divided solids and, as with sprays, they have an
increased surface area. Generally, finer dusts are more hazardous. The fineness and
composition of the dust may also be a factor in determining whether it is explosible, and it is
this particle size that we must consider. The smaller the particle, the greater will be the total
exposed surface area of a given mass. The result of putting a source of ignition to a
concentration of airborne dust can be the same as discussed with atomised fuel, with very
rapid burning.
Explosive Concentrations
The dust must be mixed with air and have a concentration which lies between the explosive
limits:
The lower explosive limit is generally taken to be about 25 g to 50 g per cubic metre of air
and a cloud will obscure visibility to about one metre - such a concentration would not
normally be encountered in the workplace (contravening the COSHH Regulations, if
nothing else). A dust cloud will have variable density and tends to become finer over time
as the heavier particles settle out.
The upper explosive limit is ill-defined but generally taken to be about ten times the lower
one.
Ignition Energy
There must be a sufficient source of energy to ignite the dust cloud. It is a fact that explosible
dust clouds can be ignited by sparks from electrical equipment such as switches and motors,
and in short-circuiting caused by damaged cables. Additionally, electrostatic discharges may
initiate dust explosions in industry. For an assessment of the hazard situation in dust-
processing installations, knowledge of the minimum ignition energy is indispensable.
The minimum ignition energy (MIE) of a dust cloud is the lowest energy value of a high-
voltage capacitor discharge required to ignite the most readily ignitable dust/air mixture at
atmospheric pressure and room temperature. The dust concentration and the ignition delay
are systematically varied until a minimum value of the ignition energy is found. The tested
energy levels are 1,000, 300, 100, 30, 10, 3 and 1 mJ.
Secondary Explosions are caused when lying dust in the workplace is disturbed by the
primary explosion and forms a second dust cloud that is then ignited by the heat released from
the primary explosion. The problem is that small amounts of lying dust occupy very little
space, but once disturbed can easily form dangerous clouds. A 1 mm layer of dust can give
rise to a 5 m deep cloud of dust.
There can be a large series of explosions triggered in this manner, with devastating
consequences if there is a lot of lying dust that is disturbed. It is important, therefore, to
reduce the amount of lying dust to a minimum.
Pressure Systems Explosions
A pressure system is a means of storing and transporting energy for use in the workplace.
Hazards that the safety practitioner should be aware of stem from the use or misuse of this
energy and from the possible failure of the system.
The violence of a pressure explosion is measured by the rate of pressure rise (RPR). The RPR
is dictated by temperatures reached during combustion and in a confined space, the RPR is
significantly higher than for unconfined spaces due to pressures inside the vessel being above
atmospheric.
The risk assessment will assist in determining whether the existing measures are suitable and
sufficient, and whether additional controls are necessary. The necessary measures that are
identified in the risk assessment must be put into place before the work starts.
The risk assessment is an identification and careful examination of the explosive atmospheres
present or liable to be present in the workplace.
A record of the significant findings must be made in a readily retrievable format and the
assessment must be reviewed regularly and specifically if the employer suspects that it is no
longer valid.
An Explosive Atmosphere is defined as a mixture, under atmospheric conditions, of air and
one or more dangerous substances in the form of gases, vapours, mists or dusts in which,
after ignition has occurred, combustion spreads to the entire unburned mixture.
Information must also be given to co-occupants of shared premises, sufficient to enable other
employers to inform their own staff about the safeguards and procedures required.
Mitigation
involves putting in place measures to reduce the effects of any explosion-related incidents and
to prepare plans and procedures to deal with explosions.
Measures should be implemented that are consistent with the risk assessment and appropriate
to the nature of the activities. This may include preventing fires and explosions from spreading
to other parts of the workplace, reducing the number of employees exposed and providing
plant and equipment capable containing or suppressing an explosion, or venting it to a safe
place.
Employees must be properly informed about and trained to control or deal with the risks from
the dangerous substances.
Arrangements for dealing with accidents, incidents and emergencies
Employers must make arrangements to deal with serious or imminent danger and to protect
people from the effects of any explosion.
Arrangements might include:
First aid facilities.
Safety drills.
Provision of information.
Suitable warning systems.
Escape facilities.
Personal protection and specialised safety equipment.
Hazardous areas are classified in terms of zones on the basis of the frequency and duration of
the occurrence of an explosive atmosphere.
Zone 2 - An explosive atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal operation, but if it does
occur, will persist for a short period only.
C O N T E N T S
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
1.B.3.2 Describe and explain the principles of control relating to major accident hazards
Unit 3:
Nuclear Industry
On 25-26 April, 1986 the World's worst nuclear power accident occurred at Chernobyl in the
former USSR (now Ukraine). The Chernobyl nuclear power plant located 80 miles north of Kiev
had 4 reactors and while testing reactor number 4 numerous safety procedures were
disregarded. At 1:23am the chain reaction in the reactor became out of control creating
explosions and a fireball which blew off the reactor's heavy steel and concrete lid.
The Chernobyl accident killed more than 30 people immediately, and as a result of the high
radiation levels in the surrounding 20-mile radius, 135,000 people had to be evacuated.
The nuclear industry is a diverse major hazards industry with a legacy of nuclear technology
development that currently contributes to much of the world’s electricity needs.
Railway Industry
There have been many rail disasters over the years, some leading to multiple fatalities.
In September 1997 a high speed train ran into an empty freight train near Southall in the UK
claiming seven lives. An inquiry report published in February 2000 put the immediate
responsibility for the crash on the driver for going through two red lights. But it was also highly
critical of Great Western Trains (GWT) because, due to a fault, the in-cab automatic warning
system (AWS) was not working. This system could have prevented the danger signals being
passed. The report spoke of "serious and reprehensible failures" of communication within
GWT which led to the Swansea to London express making its journey with no functioning AWS.
Chemical Industry
In 1974 a disastrous explosion occurred at the Nypro (UK) chemical plant in Flixborough in the
UK. Five days before the accident a vertical crack had been discovered in one of the reactors
and was leaking cyclohexane. The plant was subsequently shutdown for an investigation
which revealed a serious problem with the reactor. A decision was taken to remove the reactor
and install a bypass system to connect the reactors on either side so that the plant could
continue production.
On 1 June the bypass system ruptured resulting in the escape of a large quantity of
cyclohexane. The cyclohexane formed a flammable mixture and subsequently ignited. At
16:53 hours there was a massive vapour cloud explosion. The plant was destroyed, 28
workers were killed and a further 36 suffered injuries. Reported offsite injuries numbered fifty-
three and several nearby properties were damaged.
General Responsibilities
All site operators must take all necessary measures to prevent major accidents and to limit
their consequences to people and the environment. Employers must communicate any
necessary information to the public, emergency services and relevant authorities. In the event
of incidents the employer must provide restoration and clean-up of the environmental impact.
Prevention should be considered in a hierarchy based on the principles of reducing risk to a
level which is as low as is reasonably practicable (ALARP). This is an expression which is used
to define a standard or point at which the cost of additional risk reduction measures would be
grossly disproportionate to the benefits achieved.
Wherever possible, the ideal should always be to avoid a hazard altogether.
Operators must take measures to prevent major accidents by undertaking a risk analysis to
understand and predict:
The circumstances that might lead to a major accident; and
The potential consequences of such an accident.
Examples of situations to consider include:
Loss-of-containment of substance due to vessel or pipe work failures;
Explosions, for example, caused by mixing incompatible chemicals in reactors; and
Major fires.
contain a detailed description of your safety management system (the organisation and
arrangements for implementing the policy to ensure the control of major accident risks).
However, it should give the enforcement authorities sufficient detail to show you have systems
in place to cover all the aspects listed later in the section.
Your MAPP document must describe the management arrangements of the major accident
hazards at a particular establishment and should be specific to that establishment.
A MAPP document is similar in approach to a health and safety policy document, but with two
important additions:
It must deal specifically with major accident hazards.
It must include measures to protect the environment.
You can adapt your existing health, safety and environmental policy statement to include the
MAPP information or you may prefer to produce a separate document. Your MAPP document
should be signed by a senior person in your organisation.
As your MAPP document supplements your health, safety and environmental policies, you
should make it available to those who need to see these policies including employees,
employee representatives and contractors.
The amount of detail in your MAPP should be proportionate to the level of the hazards present
- the greater the hazards the more detail you will have to provide. For most establishments,
the MAPP document will be relatively short and simple. If operators already have much of the
information such as training records, internal site inspection records, audit reports, operating
procedures, risk assessments, etc; they can simply refer to it within the MAPP document.
The most important aspects of a safety management system for controlling major accident
hazards are summarised in the following sections. The headings from the publication HSG65
are shown in brackets to illustrate the links between MAPP documents and the management of
health and safety.
Organisation and Personnel at all levels Involved in the management of the
major hazards (Organising)
This information will probably already be contained in the company’s safety policy, but you
need to ensure it refers specifically to the key roles for the management of major hazards.
Your MAPP document only needs to discuss those aspects which are relevant to a major
hazard. It should outline your system for addressing these issues. This includes how you
identify training needs, and the follow-up you carry out, i.e. your training policy and your
system for ensuring effective communication with and involvement of employees, and where
necessary subcontractors. The MAPP document does not need to include detailed records, but
should refer to them.
Identification and evaluation of major hazards (Planning and Implementing)
The MAPP document should describe your overall aims, approach and policy for hazard
identification and risk assessment. You need to describe how the results are used, e.g. your
policy on eliminating hazards. You should not include detailed reports or results in the MAPP.
Operational control - procedures and instructions for safe operation
(Organising; Planning and implementing)
Your MAPP document should record how you ensure you have adequate management
arrangements, workplace precautions and control measures in place for safe operation. It
should outline your system for developing, reviewing and revising procedures, and describe
how you make sure the procedures are properly communicated.
You do not need to include details of the procedures, although you may wish to mention where
the details are located. For example, your MAPP document could say that you use a permit-to-
work system for certain tasks, or an inspection and maintenance system for ensuring the
integrity of safety and environmental critical control systems, but it does not need to include
details of how these systems work.
Your MAPP document needs to state how you modify procedures (including management
arrangements) and plant. It also has to show how you ensure that any new plant on site is
designed, constructed, installed and maintained to relevant standards. It is important that your
MAPP document shows you have a workable system for identifying, assessing, and authorising
modifications.
Identification of foreseeable emergencies and the preparation, test and
review of emergency procedures (Planning and implementing)
This section overlaps with your policy for hazard identification and risk assessment described
previously. Your MAPP document needs to detail your policy on identifying possible major
accidents and to show that you have plans in place to respond. It should indicate the types of
major accidents you have identified and considered.
It is important that you identify how major accidents could occur and establish adequate
emergency arrangements for dealing with them. Some documentation of these arrangements
is normally required. You need to consider the possible involvement of people in neighbouring
premises (both residential and commercial) and the emergency services. Your MAPP document
should include your policy on reviewing and testing the emergency procedures.
Monitoring performance
You need to have a system for assessing whether your site continues to meet the objectives in
your MAPP document, and whether the standards you set are being maintained. Your MAPP
document should describe how this assessment takes place, and how you would correct any
deficiencies. This part of the document also needs to include your system for reporting and
investigating accidents and near misses, and to explain how you make sure that the lessons
learned are implemented.
Audit and Review
You need to have a system for making sure your management systems and procedures
continue to be correct, and that they are being followed. Your MAPP document needs to
describe how you use audit and review to maintain the validity of both the MAPP document
and your safety management system. When should I update it? In addition to the
requirement on you to review your MAPP and safety management system after audit, you also
need to review them if you make any modifications which could have significant repercussions
in respect of the prevention of major accidents, including changes to:
Your establishment.
The type or amount of dangerous substances used.
How you process and/or store them.
It is good practice to review your MAPP, and the safety management system for implementing
it, after any accidents or near misses, as well as on a regular basis, although this is not
specifically required by the Regulations. Regular reviews and updates will make sure your
MAPP remains correct and relevant.
Notifications
Employers are required to notify competent authorities regarding any proposed operations.
Notification by all employers is essential to enable the competent authority to plan its
assessment and inspection programmes and ensure that operators comply with their
responsibilities.
Operators of new establishments should send their notification in advance of the start of the
operation (normally three to six months).
Changes in the quantities of dangerous substances and processes, or closure of the
establishment, must also be notified to the competent authority by existing operators.
The notification requirements
Essentially, what is needed is information about the operator, site, processes and inventory,
including:.
The name and address of the operator
The address of the establishment concerned
The name or position of the person in charge of the establishment
Information sufficient to identify the dangerous substances or category of dangerous
substances present
The quantity and physical form of the dangerous substances present (or likely to be
present)
A (brief) description of the activity or proposed activity of the installation concerned
Details of the immediate environment liable to cause a major accident or to aggravate the
consequences thereof.
Safety Report
Operators of Top-tier establishments are required to produce a safety report to demonstrate
that they have taken all measures necessary to prevent major accidents from occurring, and to
limit the effects to human populations and the environment if they do. The safety report will
also provide the Competent Authority with a detailed description of the establishment and the
associated hazards. This will provide a comprehensive description of the risks and the control
measures in place, and will help the Competent Authority in conducting inspections.
For establishments that are due to start construction a safety report must be submitted before
construction begins, allowing any necessary changes in the design process to be addressed
before construction starts. Construction can only start once the Competent Authority’s
conclusions on the pre-construction safety report have been received.
The safety report should be reviewed periodically and updated as necessary to reflect changes
at the establishment. Review and update of reports should be no later than five years after
the last submission. A review must not only detail changes that have taken place, but must
assess any significant new risks brought about by the changes, detailing the necessary control
measures and mitigation of major accidents. Copies of changes must be notified to the
competent authority.
C O N T E N T S
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
1.B.4.1 Identify the types of emergencies for which procedures should be drawn up
Unit 2:
because of its derelict state and may become even more unsound during the demolition
process.
A risk of collapse also exists after or during a fire.
Escape of Hazardous Substances.
These could be flammable or may pose a biological or ecological hazard.
Spillages can be caused by a variety of circumstances, e.g.:
Road traffic accidents.
Failure of pipes, hoses or other equipment.
Once again, an analysis of the risks should be carried out. A source, pathway, target analysis
should identify the pathways and targets. Appropriate emergency procedures and equipment
should then be put in place to reduce the risk to a condition that is as low as practicable. The
amount (and cost) of risk reduction measures will depend on the potential damage that could
be done if the substances escaped, and the sensitivity of the receptor.
Emergency plans can vary from complex off and on site emergency plans involving the local
authority and emergency services, evacuation procedures and closure of roads and railways, to
a small number of local procedures and spillage kits, to cover the spillage of a low risk
chemical in a low risk situation. Large and complex sites will have an emergency officer, with a
dedicated control room, meteorological information, drain plans, road plans etc., and usually a
media communication officer. It is always prudent to practise emergency procedures, and
most companies will have invited the emergency services (particularly the Fire and Rescue
Services) to the site to reconnoitre as part of the planning process. Having an inventory of the
chemicals in use on the site, and information concerning services (electricity, gas, water, etc.)
is essential.
Intrusion into the Premises
In certain types of workplace, there will be the possibility of trespass, perhaps with criminal
intent. Workplaces may be at risk from various types of intrusion from various groups or
individuals with widely varying motivations. Many premises are simply at risk from burglary or
theft, and can combat this risk with appropriate security measures. Other premises are at risk
from other types of trespass, for example, the naval dockyard that was accessed by two peace
protestors as a publicity stunt. Since the protestors managed to gain access to the outside of
a nuclear submarine, there were some concerns over health and safety risks.
Serious Violence against Premises or People
The issue of workplace violence is one that the safety practitioner must be aware of in all
workplaces, but it will not normally require the establishment of an emergency plan. However,
in certain circumstances, emergency planning may be necessary to deal with this contingency.
For example, a large sporting venue will develop plans to manage ground violence within its
grounds and will liaise with the emergency services and local stakeholders to manage ground
violence near its premises. Also, any organisations that deal with the public, including smaller
employers, may find their employees at increased risk in certain situations. Should a disaster
or emergency occur, organisations that will take an active part in dealing with the situation,
such as hospitals, local authorities or the police may find themselves under extra pressure from
the public, and this may take the form of violence.
Contacting relatives.
Providing medical aid.
Isolating plant.
Sounding the all-clear.
Communicating with the media.
All these responsibilities are essential elements of the plan and therefore must be assigned to
capable staff. The possibility of absence or shift working needs to be considered to ensure
that deputies are available.
A number of external services such as the following may well also be involved:
Emergency services (Police, Fire and Rescue, Medical aid)
Local companies.
Environmental agencies.
Technical expertise.
Utility companies (Gas, water, electricity).
Local transport.
Someone within the company should be trained in the responsibility for dealing with the
media, as this can have a profound effect on company image.
Training
Every place of work should have an emergency plan which should include the action to be
taken by staff in the event of an emergency, the evacuation procedure and arrangements for
calling the emergency services.
Notices of emergency action must be prominently displayed and include the method for raising
the alarm, the location of the assembly point and, where necessary, action to be taken to
assist disabled or sensory-impaired people. An example is shown in the next figure.
In order that staff may become familiar with the escape routes, assembly points, use of the
equipment and how to summon the fire brigade, practice drills should be carried out regularly
and, in any case, not less than annually.
In larger workplaces, it may not be necessary to train all employees in the operation of the fire
equipment but everyone should know what hazards the fire extinguishers are provided to
cover and the danger of using the wrong type of extinguisher in areas of special risk.
Sufficient numbers of employees trained in the use of the fire extinguishers provided should
always be present when the workplace is occupied. This is most important in areas where
there are special risks.
In workplaces employing large numbers of employees, it may be appropriate to nominate
certain employees to carry out specific tasks in the event of fire. These tasks might include
acting as floor marshals, ensuring that the floor is completely evacuated during a fire
evacuation, and reporting that fact to a control point. Others may have the task of closing
down processes during an evacuation or ensuring that security is maintained whilst the
workplace is evacuated. The training should ensure that these tasks are carried out efficiently
and safely.
Staff involved in certain activities will need instruction in their specific duties in the event of a
fire. These could include kitchen staff, engineering and maintenance staff, receptionists and
telephonists. Supervisory staff and those with particular responsibilities in case of fire should
be given additional instruction and training (e.g. heads of departments, supervisors, security
staff, fire marshals).
Fire training and instruction given should be recorded in a log book or other suitable record
and should be available for inspection.
In all premises one person should be responsible for organising fire instruction and training
and, in larger premises, a person or persons should be nominated to co-ordinate the actions of
the occupants in the event of a fire.
Although fire is the most common example, there are other emergency situations that require
training. Employees at high risk from violence, for example, traffic wardens, hospital staff, etc.,
should be trained in how to deal with aggression or violent attacks. In many cases, this will
include diffusing the situation but also often covers ‘breakaway’ techniques.
First Aid / Medical Treatment
People at work can suffer injury or sudden illness. It is important for employers to make
arrangements to ensure that all employees receive immediate attention if they are injured or
taken ill whilst at work.
Employers must provide adequate and appropriate equipment, facilities and personnel to
enable first-aid to be given to employees if they get inured or become ill at work.
Employers are required to carry out a first-aid assessment to enable them to provide an
adequate and appropriate amount of first-aid for their organisation. To complete the
assessment employers must consider the following factors:-
Workplace hazards and risks (hazardous substances, dangerous machinery, emergency
potential etc.).
The size of the organisation and number of employees on site.
The premises (how many buildings are on the site, number of floors, spread out, location
to medical emergency services etc.).
First aid rooms - These will be easily identifiable rooms or departments specifically equipped
for first aid treatment and which is normally occupied with trained first aid personnel. The
room must be big enough to fit a couch with enough space at each side for people to work. It
should have a sink with hot and cold running water with soap and paper towels as well as
drinking water and disposable cups. The room should ideally have a telephone or other
communication equipment and be located close to a point of access for transport to hospital.
Treatment centres - This is where a block or section of a building will be geared towards
first aid and medical treatment. It will normally be staffed with full-time first aiders and/or
medically trained staff to offer treatment for minor and in some cases, serious injury. These
can normally be found on large construction sites and industrial premises.
Informing Employees
Employers must inform all employees of the arrangements that have been made in connection
with the provision of first-aid, including the location of equipment, facilities and personnel.
First-aid arrangements operate efficiently when they are known and understood everywhere in
the workplace. Displaying first-aid notices is a simple and effective way of communicating this
information. Notices must be designed and worded carefully to ensure that the information is
put across effectively to employees. Those with language and reading difficulties must be
informed by other suitable means such as translated notices and the use of Braille. Induction
trainings will ensure new employees are made aware of the first-aid arrangements.
Post-Emergency Action
Post-emergency action involves minimising the consequences of the emergency. It assumes
that casualties have received suitable treatment and have been evacuated from site, and that
buildings and equipment have been rendered in a safe condition. The key priorities then
become:
To provide information to relatives and the public on the facts regarding the consequences
of the emergency and the circumstances, as accurately as known at that time.
To promote self-help and recovery to restore normality as soon as possible.
To evaluate the incident, establish all the relevant causes, and identify the lessons that
need to be learned and the remedial action required, either to prevent a reoccurrence or
to minimise future consequences.
C O N T E N T S
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
1.B.5.1 Describe the main hazards associated with machinery and work equipment and
explain how they may cause harm
1.B.5.2 Determine, implement, evaluate and maintain measures for controlling risks from
work equipment
Unit 3:
Mechanical Hazards
The following are significant hazards presented by machinery:
Crushing.
Shearing.
Cutting (or severing).
Entanglement.
Drawing in (or trapping).
Impact.
Stabbing and punctures.
Friction and abrasion.
High-pressure fluid injection.
Ejection of particles.
The hazards are illustrated below:
Crushing happens when the body or a part of the body is caught between two moving
parts of the machine or between moving and static objects such that they meet together.
Crushing
Shearing is where two parts of the machine are moving together to create a situation
where one moves over the top of the other. This could result in the amputation of fingers
or other limbs.
Shearing
Cutting or severing is where a sharp-edged part of the machinery comes in contact
with the person. As implied, it is a similar effect to what happens when someone cuts
them self with a knife.
Cutting or Severing
Loose cuff
Projection
Entanglement
Drawing in or trapping is where the body is caught between two moving parts and
drawn into the machine. In-running nips occur at a point where a rotating part and a
stationary part, or two counter-rotating parts meet, i.e. belt/wheel, chair/sprocket, etc.
Impact
06 - IDipOSH 1B5 v2 160514 Page 5 of 30 ©British Safety Council
BSC International Diploma - Element 1B | Applied Health and Safety Management
Stabbing or Puncture
Injury due to ejection is similar to that caused by stabbing or puncture, as described
previously. Examples include injury due ejected material such as flying swarf or broken
tooling.
Ejection
Friction or abrasion is caused by coming into contact with a fast moving surface. The
effect is a burn due to the generation of heat through the friction generated between the
machine and the part of the body in contact. If the rotating or moving part has a rough
texture, the effect will be to create an abrasion
abrasion problem, similar to rubbing the hand hard
against glass paper.
Friction or Abrasion
High-pressure fluid injection hazard is associated with the use of hydraulic systems.
The pressure to which the fluid is subjected in the system can be quite high. Following a
sudden release, for example, by a pipe or joint bursting, the fluid jet may have sufficient
pressure to penetrate the skin and tissues of any person in the line of the spray. The
problem is that it injects hydraulic fluid deep into the body where the circulatory system
can distribute it widely.
Non-Mechanical Hazards
Other types of hazards that result from exposure to or operation of work equipment include:
Noise.
Vibration.
Electricity (electrical hazards).
Temperature (thermal hazards).
Radiation.
Hazardous substances.
Ergonomic issues.
Manual handling.
Combinations of factors.
Noise
Noise is a hazard not only to the operator but also to those around. Its effects can lead to
temporary or permanent hearing loss and tinnitus, and can impair working efficiency. It also
causes communication problems by interfering with speech or audio warning signals.
Vibration
Vibration affects the body and, in extreme cases, can produce vascular disorders. It can also
be responsible for nerve damage. Its effect may be localised, as from holding hand tools, or
full body, such as from sitting in a poorly-designed driving position on vibrating machinery.
Electricity
Contact with electrical current can result in electric shock or electrical burns to the person but
it is also an ignition source and therefore it can also be responsible for fires and explosions in
the workplace.
High/Low Temperature
Thermal hazards arise from the extremes of either heat or cold. There are two ways they can
affect the person:
As localised effects, for example, burns from a cutting torch or hot surface.
In general overall health, due to the extreme environment, for example, in a furnace room
or cold store.
Radiation
The various forms of radiation, e.g. heat, ultraviolet, infra-red, etc., can create serious health
hazards. An example of this could be the use of beta radiation to measure the thickness of
paper manufactured on a production line.
Hazardous Substances
Materials used by the machine may give rise to hazards. This may be from contact with the
substance(s), by fire or explosion, or by there being a biological hazard, for example, yeasts
used in brewing. Materials created by a particular process may also pose a risk, for example,
silica dust from breaking out concrete.
Ergonomic
The use of machinery can lead to physiological problems such as backache or upper limb
disorders as well as psychological problems, such as stress. Ergonomic problems arise from a
mis-fit between the person performing the task and the equipment they are using. Common
risk factors are posture, pace of work, repetitions, controls and display systems and force.
Manual Handling
People pick up and move objects all the time at work, and any of these actions may present a
hazard. The risk is that the action will cause an injury of some kind to the person undertaking
the operation or, by causing the object to fall or move, there is a risk that someone else may
be injured. The risk may be exacerbated by poor ergonomic design.
Combinations of Factors
It is unlikely that any one hazard mentioned above will be present in isolation. In practice, a
machine will present a number of hazards in varying degrees of severity, for example, vibration
is seldom present without noise. Each will have a combined effect which may cause those that
are, in themselves, minor to have a much greater significance to the risk, that is, a synergistic
effect.
Operating Procedures
Are there procedures in place to ensure that all foreseeable risks have been addressed and
safety measures introduced? Have warning notices and signs been put up to warn of the
dangers of the machine?
Training
Have all personnel who are required, as part of their job, to come into contact with the
machine had suitable training?
A consideration of all of these factors will help the assessor to determine the extent of risk
posed by the use of the machine (Including maintenance and cleaning operations), and will
provide the assessor with valuable data which can then be used to help develop the most
suitable control strategy.
Where the former is not practicable, the next choice would be the provision of other
guards or protective devices.
Where the second choice is not practicable, the provision of jigs, holders, push-sticks
or similar protection appliances used in conjunction with the machinery would be
applicable.
Finally, if none of the above is practicable, the provision of information, instruction,
training and supervision will be the only alternative. Of course, this should also be
provided in conjunction with any other measures chosen from higher up in the hierarchy.
It can be seen then that the preferred method of safeguarding is to totally enclose all
dangerous parts of the machine. This is obviously not always possible so a balance has to be
struck between what the machine is intended to do and the need for access to the dangerous
part(s).
Where no or very infrequent access is required, a fixed guard may well be the answer. If
you have difficulty visualising a ‘fixed guard’ think of a domestic washing machine. The back
panel, if removed, reveals pulleys and belts that drive the washing machine drum. Whilst it is
in place, securely held by screws, access to those dangerous parts is denied.
If, however, you are using the washing machine you do need access to the inside. To have a
fixed guard across the door opening would be infuriating. So, to prevent the user coming into
contact with the dangerous parts, another type of guard is used. If you have tried to open the
door whilst the machine is going through its programme, the door will not open. Only when
the machine has completed the cycle and the drum stopped, will the interlock guard open
and allow access.
We have talked about automatic washing machines, but let us now consider a typical bandsaw.
A part of the blade will be necessarily unguarded to allow the work piece to be cut. In order to
prevent body parts entering the danger zone resulting in cuts, we would use push sticks to
feed the material on to the blade.
The final part of the hierarchy requires the user to be trained and conversant with the
machinery.
By using this simple analogy, it can be seen that circumstances will dictate which safeguard, or
combination of safeguards, will be most suitable for a given situation.
Sliding door to
Light switch for reduce aperture
internal light to be as small
as practicable
Fixed guard
Transparent panel
False table
It must not allow access to the hazardous area until the potential hazard has been made
safe.
It must not allow the machinery to operate until the guarding system is fully operational.
Other factors of importance are:
If the interlock system should fail, it should fail in such a way that the system remains
safe.
The interlocking system should be difficult to defeat.
The operation of an interlock may be electrical, mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic. The
choice is often dependent on the power medium (e.g. hydraulic) in use to operate the
machine. In more complex machines, a combination of interlocks may be in place.
Electrical Interlocks
The electrical interlock is used to ensure that the power to operate the machine is not available
until the guard is in place. The position of the guard is detected by means of electrical limit
switches. The two main types are described below.
• Normally-Open Limit Switch
The design of the switch is such that the spring will keep the contacts open until pressure
is applied to the roller follower. (See the first of the two diagrams that follow. The
second diagram shows how a normally-open switch can be used in conjunction with an
interlocking guarding system.)
There are three serious defects in the use of normally-open limit switches:
− They are easy to defeat by simply holding down with the hand - or, more
permanently, with some adhesive tape.
− More seriously, if the spring should break, the switch would be left on, without any
external pressure, and the guarding would fail to danger, leaving the operator
vulnerable to an unexpected operation of the machine while the guard is open.
− If the roller follower arm became bent or the bearing becomes still, the switch could
become jammed in the on position, producing the same danger as above.
Normally-open limit switches are frequently used by manufacturers as a method of
controlling interlocking guards. With the defects mentioned above, you can see they
hardly satisfy basic safety criteria. You would be well advised to see they are designed
out of new equipment before you take delivery.
Mains supply
Bearing
Spring
Applied
pressure
Roller
follower
and arm
06 - IDipOSH 1B5 v2 160514 Page 15 of 30 ©British Safety Council
SWITCH “OFF” (OPEN) POSITION SWITCH “ON” POSITION
BSC International Diploma - Element 1B | Applied Health and Safety Management
Mains supply
Roller
follower
Mains supply
Applied
pressure
'T'-shaped
actuating magnet
E – Earth
AB – common
A – contacts normally open
B – contacts normally closed 'T'-shaped recess
'T'-shaped magnet
on rocker arm
Retaining
magnet
Balance
weight
Switch
rocker
arm
Electrical contacts
this failure occurring, but manufacturers of the units have recognised the possibility and
their research has given them confidence to believe that such a fault could not occur.
Guard closed
Counter balance
weight
Magnetic
switch
open
Guard open
View from back of machine
Key Systems
This type of interlock ensures that power to a machine is locked off if guards are open. Its
operation is shown in the following diagram. A master key in the power-supply unit is turned
to switch power off. This key may now be removed to operate the guard key access unit,
which holds a number of keys necessary to open guards on the machine. When one or more
guard keys are removed to unlock a guard, the master key is trapped in the access unit.
Power remains locked off. When access to hazard areas is no longer required, guards are
locked, and the keys are returned to the access unit. Not until all keys are securely in may the
trapped master key be removed. It is then available to operate the power supply to the
machine.
Power
supply
unit
Guard
key
access
unit
A B A B
Interlock Operation
Time Delay Interlocks
A time-delay interlock system incorporates some type of mechanical device that takes a long
time to release after power has been switched off. They are fitted to machines where the
system continues in motion after the power has been removed, e.g. centrifuges.
Automatic Guards
Automatic guards may be defined as ‘guards that forcibly move persons from the hazard
area (sweep away) before the machinery operates’. In theory, the person should not be able
to enter the hazard area while the automatic guard is operating.
As the guarding system uses motion as an essential part of its protective mechanism, doubts
as to the acceptability of such a system must be raised. Apart from the concept of motion
being the fundamental cause of machinery hazards, there are practical considerations, such as:
The speed at which the guard has to operate to overtake the hazard may be dangerous.
Tall persons may fall or lean over the guard into the hazard area.
A typical arrangement for a power press is shown in the next diagram.
(a)
Automatic Guard
(b) (c)
Trip Devices Guard Guard
“in” position “out” position
There are operations that make it impossible to fit either a fixed guard or interlock. In such
circumstances, the best type of system to use is a trip device, defined as a guard that stops or
reverses motion when a person enters the hazard area.
Machinery which is normally in continuous motion has a trip device fitted so that protection is
given either when a person has to enter the risk area temporarily, or if an entanglement occurs
where a person is being drawn onto (or into) the moving part.
The effectiveness of any trip device relies heavily upon the efficiency of the stopping device; it
cannot be emphasised too much that maintenance of such devices is a top priority. When a
trip guard is activated by an accident, it should not allow further operation of the machinery
until it has been reset. Ideally, a test circuit should be incorporated, so the trip action circuit
can be checked without activating the mechanism.
Trip Bar for Radial or Pillar Drills
The next diagram illustrates a trip bar guard that can be fitted to pillar drills. A micro-switch
attached to the trip bar will, if slightly displaced, cut off AC supply and inject DC into the
motor, so that it stops instantly.
Photo-Electric Guards
Another form of trip device used for press brakes and hydraulic presses is the photo-electric
guard.
The guard operates by creating a light-curtain across the hazard area. If any of the beams are
broken, the unit is brought to an almost instantaneous stop. It is claimed that, with the
absence of moving parts (which will wear), the unit is very economical in terms of
maintenance costs. The light-screen should incorporate a self-checking system between
each operation of the machine, so that any defects will cause the equipment to fail safe.
Safety Switch Mats or Trip Mats
You may well be familiar with floor mats that cause a door to open as an approaching visitor
steps on them. The concept of mat-pressure contact circuits has been applied in the
development of safety mats, known as safety switch mats, or trip mats. The mats are
positioned round a machine at an appropriate distance from the hazard. Pneumatic or low-
voltage electric contacts within the body of the mat are linked to the power circuit of the
machine, in such a way that stepping on the mat shuts off the power.
The same principle of using contact pressure is found in devices known as safety edges.
Narrow strips are fitted to sliding doors or machine parts that might close to trap a person.
Circuits from the pressure strips halt the closing movement and, if desired, reverse it to avoid
the trap.
Adjustable Guards
It may be impracticable in some situations to prevent access to the dangerous parts because
they are unavoidably exposed during use, for example, the cutters on milling machines and the
cutters of some woodworking machines. In such cases, the use of an adjustable guard may be
permissible in conjunction with other closely supervised conditions, such as a sound floor, good
lighting and adequate training of the operator.
An adjustable guard provides an opening to the machinery through which material can be fed,
the whole guard or part of it being capable of adjustment in order that the opening can be
varied in height and width to suit the dimension of the work in hand. It is essential in such
cases that the adjustment is carefully carried out by a suitably trained person. Regular
maintenance of the fixing arrangements is necessary to ensure that the adjustable element of
the guard remains firmly in place when once positioned. The guard should be so designed
that the adjustable parts cannot easily become detached and mislaid.
Adjustable guards are guarding systems that require manual adjustment to give protection.
They are used on woodworking machinery, milling machines, lathes, drills, and grinders. Many
of the guards are designed so the work piece can be observed during the machine operation.
Windows of perspex, polycarbonate or armoured plate glass allow the operator a clear view.
Some systems are made with a telescopic fencing or a slotted movable casting, both systems
allowing observation of the work piece.
The following adjustable guarding systems are in common use:
Adjustable guard
Circular Saws
Circular Saw with Adjustable Guard
The cover is adjusted so that the height H is large enough for the work piece to be cut by the
saw.
Thumb
screw “T”
Movable
guard
Visor front
Separately pivoted
peripheral strips
(self-adjusting guard)
The hand controls should be situated at such a distance from the danger point that, on
releasing the controls, it is not possible for the operator to reach the danger point before
the motion of the dangerous parts has been arrested.
Some markings may be specific, such as ‘RADIOACTIVE’, whilst others may be more general,
such as ‘MIND YOUR HEAD’. Markings can comprise words, letters, shapes or pictograms.
Specific visual or audible warning devices may be required to alert people to danger – for
example, flashing lights on equipment, lights on control panels to signal that something is
faulty or is still hazardous, reversing alarms on vehicles, etc. Visual warnings are limited in
that they rely on people looking in that particular direction. Audible warnings will not be
suitable in a noisy working environment, especially if employees are wearing ear defenders.
Pre-Use Checks
Although many items of equipment require periodic inspections, or in some cases statutory
tests/inspections, all items of work equipment should be subject to a pre-use operator check.
The level of detail involved in the pre-use check depends on the level of risk involved, and
should be decided on through the risk assessment process. In higher risk instances, this check
may be documented.
devices work and how they are expected to work safely with them. This applies even where
the hazard is protected by fixed guards, and operators need to be fully instructed in the
operational use of adjustable guards. In addition, there may be residual risks that can only be
eliminated by the operator keeping to set, safe procedures and working practices.
Employers must, therefore, ensure that all users of work equipment have received specific
training in its safe operation.
The level of training required will reflect the complexity of the equipment and its inherent
dangers. Some equipment will require a high degree of training, including the possession of
recognised certificates – for example, for abrasive wheel mounters and setters. On the job
instruction and training may be sufficient for many operations, such as the operation of
machine controls (including emergency controls) and the changing of machine components or
work pieces.
Employers must inform employees of hazards arising in the workplace. With work equipment,
this can be achieved by suitable markings. Tool-box talks or on the job training are other ways
of disseminating information. These also provide a medium for instruction.
Safe Positioning
Clear and Unobstructed Workspace
The space within which workers are required to operate a machine should be such as to allow
complete freedom of movement as necessary to perform all the necessary operations in a safe
manner.
Congestion can arise for many reasons, including: size of rooms or workstation, number of
people sharing the space, storage of materials, waste, passing traffic, furniture, amount of
machinery and equipment, etc. Employers should take into consideration all the factors likely
to give rise to restrictions on space.
In particular, the following points should be considered:
Space should be provided around each machine to allow clear separation from passing
traffic, and for the storage of tools and work-in-progress.
The operator of any control is able to ensure from the control position that no person is in
a place where he or she would be exposed to any risk to his or her health or safety.
Systems of work are effective to ensure that, when work equipment is about to start, no
person is in a place where he or she would be exposed to a risk to his health or safety as
a result of the work equipment starting. Where this is not reasonably practicable, physical
barriers or floor markings may be needed to ensure an unobstructed workplace.
If Mobile Work Equipment is being used, attention should also be paid to other possible
obstructions, such as overhead and underground hazards. These could include overhead
power lines and sewers, which would need to be taken into account when positioning Mobile
Work Equipment.
C O N T E N T S
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
1.B.6.1 Describe the main hazards associated with occupational transport and driving and
explain how they may cause harm
1.B.6.2 Determine, implement, evaluate and maintain measures for controlling risks from
occupational transport and driving
Unit 4:
Collision
Any situation that involves crossing a vehicle traffic route is a hazard, particularly where
visibility is restricted and it is not possible to see the approach of vehicles clearly. Emerging
from doors can present a problem where the exit leads straight on to a vehicle path, or if
vehicles are obscured by building debris, stacks of scaffolding, etc.
Other hazardous situations include:
Working in proximity to moving vehicles, such as in loading bays or carrying out road
repairs.
Where vehicles cross or move around areas that are normally reserved for pedestrians.
Where reversing or refuelling is necessary.
Assuming driver competence, collisions with other vehicles, pedestrians or fixed objects are
generally caused by adverse local conditions:
Poor weather – ice or rain causing skidding or longer braking distances, sunlight blinding
vision, rain or fog restricting visibility.
Poor lighting – decreasing visibility or obscuring parts of the traffic route, including
obstructions.
Poor sight lines – causing blind spots and concealed junctions.
Poor ground surface – uneven muddy or slippery surfaces or excessive slopes.
Congestion – there simply being too many vehicles in one area.
The hazardous situation created by local conditions can be worsened by human failure and
error, such as:
Falling Loads
Many accidents are caused by the loads carried by the vehicle becoming unstable and falling
off, causing the vehicle to overturn or the driver to lose control. Loads do not do this by
themselves – it happens because of some deficiency in the loading (or unloading) procedure
such as:
Overloading.
Uneven distribution.
Unsecured loads.
Slippery surfaces on the vehicle or load itself.
Vehicles Overturning
There are two main ways in which a vehicle may turn over:
Lateral instability: a vehicle turning onto its side, as when a high-sided lorry is blown over
in high wind, or when a loaded forklift tips over whilst driving across a slope.
Longitudinal instability: a vehicle turning onto its front or back, as when a tractor's front
wheels lift due to the weight applied by an attached trailer, or when a forklift truck is
moving up or down a slope.
Overturning is caused by the centre of gravity of the vehicle moving outside of its wheelbase
as shown in the following diagrams of loaded forklifts.
With forklifts, the higher a load is carried vertically going down a slope, the more unstable the
vehicle is as the load centre is increased. It is, therefore, better for forklifts to reverse down
slopes with the load as low as possible. See the diagram later in this section.
Such instability is a major problem in the safe use of high vehicles, particularly those with
lifting mechanisms. The risk is increased by:
The speed of travel.
The steepness of the slope.
The height the load is raised to, as well as the stability of the load.
Increased or incorrect tyre pressure.
Any external longitudinal pressure, such as wind or colliding objects.
Presence, and size of, any bumps or holes in the surface.
Note that a similar effect to that of a slope may be caused by uneven ground. Where a vehicle
goes over a pothole, for example, the front wheels will dip giving the effect of a slope.
Forklifts are the most critical of vehicles here, as they have small wheels that will exaggerate
the effect and no suspension to keep the body steady.
(b)
LOAD
CG
CG
(a)
CG
P
LOAD
CG P
W
L P
LEVEL GROUND
y x
Loaded Forklifts
In the diagrams illustrating ‘Loaded Forklifts’, shown above, the left-hand diagram shows a
forklift truck carrying a load high on the forks, travelling down a slope forwards. As discussed
earlier, this is a hazardous practice, and it would be better to reverse down the slope with the
forks lowered. The right-hand diagram shows the effect of a slope on the centre of gravity of
a load with the forks lowered (a) and then raised (b). In diagram (a), the centre of gravity is
within the wheelbase but in diagram (b), with the forks raised, the centre of gravity is outside
the wheelbase and a risk of overturning exists.
A key to the diagrams follows:
y The distance of the centre of gravity from the CG Centre of gravity.
pivot point of the forklift truck body.
x The distance of the centre of gravity from the P Pivot point.
pivot point of the load.
W Gravitational force acting on the truck (weight). L Gravitational force acting on the load (weight).
Safe Operation
Although more specific measures for controlling risks are discussed below, the following
general issues should also be considered:
Operator training is essential and strict rules about driving should be observed –
particularly in respect of speed and direction of travel depending on the load, whether the
forks are raised and whether travelling up or down an incline.
Particular care must be taken in the vicinity of pedestrians, both during movement and
when lifting. The load should not be picked up if someone is standing close to it and
people should not work or stand beneath a raised load. People should never stand on the
forks or use them as a working platform, except where specially designed for such work.
Before lifting, the weight of the load must be assessed to ensure that the truck is capable
of lifting it. The forks must be suitably adjusted for the load and placed in the correct
position, and any attachments to cope with the special characteristics of the load should
be fitted and checked. Loads that are unsuitable for the particular truck and its
attachments should not be picked up, nor should loads or pallets that are damaged.
When lifting or lowering loads, the handbrake should be on and the mast should not be
tilted forwards.
When two trucks are operating in tandem to lift or manoeuvre heavy or awkward loads,
operations should be supervised by a competent person using recognised signals to guide
both drivers.
As with all vehicles, forklift trucks must be used and maintained properly in accordance
with the manufacturer’s specifications in respect of maximum lift height and capacity, and
routine inspection, maintenance and servicing.
Barriers to separate pedestrians from vehicle traffic routes or, where this is impractical, the
use of clear surface markings to delineate the separate routes. These are particularly
required outside exits from buildings where there is a risk of pedestrians walking directly
onto a road, as well as on walkways around construction sites. Surface markings may be
unsuitable, for example, where the risk is great, such as on a narrow, slippery surface. In
such a case, pedestrians would need to be completely re-routed. Such a decision will
need to risk assessment-based.
Designated points for pedestrians to use when crossing vehicle routes. These should be
clearly marked and controlled by traffic lights if necessary. Where traffic is particularly
heavy, bridges or subways may be necessary.
Where vehicles pass through doorways, or under narrow bridges or through tunnels that
have insufficient width to allow vehicles and pedestrians to be separated by a raised or
railed-off footpath, separate access for pedestrians should be considered.
There are many situations where pedestrians and vehicles cannot be separated for operational
reasons. In such situations, the following measures should be taken:
Pedestrians may be required to wear high-visibility jackets.
Vehicles should be fitted with warning lights and alarms to indicate movement, particularly
on reversing.
Structural and environmental conditions should be altered to enhance safety, with
particular attention to visibility (through lighting and mirrors).
movement of the largest vehicle likely to use them, with allowance made for visiting vehicles
which may be larger than those used exclusively on site. Therefore, a heavily used two-way
access road must be wider than one which is so lightly trafficked it is unlikely to have goods
vehicles arriving and departing at the same time. The number of pedestrians and vehicles
likely to be entering and leaving the site at peak time should also be considered. Other factors
include:
Surface markings on roads play an important part in regulating vehicle movements. White
lines should divide access roads into lanes, indicate priorities at junctions and delineate
the boundaries of parking stalls and loading bays.
As far as possible, the necessity for vehicles to reverse should be eliminated, for example,
by the use of one-way systems that are clearly marked.
Hazards, such as sharp bends and blind corners, should be eliminated where possible.
Where they are unavoidable, suitable warning signs and mirrors can reduce the risk.
Obstacles, such as building corners, loading bay edges, low bridges and pipe-bridges,
should also be clearly signed and marked.
Road junctions and road or rail crossings should be kept to a minimum. Site entrances
and gateways should be of sufficient width to accommodate vehicles stopped for checking
without causing obstructions on the public highway or on the site.
Physical protection of vulnerable plant and equipment such as storage tanks, pipework
and storage racking may be necessary. Such plant should be located away from roads but
where this is not possible, suitably constructed barriers should be provided for protection.
Minimise Reversing and Use of One-Way Systems
Many fatal accidents are caused as a result of a vehicle reversing, In 1982 in the UK the HSE
produced an analysis of fatal accidents due to transport activities (Transport Kills, HSE 1982),
statistics showed that 20% of the fatal accidents were due to reversing vehicles.
It is therefore essential to minimise reversing wherever possible.
One method by which the need to reverse can be minimised is by the use of one-way systems
which are clearly marked.
Vehicle Parking
Sufficient and suitable parking areas should be provided for all vehicles, including employees’
and visiting cars, motor cycles and cycles, waiting goods vehicles, sites for skips and pallet
stacks. If any of these are left in unplanned positions, the safe operation of the site can be
disrupted. Parking areas should have firm, even surfaces with adequate means of access and
egress. As far as private vehicles are concerned, a site manager has only limited control over
their use. Vehicles should be regulated by restricting their routes and enforcing speed
restrictions, in addition to providing designated parking areas.
Road Construction and Maintenance
All roads should be even, constructed of suitable materials such as concrete or bituminous
surfaces and well drained. Excessive gradients, i.e. in excess of 1 in 10, should be avoided
where possible, although it is difficult in the vicinity of ramps that connect parts of the site
which are at different levels. The provision of lay-bys and sufficient forward visibility,
particularly on constricted sites, can contribute to safe vehicle movements. Maintenance of
roads is particularly important, for example, potholes should not be allowed to develop, snow
clearing and gritting may be necessary, and goods which fall from vehicles should be retrieved
as soon as possible.
Lighting
For much of the year, parts of the working day are dark and lighting is required for safe and
efficient operations, as well as for security purposes. Adequate lighting is necessary
particularly at road junctions, rail crossings, near buildings and plant, in pedestrian areas and
where there is regular movement of vehicles and other mobile plant. Lighting columns close to
the edge of roads can cause difficulties, particularly on narrow two-way roads. If columns
cannot be set back, wall-mounted lights should be considered.
Speed Limits
Speed limits should be set and enforced on sites. As enforcement is often difficult, speed
retarders accompanied by prominent warning notices can be used to prevent vehicles being
driven at excessive speeds.
A licensing or authorisation system can be used to check that employees are trained and
competent. The licence is often a simple document with details of the types of vehicles that a
person is competent to operate.
Signage
It should never be assumed that people in the workplace will be automatically aware of the
hazards around them and understand the necessary preventative and protective measures in
place. It is important, therefore, that all persons are given appropriate information to enable
them to move around the workplace in safety. Instruction should be given as to general
conduct, such as not running or playing games, as well as in respect of particular hazards.
Part of this will be in the form of signs, markings and notices, but additional information may
also be necessary, for example, about keeping to designated walkways, being aware of
particular hazards (such as temporary work going on overhead), etc. Visitors to premises may
need special instruction prior to entry.
Clearly visible and easily understood signs, markings and notices must be provided to ensure
that pedestrians, however unfamiliar they may be with the situation, are aware of any hazards
and what they must do to avoid them. Signs must be used in respect of:
Prohibitions – for example, no pedestrian access, no entry through a particular doorway,
no smoking or no naked lights in particular areas, etc.
Warnings – for example, in respect of dangers from falling objects or hazardous
substances, reversing vehicles, forklift operations in progress.
Mandatory actions – for example, compulsory wearing/use of personal protective
equipment in an area including; seat belts, hearing protection, etc.
Safe conditions – for example, emergency exits, fire escape routes, locality of first aid
points, etc.
To ensure that hazards are easily identifiable it is advisable to mark the area with hazard
warning tape, the standard style of the warning is yellow diagonal stripes on a black
background. This warning should be fixed by tape or painted onto any object likely to present
an unforeseen hazard. Examples include the edges of steps, overhead obstructions and cables
or pipes temporarily laid across a floor. In addition, hazard markings on floors should indicate
areas to avoid, such as around doors used by vehicles, and delineate the edges of safe
walkways.
Signage should not only be provided to warn pedestrians of the hazards in a particular
workplace. It is important to inform those driving workplace vehicles of particular hazards,
(e.g. pedestrians crossing a roadway, height restrictions, no go areas, etc.). In such instances
signage could come in the form of prohibition speed limit signs, mandatory signs requiring
drivers to use their horn when approaching a certain area, warning signs to forewarn drivers
of height restrictions, etc.
If there is a risk of mobile work equipment tipping over and causing injury to the driver or
passengers then roll over protective structures (ROPS) should be fitted. If it can be
shown that it is unlikely that the equipment will tip by no more than 90° due to the nature of
the construction, e.g. a vertical masted forklift truck, then a ROPS need not be fitted.
If, however, there is a risk of material falling on the driver or passengers when the equipment
is in use, then a falling object protective structure (FOPS) should be fitted. This could be
achieved by a strong cab or cage which should be certificated for specific machines (see figure
that follows).
No one unfit to drive through the influence of alcohol or drugs should be permitted to
drive any vehicle.
Occupational Driving
It has been estimated that up to a third of all road traffic accidents involve somebody who is at
work at the time. This may account for over 20 fatalities and 250 serious injuries every week.
Some employers believe, incorrectly, that provided they comply with certain road traffic law
requirements, e.g. Company vehicles have a valid test certificate, and that drivers hold a valid
licence, this is enough to ensure the safety of their employees, and others, when they are on
the road. However, health and safety law applies to on-the-road work activities as to all work
activities, and the risks should be effectively managed within a health and safety management
system.
Guidance, available from the HSE in the UK and other sources, should be used by employers,
managers or supervisors with staff who drive, or ride a motorcycle or bicycle at work, and in
particular those with responsibility for fleet management. This guidance should also be used
by self-employed people. The guidance covers people whose main job is driving, and those
who drive or ride occasionally or for short distances. Health and safety law does not generally
apply to commuting, unless the employee is travelling from their home to a location which is
not their usual place of work.
The Vehicle
Using vehicles for purposes for which they are not intended or using poorly maintained
vehicles will inevitably result in vehicle failure and/or an accident. Older vehicles may be less
reliable and show rapid deterioration requiring a much higher frequency of maintenance.
Safety features (seat belts and air bags) and other vehicle functions (lights, windscreen wipers
and tyres etc.) may experience damage or deterioration through general wear and tear and
eventually fail. Overloading or incorrectly loaded vehicles also pose a risk of vehicle damage or
failure.
Organisational Factors
Organisations that do not have a road safety policy are likely to have a higher accident
frequency rate compared to those that do. Without a policy employees lack clear instruction
and awareness of risks involved with driving.
Inattention and distraction are two of the most common causes of road traffic accidents. The
use of hand held and even hands-free mobile phones provide enough distraction to alter a
driver’s behaviour but are often given to employees for the purpose of being able to make and
receive calls in their vehicle. The use of hand-held mobile phones or other hand-held devices
prevents the driver having full physical and mental control of the vehicle increasing the risk of
an accident due to lapse in concentration. Even during conversation on hands-free mobile
phones, driver’s speed may significantly drop or raise and vehicles have been seen to veer off
the road or lane whilst the driver is using the telephone.
Generally the concentration of a person drops when there are too many factors on which to
focus. Other distractions may be caused by other auditory means such as music or
passengers.
Environmental Conditions
Weather conditions can play a large part in determining whether an accident occurs, and if so
the scale of it. Snow, heavy rain and strong winds will create slippery ground conditions,
instability of a vehicle and poor visibility. The weather may also damage road surfaces and
after excessive rain flooding may occur. The sun can create blind spots or the inability to see if
extremely bright or low in the sky. Even with a competent and trained driver these conditions
can create additional pressure and test their ability. Road conditions may vary on different
routes. Road repairs and works may affect the standard and condition of a road making it
uneven or hazardous. Where such routes are regular driver complacency can contribute to an
accident.
Reducing the risks from Occupational Driving
Occupational driving can only be effectively managed if it is integrated into your arrangements
for managing health and safety at work. Employers should look at existing health and safety
management systems and arrangements and consider whether they adequately cover road
safety.
All organisations must ensure that their health and safety policy statement covers occupational
driving. As a minimum the policy should include compliance with road traffic legislation, rest
breaks the use of mobile phones and hand-held devices, vehicle maintenance and driver
competence.
Employers need to be committed to providing work-related road safety management systems
and be aware of their responsibilities and how to achieve an adequate system. Employers
must conduct a road safety risk assessment to identify the hazards involved with driving. By
identifying the hazards, evaluating the risks and existing precautions, the employer will be able
to understand the causes of accidents, and develop and implement suitable control measures.
Before employers can start to reduce the risks associated with occupational driving they must
complete a risk assessment to identify the hazards involved.
Once employers have identified the hazards from the risk assessment it will enable them to
implement the correct management controls that will reduce the likelihood of an accident.
There are a number of actions that employers can take to reduce this risk:-
The Driver
Employers must ensure that all drivers hold a valid licence and relevant insurance for the
vehicle which they will be required to drive. Employees with previous experience of driving
certain vehicles will demonstrate a higher competence, than those with no previous
experience. Competence can be further developed with training. Training should include how
to check the general features of the vehicle, particularly safety features, as well as specific
vehicle limits, such as loads and loading procedures. Fitness and health checks, including
eyesight tests, should be conducted to ensure all drivers have the physical requirements for
occupational driving.
Tiredness and fatigue are more difficult to control. The employer can train and instruct the
employee, lay down procedures in the driver handbook and company policy (discussed later in
this chapter) and set a driving schedule or timetable to prevent driver tiredness. However,
tiredness and fatigue may result due to personal ‘out of work’ circumstances which the
employer has either any knowledge or control of.
Drivers must take some responsibility for themselves and must be sure to take rest breaks
whenever they are needed. All journeys must be planned to incorporate regular breaks and if
drivers should feel overcome with tiredness or fatigue they should not drive. The employer
must be vigilant and conduct regular health checks and try to introduce arrangements for
monitoring employees compliance with company policy to ensure drivers have the physical and
mental capability that is required for safe driving.
The Vehicle
Employers must provide vehicles which are fit for the purpose of which they are intended. All
vehicles must be serviced regularly so any repairs or deterioration can be spotted at the
earliest opportunity. It would be a benefit for drivers to be trained to carry out daily checks
and any minor repairs, such as changing a wheel, should the need arise. Vehicles displaying
load limits, loading and securing instructions will provide a reminder and warning to those
involved.
Organisational Factors
Organisations should develop health and safety policies that cover occupational driving. It
could be that a separate ‘road safety’ policy is developed which contains information that will
raise the awareness of the risks involved in occupational driving, and the company procedures
which must be complied with. The policy must be communicated to employees clearly stating
instructions and procedures for them to follow. The policy should reinforce road safety
legislation, in particular the use of seat belts and mobile phones, being under the influence of
alcohol or drugs, and complying with speed limits. The policy must clearly state that the use
of hand-held mobile phones and other hand-held devices is illegal and it is suggested that
even the use of hand-free mobile phones should be prohibited due to the distraction they
create. People may be able to concentrate on driving, concentrate on an intense conversation
and perform fine motor skills (like operating the vehicle controls or keying in telephone
numbers into a mobile phone) and but cannot do all three at the same time to the level that is
required for safe driving. The policy should instruct drivers not to answer any calls whilst
driving or to keep the phone turned off to avoid distraction. Calls should be taken when in a
suitably safe area and when stationary. The policy must inform all other employees not
contact any colleague whom they know may be driving.
The policy might also include procedures for driving times, mileage limits, rest breaks, journey
scheduling and planning, and highlight any other applicable road safety legislation.
In addition to the road safety policy, driver handbooks are another way of communicating safe
driving guidance.
Environmental Conditions
Careful consideration must be given when planning the routes and times of journeys. Where
adverse weather conditions are likely to jeopardise the safety of a driver the journey should be
rescheduled. Vehicles must also be properly equipped to operate in poor weather conditions
as well as additional driver training for such circumstances. Emergency procedures must be in
place should the driver become stranded by weather conditions or other means. Road works
or repairs, low level bridges, tunnels and level crossings are other factors that must be
considered when planning a journey to prevent additional risk of harm arising.
C O N T E N T S
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
1.B.7.1 Outline the main types of mechanical handling and lifting equipment
1.B.7.2 Outline the main causes of failure associated with mechanical handling and lifting
equipment
1.B.7.3 Describe the main hazards associated with mechanical handling and lifting
operations and explain how they may cause harm
1.B.7.4 Determine, implement, evaluate and maintain measures for controlling risks from
mechanical handling and lifting operations
Unit 5:
Cranes
Mobile Cranes
These are the most common types of cranes in use (see figure below). The crane on the left is
a rough terrain wheeled crane with a telescopic jib. Such cranes are very mobile and suitable
for small lifts, making them useful around a construction site.
EFFECTIVE AREA
WITH OUTRIGGERS
BASIC AREA OF
BASE
Outriggers
Tower Cranes
These consist of a tall, slender lattice mast with a jib unit at the top. They are used on long
duration work where large areas of access are required to be covered with the loads. Various
types are available for special situations. They are normally fixed to one location but can be
mounted on rails.
Due to the height of the crane, Tower cranes are normally erected with the use of other
cranes.
Tower cranes offer the following advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages
− Small base with relatively large working area.
− Stable as considerable care is taken to install.
− Good visibility of the load and work area.
Disadvantages
− High winds can be a problem, as they can cause instability of the load.
− Workers may not always be aware of a load overhead.
Mobile cranes offer the following advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages
− Suited to short-term contracts.
− Lower transport costs.
− Quicker set-up.
Disadvantages
− Instability due to less certainty of ground make up.
− Greater potential for striking structures due to poor reach over building roof edges.
− Greater potential for contact with overhead power lines due to increased mobility.
Counterbalance
Page 5 of 20
Fixed tower
Slewing tower
(a) (b)
Counterbalance
and ballast
Ballast
Rail Slewing ring
Rail
Sleepers Bogies Bogies
Sleepers
The styles and types vary according to the work and the work environment. The simplest form
of hoists are the cantilever type used on construction sites where a rope passes over a pulley
at the top of the structure, with the lifting power being supplied by a machine or manually
powered winch.
Cantilever Hoist
More sophisticated systems use geared drives to control lifting and reinforced cables rather
than ropes. There are also rack and pinion drives, where the drive turns a small cog whose
teeth engage with similar teeth on the pinion. These are extensively used for passenger-
carrying hoists and for inclined hoists and lifts, and are carrying considerable weights over
extensive distances. The interlocking of the cogs act as an effective brake and control over the
movement.
Lift Trucks
Lift trucks are a very flexible class of mobile handling equipment designed for use within and
around buildings. They can cope with a variety of materials and come in a range of different
guises. They are used to lift, move and restack palletised loads and may be fitted with a
variety of attachments including drum-handling equipment, bale clamps, working platforms,
skips, fork extensions and lifting appliances, all of which increase the versatility of the vehicle.
Further details later in this section.
Attachments
Chains
These, along with other types of slings, strops, etc. give a strong, flexible link between the
load and the crane. They are usually used in conjunction with shackles (see later in this
section). Chains of varying sizes and makes are widely used for lifting purposes. Wrought iron
chains are still found in industry although their manufacture has virtually ceased. They
provided a very good system for carrying heavy loads and had considerable resistance to
damage by corrosive atmospheres. They suffer a serious disadvantage in that they become
work hardened in use. Work hardening is a process which causes changes in the crystal
structure of wrought iron, making it brittle and therefore susceptible to brittle fracture. All
wrought iron chains must undergo periodic annealing. Wrought iron chains may be
identified by the scarf weld at the end of each link.
Fibre Ropes
The term "fibre rope" is a general expression which covers natural or man-made fibre ropes.
It is now possible to select a suitable rope from the different strengths and properties of the
material available to suit most purposes. As there is no official test certificate for ropes, it is
very important that ropes are obtained from a reliable source where adequate quality control
during production, and testing of the final product, are carried out, and where reliance can be
placed upon the manufacturer's new rope test certificate. It is therefore important to have a
visual inspection regime in place.
Shackles
These come in a variety of types and sizes, some common examples being 'D' shackles
(because of their shape) and bow shackles. These are passed through the eye of the sling or
strop and are connected to the load by means of a pin, often threaded.
Eye Bolts
These are threaded bolts which have an eye formed at the other end. These are used where
there are dedicated lifting points on the load that have been drilled and threaded. They are
used in conjunction with shackles.
Slings
• Two, Three or Four Legged Slings
Normally made of steel wire rope, slings usually have a large ring at one end to fit onto
the hook, whilst at the other end there are eyes that allow the use of shackles (see
figures that follow).
Care must be taken when using any sling that the angles between the legs do not exceed the
stated angle. E.g. SWL 5 tonnes 0°– 45°.
Poor Selection
Firstly, a crane must be selected which is suitable for the job. Cranes come in a variety of
types, sizes and capacities. The selection of the appropriate type of crane will depend upon
the following factors:
Weight and dimensions of loads.
Heights of lifts and distances or areas of movement of loads.
Number and frequency of lifts.
Length of time the crane will be required.
Site ground conditions.
Lack of Planning
Planning should include:
Correct crane selection (weight of load, radius of operation, height of lift).
Correct siting (firm ground, clear of obstructions).
Adequate stability (guy ropes, bolting, counterweights, outriggers).
Consideration of the whole lifting operation and, in particular, slinging methods and the
route of the lift.
Lack of Supervision and Training
In order to ensure that the lifting operation is carried out according to the plan, staff must be
adequately supervised and properly trained to ensure competence:
Lifting Operations ‘Appointed Person’
The ‘appointed person’ should have undergone formal training in how to plan lifting operations
safely and have relevant experience with lifting operations.
Lift Supervisor
The lift supervisor is normally a foreman or team leader with experience of lifting operations
who will ensure that the lifting plan is followed, ensuring the necessary controls are in place to
prevent failure of the lift. He should be authorised to stop the lift if controls do not address
the risks fully.
Slinger/Signaller
The slinger/signaller’s relative experience is assessed by the lift supervisor in relation to the
proposed lifting operation to be carried out as to whether sufficient experience has been
attained. The slinger/signaller should have been formally trained and have a valid certification
card or similar. He is responsible for attaching and detaching the load and guiding the load by
giving appropriate signals to the plant operator.
Plant Operator
The plant operator is responsible for the lifting equipment serviceability and operating in a safe
manner as he has been formally been trained to do. The plant operator should have a valid
certification card or similar for the item of plant being used e.g. crane, forklift truck, telescopic
handler etc. This can include International Powered Access Federation (IPAF) cards for
operators of mobile elevating work platforms.
Supervision
The amount and quality of supervision should be proportional to the risk, and take account of
the people involved, for example, an experienced forklift truck driver doing a routine job would
not require much supervision. Supervision does not necessarily mean the direct physical
presence of a supervisor at all times.
Counterbalance Load
Fulcrum
LOAD
COUNTERBALANCE
FULCRUM
Significant Hazards
The biggest problem with lift trucks is that, with their small wheels and particularly when
loaded and with the forks raised, they may become unbalanced. This may result in the load
being shed or the whole truck tipping over. Other hazards that arise from the lift truck itself
include:
For electrically operated trucks, there is the danger of production of hydrogen gas whilst
charging the batteries, as well as the manual handling implications of changing them.
For gas (LPG) operated lift trucks, there is a fire and explosion risk, particularly during the
changing of cylinders.
Hazards arise from poor maintenance of brakes, steering, tyres, lights, etc., and emission
of substances whilst being used, i.e. exhaust gases, including diesel fumes in confined
spaces.
There are hazards that arise from the operator or the manner of operation of the truck. For
instance, a driver may drive too fast or attempt to corner at speed, and so cause the vehicle to
overturn or lose its load. Such issues may be aggravated by the youth or inexperience of the
operator. A younger may tend to drive faster and not pay attention to the need to drive with
caution, and may need specific training and supervision to guard against this.
The area of operation of the lift truck may also present hazards. For example, lift trucks are
often used in areas where there is a possibility of pedestrian movement. Impact with people
as well as with structures such as walls and racking is a constant hazard. Driving over
unsuitable ground can cause the load to shift or fall off.
Other hazards arise from:
The need to reverse in many situations, with consequent visibility problems.
A raised load obscuring the view of the operator.
Unsuitability of the truck for the working environment - for example, not being designed
for the particular loads, diesel-powered trucks with heavy exhaust fumes being used in
poorly ventilated areas (such as basements), counterbalanced or reach trucks being used
on rough terrain (such as construction sites).
Overloading of lift trucks can lead to loss of control in steering and braking, and unevenly
or improperly loaded lift trucks can become unstable.
Trucks must be driven at an appropriate speed for the conditions and visibility. Where
speed restrictions have been set, they must be obeyed. Particular care must be taken
when reversing.
Before lifting, the weight of the load must be assessed as well as centre of gravity to
ensure that the truck is capable of lifting.
The forks must be suitably adjusted for the load and placed in the correct position, i.e.
fully inserted so that the forks are evenly loaded during lifting.
The mast should not be tilted forwards when a load is being raised or lowered.
When lifting and lowering loads during stacking operations, the handbrake should be on
and care should be taken not to dislodge other stacks.
Tandem lifting, where two lift trucks are used to manoeuvre heavy or awkward loads, is a
difficult and potentially dangerous operation. It must be supervised by a competent
person using recognised signals to guide both of the drivers. The load must be evenly
distributed between the trucks and properly secured. The load should not exceed 150%
of the capacity of the smaller truck.
Selection of Forklift Truck
Selection of suitable equipment is an essential factor in ensuring forklift truck safety. There
are many types of truck available for a range of activities, and these were described earlier.
Counterbalance trucks are extensively used throughout industry, and there are many situations
where specialist trucks such as reach trucks, telescopic materials handlers or rough terrain
trucks are required. Many accidents occur due to the incorrect selection and/or use of forklift
trucks. The following factors need to be taken into account where selecting forklift trucks:
Nature of the loads to be transported. This will determine the size, capacity and mast
height of the truck.
Operational area, which will determine: the power source (battery indoors, diesel
outdoors); type of tyres (solid or pneumatic); protection for operator (overturning or
falling objects); or warning systems if pedestrians are nearby.
Capacity Plates and Safe Working Loads
The rated capacity of a forklift truck is the maximum weight (kg) at a maximum load centre
(m). The load centre is measured from the heel of the forks, e.g. 1000 kg at 0.5 m load
centre. Any deviation from the rated capacity will cause instability and/or overloading, and
therefore it is essential that this information is displayed on the truck itself.
Driver Training
Operator training should include three stages:
• Basic Training
This includes the basic skills and knowledge required for safe operation of the type of lift
truck and attachments that the driver will use. This should be training off-the-job.
• Specific Job Training
This stage of training should cover knowledge of the workplace, any special requirements
of the work to be undertaken and the use of specific attachments. Again it should be
training off-the-job and is often combined or integrated with basic training. The training
should include:
Daily Checks
At the start of each shift, the operator should check the lift truck and report any defects that
might affect its safe operation to the supervisor, so that such defects can be corrected. Checks
should include:
Tyres:
− Tyre pressures should be checked, as incorrectly inflated tyres can affect the stability
of the lift truck and its load.
− Tyres should also be checked for damage, for example, from swarf and nails, as well
as for bubbles and tears.
Parking brakes, service brakes and steering gear.
Fuel, water and oil in trucks with internal combustion engines.
Batteries in battery-operated trucks.
Systems for lifting, tilting and manipulation, including attachments.
− Hydraulic systems should be from leaks and hydraulic fluid levels should be correct.
Audible warning signal.
Lights.
Mirrors.
Weekly Checks
Weekly checks are appropriate for trucks that are in constant use. Checks should include:
All daily checks discussed earlier.
An operational check of the steering gear, lifting gear, condition of the battery and other
working parts.
The condition of the mast, fork arms, attachments, tyres and any chains and ropes used
in the lifting mechanisms, and, if fitted, the operator restraint.
Security of the overhead guard and load backrest extension.
C O N T E N T S
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
1.B.8.3 Determine, implement, evaluate and maintain measures for controlling risks from
electricity
1.B.8.4 Develop a regime for the inspection, testing and maintenance of electrical
equipment
Unit 6:
Current in Effects
Milliamps
0.5-2 Threshold of perception
2-10 Painful sensation
10-25 Inability to let go, danger of asphyxiation
25-80 Loss of consciousness from heart or respiratory
failure
Over 80 Burns at point of contact, death from ventricular
fibrillation
Burns
Direct
Electrical burns are caused by the intense heating effect of an electric current as it passes
through the body and may result from only a brief passage of electricity. The burns are likely
to be most severe at locations along the path of the current where the resistance is greatest.
Burns usually occur on the surface of the skin at points of contact but high currents can create
internal burns which cause damage to red blood cells and muscle tissue. Such burns are often
deep-seated and slow to heal.
Indirect
Electric arcing generates large amounts of energy and leads to burns caused by radiation; both
infra-red, which produces a sensation of heat, to ultraviolet, which can burn the skin and cause
'arc eye' or 'eye flash', which is an eye irritation.
All electrical burns, should receive immediate medical attention.
Fire
Common Causes of Fires
Fires of electrical origin can be caused in several ways:
Leakage of current due to poor or inadequate electrical insulation, e.g. damaged
insulation on flexible cables can lead to leakage of current. This could lead to the ignition
of flammable vapour e.g. arcing or sparking electrical equipment located in/adjacent to a
paint spray booth may ignite flammable paint vapours produced during the spraying
operation.
Overheating of electrical equipment and cables due to overloading of conductors, e.g.
flexible cable wound onto cable drums can overheat due to the lower thermal rating of
cable that is wound; a safe current/time limit should be specified by the manufacturer.
Overheating of flammable materials too close to electrical equipment, which is otherwise
operating normally, e.g. waste paper next to electrical equipment that may have hot
surfaces, while in operation.
Mechanical damage, e.g. the use of adaptors into which a number of plugs are connected
can lead to mechanical damage to the socket contacts, causing arcing between them and
the plug pins which can result in fire.
All of the above can ignite flammable materials if the temperature attained by the fault is
sufficiently high.
Electric Arcs
Arcing can occur when the potential difference between conductors is great enough to
overcome the resistance of the conductive path between one conductor and another that is at
a lower potential. The resulting arc will be capable of crossing the air gap or insulation that
separates the two conductors. Very large amounts of energy can be created in a short time,
usually less than one second.
Arcing generates ultraviolet radiation that can burn the skin and the eye. This phenomenon is
exactly the same as the 'arc eye' that a welder might experience if they used an arc welder
without adequate eye protection. The surface layers of the eye are burned by the intense
radiation, leading to severe pain and temporary blindness. Additional burns may result from
radiated heat and from molten/hot metal fragments. Severe, sometimes fatal, injuries and
burns or serious fires may result from an arcing incident.
If the voltages are high enough, X-Ray radiation may also be generated, with obvious health
consequences.
Explosion
Explosions, which can cause burns and injuries from flying debris, can arise in two ways:
Ignition of a flammable substance such as a gas, dust, liquid or vapour by an electric arc,
spark or the heating effect of electrical equipment that has a hot surface. There is no
voltage limit that will allow the safe use of electricity in a potentially flammable
environment without additional precautions being taken. For example, an explosion could
result if inappropriate electrical equipment is used in a workroom where significant
concentrations of airborne dust occur.
The explosion of equipment due to excessive currents or prolonged internal arcing faults.
The overload of energy can cause rapid and violent rupture of the equipment. For
example, an electrical multimeter (test meter) might explode if its probes are touched
onto electrical components where very high potential difference (voltage) exists. Large
current flows, the meter explodes and the worker is engulfed in a fireball of molten metal
and burning plastic.
Secondary Effects of Electric Shock
Electric shock may also initiate secondary causes of injury. The involuntary muscular reaction
may throw the arm back so violently that the muscles become overstrained or ligaments are
torn. More often, however, the shock startles the victim and causes momentary loss of control
and balance, resulting in falls. If working from a ladder the fall can result in more serious
injuries than the electric shock.
Overloaded Sockets
All electrical equipment and circuits are rated to carry a given safe current which will keep the
temperature rise of the conductors in the circuit or appliance within safe limits. Overloading of
electrical sockets beyond the rating of the circuit can cause overheating which in turn can lead
to fire. The use of multi sockets is a common cause for concern in relation to overloading and
can be easily overcome by installing sufficient numbers of fixed socket points to cope with the
demands of the workplace appliances.
Incorrect Fuses
Fuses are designed to melt at a temperature that is related to the excess current against which
protection is required. So, for example, a 5-amp fuse will melt if the current flow exceeds five
amps, thus protecting the circuit from excess current.
The primary purpose of the fuse is to prevent significant excess current flowing through the
circuit for a long enough period of time to cause overheating, fire and explosion. Fuses do not
react quickly enough to prevent electric shock and, in most instances, are not sensitive enough
to give electric shock protection. Bear in mind that a fault current of 80 milliamps flowing
through a person can cause heart fibrillation, but is well below the current necessary to blow a
5-amp fuse.
In the event of an electrical fault with a piece if equipment – for example, a small earth
leakage due to short circuit – the fuse protecting the equipment may blow. The operator (or
repairer) may then be tempted to replace the fuse with one of higher rating in the hope that
this will allow the continued operation of the equipment with a 'minor' fault. This can, of
course, be a dangerous course of action with increased risk of overheating, fire or explosion.
In extreme examples, equipment has been found with the fuses removed and replaced with
'alternatives' – pieces of metal, wire, tinfoil, etc.
Unsafe Installations
Electrical installations must meet any applicable standards and be installed by competent and
certified persons. Installations failing to meet these standards are likely to represent a
significant risk to any persons using such premises or equipment.
shocks occur between a live part and earth this is a major step in the reduction of the shock
effect. The full 110-volt supply is available to power the equipment.
Lower voltage systems, which are called "safety extra low voltage" or SELV, are those in which
the voltage does not exceed 50 volts ac between conductors in a circuit that is isolated from
the supply mains, and from earth, by means such as a safety-isolating transformer. These
systems represent even less of a hazard and should be used in other environments such as
vehicle washing areas and in the vicinity of swimming pools. They are also recommended for
hand lamps, soldering irons and other small hand tools where the risk of shock is high.
For work in confined spaces, extra-low voltage equipment of less than 25 volts will be needed.
Portable hand lamps for use in confined spaces and damp conditions should also be less than
25 volts. Battery operated power tools should also be less than 25 volts, and these could be a
good alternative to use in confined spaces as they have a reduced risk of fire, electric shock
and explosion.
Double Insulation
If equipment has a metal enclosure, precautions must be taken to prevent the metalwork from
becoming live. This can be achieved by 'double-insulation' in which the live parts of the
equipment are covered by two layers of insulating material.
Each layer is capable of adequately insulating the live parts alone, but together they ensure
that the occurrence of insulation failure and its associated danger is extremely improbable.
This method is also suitable for portable equipment that often suffers particularly rough use,
but regular maintenance is essential, as the insulation only remains effective while it is intact.
In addition to maintenance, the insulation must be soundly constructed and the equipment
properly used.
RCCB, ELCB, RCD
Residual Current Circuit Breakers (RCCBS), current-operated Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers
(ELCBs) and Residual Current Devices (RCDs) are different names for the same device. They
continually measure the current flowing in the live and neutral lines, and trip the circuit if there
is any difference caused by short circuit to earth. They usually trip within 30 milliseconds if a
fault current of 30 mA is detected. Consequently, human contact with a live conductor
resulting in electrical current flow to earth will be detected fast enough to prevent sufficient
current flow for long enough to prevent fatal shock. As with circuit breakers, these devices
require regular testing to ensure that they continue to work correctly.
These devices are sensitive enough to detect a leakage current too small to operate a fuse, but
which may be large enough to start a fire. Such a current would be detected by the device
that trips the supply circuit breaker. Every RCD has a test button that should be regularly
checked to ensure correct operation.
Fusing
A fuse forms a weak link in a circuit by overheating and melting by design if the current
exceeds the safe limit. A circuit breaker is a mechanical device in the form of a switch that
automatically opens if the circuit is overloaded. Both protective devices should be chosen so
that their rating is above the operating current required by the equipment but less than the
current rating of the cable in the circuit.
Training
When people are engaged in work activities where technical knowledge or experience is
necessary to prevent danger or injury, they must possess either of these skills, or be under
appropriate supervision. The scope of technical knowledge or experience may include:
Adequate knowledge of electricity.
Adequate experience of electrical work.
Adequate understanding of the system to be worked on, and practical experience of that
class of system.
Understanding of the hazards that may arise during the work and the precautions that
must be taken.
Ability to recognise at all times whether it is safe to continue working.
A person responsible for isolating equipment before work commences on it must possess
adequate technical knowledge or experience to prevent danger, and ensure the safety of the
persons working on the equipment. If the isolation has been carried out correctly, danger will
be prevented for the duration of the work. In the case of work on live equipment, a risk of
injury exists and therefore danger is present. In these circumstances, knowledge or
experience must be such that injury is prevented.
It is vital that both employers and employees share a responsibility for safety:
The employer should ensure that his workers receive appropriate training and instruction
so that they understand the safe procedures that are relevant to their work, and/or they
are adequately supervised.
All employees should comply with the instructions or rules set down by their employers to
ensure that work is carried out safely.
q powder-filled
m encapsulated
• Intrinsically Safe - i
This design ensures that the energy level is insufficient to produce an incendiary spark.
Two categories of intrinsically safe equipment exist: 'ia' which is more stringent as it
allows for two simultaneous faults, and 'ib' which allows for only one. Only ia equipment
can be used (exceptionally) in Zone 0 if sparking contacts are not part of the equipment.
Examples of type i are detecting and measuring instruments.
• Pressurised - p
Pressurised equipment excludes flammable gas from the equipment by achieving a higher
pressure inside the equipment than is present in its surroundings. Pressurisation can be
achieved by drawing clean air from a safe area or an inert gas into the equipment under
positive pressure. The air leaks out from small gaps in the casing of the equipment
thereby preventing the ingress of gas/vapour from the flammable atmosphere. The
pressurising equipment must be monitored and interlocked to the supply in order to
disconnect it should the air supply fail or if the pressure drops. Type p protection is
applicable to almost all types of equipment and systems.
(Purging, as opposed to pressurising, is a method whereby a flow of air or inert gas is
maintained in a room or enclosure to reduce or prevent a flammable atmosphere
occurring.)
• Special Protection - s
This is a special category of equipment, not included in the other categories, for which
there is no EH standard. It usually applies to individual components within the
equipment. Examples of type s equipment are catalytic gas detectors and lightweight
fluorescent hand lamps.
• Flameproof - d
This equipment is totally enclosed and the casing must be robust enough to withstand
internal explosions without igniting the flammable atmosphere in which the equipment is
located. Examples of type d equipment are motors, lighting, switchgear and portable
hand lamps.
• Increased Safety - e
This equipment does not arc, spark or generate temperatures high enough to ignite a
flammable atmosphere. Examples of type e equipment are induction motors and certain
types of luminaires. Type e equipment may be used in Zone 1 areas.
• Non-Sparking - N or n
Less stringent requirements have to be met by this category as compared with type e
equipment above. It is intended for use in Zone 2 applications. Examples of type n or N
equipment are some luminaires and solid-state relays.
• Oil-Immersed - o
Such equipment has all parts that are likely to arc under normal conditions immersed in oil
to prevent ignition of a flammable atmosphere that may exist above the surface of the oil.
All other parts are also protected by oil or by some other approved method.
• Powder-Filled - q
All live parts are covered by powder such as quartz or silica, the principle being similar to
oil-immersed equipment.
• Encapsulated - m
This equipment is embedded in an insulating compound that excludes the flammable
atmosphere.
0 No protection No protection
2 Protected against objects > 12 mm Protected against dripping water when tilted ± 15°
At periods appropriate to the equipment, the manner and frequency of use, and the
environment.
The inspection carried out in conjunction with the testing should usually include checks for:
Correct fusing.
Effective termination of cables and cores.
Suitability of the equipment for its environment.
Combined inspection and testing should be carried out by someone with a higher level of
competence than that required for inspection alone, because the results of the tests may call
for interpretation and appropriate electrical knowledge will be essential. However, this can
often be carried out by a competent employee.
Persons testing portable electrical equipment should be fully trained. It is the employer's
responsibility to ensure they are competent for the work they undertake.
Records of Maintenance and Tests
There are many benefits of recording maintenance, including test results. A suitable log is
useful as a management tool for monitoring and reviewing the effectiveness of the
maintenance scheme and indeed to demonstrate that a scheme exists. It can also be used as
an inventory of portable electrical equipment and a check on the use of unauthorised
equipment (e.g. domestic kettles or electric heaters brought to work by employees).
The log can include faults found during inspection and may give a useful indication of the
types of equipment or environment which are subject to a higher than average level of wear or
damage. This will help monitor whether suitable equipment has been selected. Entries in a
test log can also highlight any adverse trends in test readings that may affect the safety of the
equipment, thus enabling remedial action to be taken. Care should be taken in interpreting
trends where a subsequent test may be carried out with a different instrument from that used
for an earlier test, since differences in the results may be due to differences in the test
instruments rather than indicating deterioration in the equipment being tested.
Records do not necessarily have to be on a paper system since test instruments are available
which store the data electronically for downloading directly onto a computer database. It is
useful to label equipment to indicate that it has been tested satisfactorily, i.e. has been passed
as safe, and when the date for the next test is due. Otherwise, individual items may be
missed on consecutive occasions.
Frequency of Inspection and Testing
Deciding on the frequency of maintenance is a matter of judgment for those responsible for
the equipment, and should be based on an assessment of risk. It can be undertaken as part
of the assessment of risks. Factors to consider when making the assessment include:
Type of equipment and whether or not it is hand-held.
Manufacturer's recommendations.
Initial integrity and soundness of the equipment.
Age of the equipment.
Working environment in which the equipment is used (e.g. wet or dusty) or likelihood of
mechanical damage.
Frequency of use and the duty cycle of the equipment.
C O N T E N T S
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
1.B.9.3 Outline the factors contributing to the risk of pressure system failure
1.B.9.4 Determine, implement, evaluate and maintain measures for controlling risks from
pressure systems
1.B.9.5 Develop a regime for the inspection, testing and maintenance of pressure systems
Unit 7:
Main Hazards
The main hazards associated with Pressure Systems are:
impact from the blast of an explosion or release of compressed liquid or gas;
impact from parts of equipment that fail or any flying debris;
contact with the released liquid or gas, such as steam; and
fire resulting from the escape of flammable liquids or gases.
Catastrophic Failure
Catastrophic failure of the pressure vessel or associated pipework can lead to:
Explosions from the sudden release of pressure and consequential blast wave, which can
cause considerable harm to persons in the vicinity. Explosions could also cause structural
damage, or start a chain leading to further increased damage.
Fire starting where the fluid that has escaped is flammable. Boiling Liquid Expanding
Vapour Explosions (BLEVEs) is one example of this, where a sudden release of vapour
containing liquid droplets occurs, owing to the failure of a storage vessel. The initial
explosion may generate a blast wave, missiles or a fire, or may form a vapour cloud that
then gives rise to a secondary explosion and fireball. Significant damage to equipment
and buildings from radiant heat is possible from a BLEVE.
Impact with flying debris produced when vessels or pipework fail. Using the example of a
BLEVE above, failure of a propane sphere of a diameter of 15 m could cause
fragmentation damage extending to about 1,000 m. Severe damage from fragmentation
can be expected in the area where 50 per cent or more of the fragments may fall
(typically about 100 m from the vessel).
Causes of Failure
Excessive Stress
When a system is installed and pressured up for the first time, the various parts will move
slightly and 'settle in'. If this movement is prevented by, for instance, pipe work being tightly
clamped in place, the system will become stressed and this could lead to failure. Residual
stresses from manufacturing produce the same effect, and it is difficult when investigating
failure to determine which of the two has caused the failure.
Abnormal External Loading
'Abnormal external loading' comes about when external forces are applied to the system, for
example, a ladder being rested against pipework.
Overpressure
'Overpressure' occurs when the force making the pressure, for example, flame for boiler or
pump, fails to stop when the system pressure is reached.
Overheating
Overheating occurs when the system runs faster than designed and the pressure relief system
fails to work, for example, an oil-burning boiler runs at full pressure due to failure of the
thermostatic controls. Explosion would occur if the safety valve fails to function. Boilers may
suffer this if they have low water levels.
Mechanical Fatigue and Shock
This is caused by the physical movement of parts of the system, so setting up fatigue failure.
An example of this is the bellows failure at Flixborough, in that the bellows eventually could
not withstand the movement. Such movement may be caused by the effects of the movement
of the fluid, particularly if it flows in 'pulses', for example, as a result of a water hammer.
Shock failure is similar to that of external loading but applied very rapidly.
Thermal Fatigue and Shock
This is caused by the constant changes in temperature from hot to cold, and vice versa. These
changes have the effect of making the material expand and contract, so setting up cyclic stress
reversal leading to fatigue failure.
Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture is caused by cold changing the characteristics of the material from which the
system is made. For example, polymer seals need to be selected with care as their use in
'cold' systems makes the material brittle and liable to failure.
Creep
Within the elastic limits of a material, stress is proportional to strain. When, however, a
material is put under stress near to its elastic limit, it undergoes a process of plastic
deformation, referred to as 'creep'. The extent to which creep acts is dependent upon two
main factors, time and temperature: 'time' as creep is a slow process, and 'temperature' as
creep can be accelerated by increasing the temperatures. Creep has been known to lead to
the rupture of pressure systems, for example, through fractured steam pipes. It is primarily
controlled by design, in the shape of the components and the choice of materials, for example,
chrome-molybdenum steels have low creep characteristics.
Hydrogen Attack
'Hydrogen attack' is a particular problem within steam boilers. The heat and temperature lead
to some of the water molecules breaking down into hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen
atoms, being positively charged and small, move out of the solution and into the material of
the pressure system. This affects the properties of the material, generally by weakening it, so
that failure becomes more possible.
Corrosive Failure
This is caused by substances in the relevant fluid attacking the material from which the system
is made. This is usually because of impurities within the fluid, as the system has to be
designed to take the fluid. Boilers or other systems using water are particularly susceptible,
particularly where the system supply has to be regularly replenished. Corrosive failure will
often occur inside the system, making detection difficult, so the examination process must set
up a means of detection.
Leaks
Leaks from the pressurised system may result in contact with the fluid that was contained.
High-pressure steam will cause scalds and burns. However, the system may contain other
substances, including those that could be hazardous to health on contact, such as toxics or
corrosives.
Weekly
A programme for weekly inspections:
Test low-water fuel cut-off.
Blow down boiler.
Observe condition of flame.
Check oil supply.
Observe operation of condensate or vacuum pump.
Monthly
A programme for monthly inspections:
Safety valve-lift lever.
Test flame-detection devices.
Test limit controls.
Test operating controls.
Sludge blow down (if required).
Check condition of heating surfaces for oil pre-heaters.
Check combustion air supply to boiler room.
Annually
A programme for annual inspections:
Inspect internally and externally after cleaning.
Open and inspect low-water fuel cut-off.
Routine burner maintenance.
Routine maintenance of condensate or vacuum return equipment.
Routine maintenance of all combustion control equipment.
Combustion and draft tests.
Safety valve pop test.
Evaporation test of low-water fuel cut-off.
Inspect gas or oil piping for proper support and tightness.
Inspection Reports
A typical maintenance, test and inspection log is shown in the diagram that follows. It records
daily, weekly and monthly checks that need to be carried out.
DATES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Checked by
(please initial):
1. Manual Lift Relief Valves Relief Valve Check Date: Date Checked Date Checked
2. Review Condition of
A. Linkages F. Floor Drains
each item and/or
Test each item G. Flame Detection
B. Damper Controls
Device
C. Stop Valves H. Limit Controls
COMMENTS:
A suitable system for recording and retaining information about safe operating limits and any
changes to them should be used. Whatever method is used, the information should be readily
available to those people who need it, including the competent person responsible for the
examinations in accordance with the written scheme. For mobile systems, the owner must
provide the user with a written statement detailing the safe operating limits, or ensure that this
information is clearly marked on the equipment.
Record Keeping
The user of an installed system and the owner of a mobile system must keep the last
competent person's examination report relating to the system as well as any previous reports,
if they contain information that will assist in assessing whether:
The system is safe to operate.
Any repairs or modifications to the system can be carried out safely.
These records should be kept at the premises where the system is installed in the case of an
installed system, or at premises from which the deployment of the system is controlled for
mobile systems.
Where the user or owner of a pressure system changes, the previous user or owner must give
to the new user or owner, in writing, any records kept by him or her relating to the system.
Students are encouraged to download and review the HSE publication indg261 from the HSE
website at www.hse.gov.uk.
C O N T E N T S
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
♦ Determine, implement, evaluate and maintain measures for controlling risks from the
carriage of dangerous goods.
Unit 8:
(Transport Pictograms)
Class 2: Gases
Class 2 covers gases that are compressed, liquefied, dissolved under pressure or refrigerated.
All gases present dangers, if only because they are stored in pressurised cylinders (perhaps
3,000 pounds per square inch [or psi]). The classes are sub-divided as follows:
Division 2.1: Flammable gases.
Division 2.2: Non-flammable, non-toxic gases.
Division 2.3: Toxic gases.
(Transport Pictograms)
(Transport Pictogram)
Class 4: Other Flammable Materials
Other flammable materials are sub-divided as follows:
Division 4.1: Flammable solids, self-reactive substances and desensitized explosives.
Division 4.2: Substances liable to spontaneous combustion.
Division 4.3: Substances that, in contact with water, emit flammable gas.
(Transport Pictograms)
(Transport Pictograms)
(Transport Pictogram)
(Transport Pictogram)
(Transport
Transport Pictograms)
(Transport Pictogram)
Extremely or Corrosive
Highly Flammable
The UN has recently brought together experts from around the world including the
International Programme on Chemical Safety and the World Health Organisation, to improve
classification and labeling systems for chemicals.
The following tables give examples of the transport categories and tunnel restriction codes:
Dangerous Goods Transport Categories
Transport Category Examples of Dangerous Goods Threshold
(kilograms or
litres)
0 Extremely infectious substances All loads, no lower
limit
Extremely dangerous
Packing group I 20
Toxic gases
1
Organic peroxide
Very dangerous Very infectious substances
Packing group II 333
Flammable gases
2
Infectious substances
Dangerous
Packing group III 1,000
Non-flammable, non-toxic gases
3
Life-saving appliances
Low danger
4 Matches/firelighters Unlimited
Certain empty, uncleaned packagings
Very low danger
Tunnel Codes
Tunnel Code Restrictions
─ No restrictions for the transport of dangerous goods;
B Restriction for dangerous goods which may lead to a very large
explosion;
C Restriction for dangerous goods which may lead to a very large
explosion, a large explosion or a large toxic release;
dangerous goods restricted in tunnel category B,
D Restriction for dangerous goods which may lead to a
very large explosion, to a large explosion, to a large toxic
release or to a large fire;
dangerous goods restricted in tunnel category C,
E Restriction for all dangerous goods other than UN Nos. 2919, 3291,
3331, 3359 and 3373.
There are also a number of provisions made in relation to the loading, unloading and handling
of dangerous goods. It is prohibited to carry out any of these activities unless all other
regulatory requirements are complied with.
An optional third character is an ‘E’, indicating that a public safety hazard exists and evacuation
should be considered.
Alternative placarding
An alternative placarding system is in operation across Europe and is referred to as the ‘Kemler
Code’. The Kemler code consists of two or three ‘hazard identification numbers’ that identify
the hazards rather than advise on action to take in the case of an emergency. The Kemler code
is the European equivalent of the UK’s Emergency Action Code system, which was described
earlier.
It is an attempt to communicate the seriousness of the hazard. The system is based on the
UN hazard classes. For example, Class 3 is flammable liquid; Class 8 is corrosive, etc. The
code is made up of two or three digits, the first of which may be duplicated for more
dangerous goods. The first figure identifies the primary hazard and the second or third
identifies supplementary hazards:
2: Gas may be given off.
3: Flammable Liquid.
4: Flammable Solid.
5: Oxidising Substance or Organic Peroxide.
6: Toxic Substance.
8: Corrosive.
9: Risk of violent reaction from spontaneous combustion or self-polymerisation.
0: First digit adequately describes hazard.
For example, acetaldehyde (UN 1089) is a flammable liquid (UN hazard Class 3) with no other
hazards. It has an assigned Kemler code of ‘33’, the first number being duplicated because it
is highly dangerous. A flammable liquid of lesser danger, like butanol (UN 1212), is assigned a
Kemler code of 30.
These numbers are usually set out with the Kemler code above the UN number:
33
1089
Transport Documents
Consignors must provide carriers with information about the goods and any special
requirements. This must accompany consignments. The transport document for each
dangerous substance, article or material must contain:
(a) UN number preceded by the letters ‘UN’.
(b) Proper shipping name.
(c) Class and division, and any subsidiary hazards in brackets.
(d) Packaging group (if assigned) preceded by the letters ‘PG’.
(e) Number and description of the packages.
(f) Total quantity of each item of dangerous goods bearing a different UN Number, Proper
Shipping Name or Packaging Group.
(g) Name and address of consignor.
(h) Name and address of consignee.
(k) Tunnel restriction code (where assigned and applicable)
Training Requirements
A significant element of this section relates to the competence of the vehicle crew. Drivers of
all vehicles carrying dangerous goods must attend a basic training course and hold a basic
training certificate issued by a competent authority.
Other persons whose duties concern the carriage of dangerous goods (loaders, unloaders etc)
should also receive training in the requirements governing the carriage of such goods
appropriate to their responsibilities and duties.
The initial training of all persons involved in the carriage of dangerous goods by road, is
generally known as ‘Dangerous Goods Awareness Training’, and takes the following form:
General awareness training: personnel are to be familiar with the general requirements of
the provisions for the carriage of dangerous goods by road.
Function specific training: personnel will receive detailed training, commensurate directly
with their duties and responsibilities, in the provisions of the regulations concerning the
carriage of dangerous goods by road.
Safety training: personnel will receive training covering the hazards and dangers
presented by dangerous goods commensurate with the degree of risk of injury or
exposure arising from an incident involving the carriage of dangerous goods, including
loading and unloading.
The training provided aims to make personnel aware of the safe handling and emergency
response procedures, together with an awareness of the requirements of other modes of
transport, where the carriage of dangerous goods will involve a multimodal transport
operation.
Details of all training must be kept by both the employer and the employee, and must be
verified upon commencing any new employment. The training of personnel involved in the
carriage of dangerous goods by road must also be periodically supplemented with refresher
training to take account of changes in regulations.
Drivers of vehicles of a certain capacity, carrying over certain amounts of specified dangerous
goods are required to attend a specialised training course and pass written examinations to
obtain a vocational training certificate valid for the classes of goods to be carried. This also
applies to all vehicles carrying explosives and most radioactive materials. There are some
exemptions to the requirement to hold the vocational training certificate including goods
carried in limited quantities, quantities carried per transport unit, and vehicles under the
supervision of the emergency services. Operators should keep records of all driver training.
Driver training is valid for five years and drivers are to refresh their training before the expiry
date is reached in order to demonstrate their continued competency.
Equipment Requirements
The following is required to be carried on board the transport unit for all classes of dangerous
goods
A wheel chock
Suitable fire fighting equipment
Two self standing warning signs
Eye rinsing liquid
And for each member of the vehicle crew:
A hi-vis warning vest
A portable light
A pair of protective gloves
Suitable eye protection (Goggles)
In addition, other types of equipment may be required based on the goods being carried. E.g.
emergency escape mask, shovel, drain seal
C O N T E N T S
MAIN HAZARDS AND RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION ACTIVITIES................... 3
MOVING AROUND THE WORKSITE ............................................................................................................................... 3
WORKING AT HEIGHT, INCLUDING SCAFFOLDING AND LADDERS ........................................................................................... 3
ERECTION OF STRUCTURES ....................................................................................................................................... 4
ROOF WORK (FALLS) .............................................................................................................................................. 4
DEMOLITION ........................................................................................................................................................ 4
EXCAVATIONS ....................................................................................................................................................... 5
MOVING VEHICLES AND MOBILE PLANT......................................................................................................................... 8
MOVING OR FALLING MATERIAL AND COLLAPSES............................................................................................................ 11
ELECTRICITY....................................................................................................................................................... 11
WORK ON, NEAR, OR OVER WATER .......................................................................................................................... 12
PRACTICAL CONTROLS FOR MINIMISING RISKS TO SAFETY .......................................................................... 13
WORKING AT HEIGHT ............................................................................................................................................ 13
EXCAVATIONS ..................................................................................................................................................... 23
ELECTRICITY....................................................................................................................................................... 28
MACHINERY/ VEHICLES .......................................................................................................................................... 34
COLLAPSE OF STRUCTURES ..................................................................................................................................... 35
FALLING OBJECTS ................................................................................................................................................ 38
SLIPS, TRIPS AND FALLS ........................................................................................................................................ 41
MANUAL HANDLING .............................................................................................................................................. 43
BSC International Diploma – Element 1B | Applied Health and Safety Management
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
1.B.11.1 Describe the main hazards associated with construction and demolition and
explain how they may cause harm.
1.B.11.2 Determine, implement, evaluate and maintain measures for controlling risks from
construction and demolition
Unit 9:
Work from ladders, (should only be considered where a risk assessment has shown that the
use of other more suitable work equipment is not appropriate because of the low risk, and
short duration of the task or considerations of where the work is located), is frequently a cause
of accidents. Ladders are so widely used that their dangers are often completely overlooked.
They are frequently used in unsuitable locations where they form inappropriate working places,
and they are often incorrectly used and poorly maintained. Incorrect selection of equipment,
erection, securing and use are the main problems.
Scaffolding provides a much safer working platform but can also suffer from incorrect design
and erection which can lead, in the worst case, to scaffold collapse, or at least incomplete
construction which can allow falls of persons or materials.
Erection of Structures
By its very nature construction work involves the erection of various structures which include
scaffolding to provide safe working platforms, materials and passenger hoists to transport
persons and materials, and the framework, covering and roofing of the building under
construction. Each of these present particular hazards that are dealt with in more detail
elsewhere in this course. In addition, lifting equipment and mobile access equipment will also
be involved. The stability of the structure itself is an important consideration and major
accidents have arisen as a consequence of poor design, poor construction and unauthorised
modification of buildings under construction.
Demolition
Typical hazards of demolition activities are discussed in the material that follows.
Falling Materials
Materials may fall as a result of the intentional throwing down of materials or an unexpected
collapse of part of the structure.
Premature Collapse of Buildings
The main causes of accidents are premature collapse of buildings and structures; and falls
from working places or access routes. A common feature of many of these incidents is a
failure to plan the operation at an early stage. Lack of planning often leads to workers
devising their own means of access and methods of work, both of which are inherently
dangerous, so the method chosen and the sequence of work will be of great importance.
Materials of Construction
The choice of materials will be affected by the various hazards that materials may present.
This includes problems that will result from the presence of substances such as asbestos, silica
and other dust producing substances, as well as the choice of pre-stressed materials with
stored energy. The materials and the method of construction will therefore have a
considerable bearing on the demolition method chosen and the sequence of work.
Hazardous Substances
The building may also contain hazardous substances such as asbestos, lead, residual
flammable materials and pathogens that may lie dormant in the structure, etc. Other possible
hazards could be presented by sharps and bird droppings. It is therefore necessary to survey
the site for the presence of such materials before demolition begins; otherwise workers may be
exposed to airborne hazardous substances.
Working Places and Means of Access/Egress
The very nature of demolition work creates serious difficulties in maintaining a safe means of
access and egress for workers; it is therefore necessary to keep the problem under review and
update safety systems as conditions change. One of the basic means of maintaining safe
access is by maintaining housekeeping at a high standard. Where scaffolding is used,
platforms and gangways must be kept free from debris and tripping hazards. The security of
scaffolds is important and continued surveillance is required to see that when the structure is
demolished, sufficient ties are maintained with the building.
Where there is a possibility of falling debris injuring work people or pedestrians, protective fans
must be constructed. It is important to remember that fans are not designed to carry heavy
loads, and regular inspection must be made to see that debris that has inadvertently fallen is
cleared away. Securing of ladders is another problem area. As the structure is lowered and
ladders removed to lower levels, or moved to different positions, the temptation to put them in
position and go back to work without making them secure is ever present.
Some operations require the demolition worker to occupy precarious positions where it is not
possible to provide an adequate safety structure. Here it becomes crucial that safety
harnesses are used and attached to a secure part of the structure. Where floors have been
removed, some boards should be left so there remains a skeleton floor structure to allow work
to proceed in relative safety.
Security of Site Boundaries
A considerable amount of demolition is carried out by undermining a structure, and causing
collapse of material. The amount of material will vary but, irrespective of the quantities
involved, one general principle that emerges is the need to isolate the demolition area so
that potential hazards may be confined. This precaution will also help to exclude from the site
persons not directly involved in the work.
Excavations
Excavations can cause fatal accidents due to the following issues.
Collapse
Excavations are particularly related to the construction of foundations, drainage work and site
re-grading. The main hazard associated with excavation work is ground collapse; no soil can
be relied upon to support its own weight for any length of time, a factor that becomes
increasingly important as additional loads are applied, such as those from plant and materials.
Even a minor collapse can cause serious injury (1 m3 of earth weighs approximately 1.3
tonnes).
If an excavation cannot be battered (sloped back) to a safe angle, or benched or stepped, the
sides will require support to prevent the possibility of collapse. When a collapse occurs, the
worker will most likely be knocked over and the weight of the soil on the body will be sufficient
to cause a serious crushing injury (or be fatal), even if the arms, head and shoulders are not
covered.
There is a widespread belief among those who investigate excavation accidents that they are
caused because of a general lack of knowledge about the structure of soils by those involved in
digging operations. Many excavation collapses occur during the first day of the dig; some are
delayed for several hours, while others can occur within minutes. The time factor often
depends upon the type of soil involved and the soil structure. Equivalent soils may not exhibit
the same hazardous nature if their structures differ.
Access
The use of access ladders that are badly sited, both on the floor level of the excavation and in
respect of the overhang available to get on to the ladder at ground level, can lead to people
slipping or falling off. There is also a risk that people might climb on support systems and fall
or dislodge them increasing the potential of the excavation collapsing.
Falls of People and/or Materials
If an excavation or opening in the ground, such as an open manhole or a shaft has
unprotected edges people or vehicles are at risk of falling in, often due to it not being noticed.
If materials are stored near excavations, precautions must be taken to prevent them falling
into it, such as chocks and wedges for pipes and toe boards for preventing smaller materials
such as tools being knocked in.
Use of Transport
Badly constructed ramps used for vehicular access to the excavation can cause vehicles to
topple over into the excavation. Machinery/vehicles working or parked too close to the edge of
the excavation could cause a collapse resulting in the vehicle falling in possibly where ground
workers may be working. The vibration caused by machinery may also increase the likelihood
of a collapse in unsupported excavations.
Flooding
Flooding may occur as a result of weather conditions (rain or melting snow), of digging into
and beyond the natural water table of the land or of disruption to the natural drainage flows
within the ground. Changes in the level of the water table (as a result of rainfall) may also
cause flooding.
This is unlikely to present a significant risk to people working in the excavation except where a
watercourse is breached, and there is a massive surge of water into a confined space such as a
trench.
Buried Services
The term ‘buried services’ means all underground electricity, gas, water (including piped
sewage), and telecommunications systems.
Electrical Cables
Every year many workers digging on building sites and roadworks have narrow escapes when
they accidentally hit live buried electricity cables; others are not so lucky and suffer burns that
may prove fatal.
Injuries resulting from damage to live electricity cables are usually caused by the explosive
effects of arcing current, and by associated fire or flames which may follow when the sheath of
a cable and the conductor insulation are penetrated by a sharp object such as the point of a
tool.
When a cable is crushed severely enough to cause internal contact between the conductors,
this causes severe and potentially fatal burns to the hands, face and body. Direct electric
shock is rare but not impossible.
Gas Pipes
Damage to gas pipes can cause leaks which may lead to fires or explosions. There are two
types:
Damage that causes an immediate leak being a risk to people carrying out work and to
others in the vicinity.
Damage that causes a leak at a later date. The damage may occur at the time the work
is carried out, for example, damage to a pipe wrapping may eventually lead to corrosion.
Damage may also occur subsequently, for example, reinstatement may leave a pipe
inadequately supported or subjected to unequal forces.
Water Pipes and Sewers
Damage to water pipes is less likely to cause injury but a jet of water from a high-pressure
main could injure a person or damage adjacent services.
A leak of water from an underground pipe could wash away subsoil and reduce the support for
adjacent services, highways and structures. Further dangers include the risk of flooding the
trench or low-lying areas such as nearby basements.
Some sewage is pumped at pressure. The main danger from damage to a sewer is the
possibility of contamination.
Telecommunications and TV Cables
Telecommunications and TV cables may also be a problem if not identified correctly. These
can be not only expensive to replace, but can also cause extensive disruption to
communication networks of individuals and businesses that use them. Risks of direct personal
injury are low if such cables are damaged. Problems can arise, however, if any flammable or
toxic gases gain entry to cable carrying ducts, especially if such ducting is damaged.
Accumulation of such gases can cause more serious problems, and pose a great risk, if
present, to those working in the vicinity.
will require artificial lighting when it is dark and during weather conditions which restrict
visibility. Increased levels of lighting may be necessary in certain circumstances – for example:
• At junctions of traffic routes.
• Where traffic routes are close to buildings or plant.
• In pedestrian areas.
• Places where there is regular movement of vehicles and other mobile plant.
Lighting columns close to the edges of routes can cause difficulties as they may present an
obstruction and, if they cannot be set back, overhead or wall-mounted lights should be used
instead.
The sight lines of traffic routes must be carefully considered to ensure that drivers can see
ahead and around them, and so that others can see them. Hazards such as sharp bends or
blind corners should be eliminated where possible by, for example, lowering or removing walls,
stacks, etc. at corners and junctions. Where this is not possible, warning signs, hazard
markings and mirrors can reduce the risk.
Assuming driver competence, collisions with other vehicles, pedestrians or fixed objects are
generally caused by adverse local conditions:
• Poor weather: ice or rain causing skidding or longer braking distances; sunlight blinding
vision; rain or fog restricting visibility.
• Poor lighting: decreasing visibility or obscuring parts of the traffic route, including
obstructions.
• Poor sight lines: causing blind spots and concealed junctions.
• Poor ground surface: uneven muddy or slippery surfaces or excessive slopes.
• Congestion due to there simply being too many vehicles in one area.
Speed limits should be set and enforced on all parts of the site. They should take into account
the environmental hazards, presence of pedestrians, the conditions of the road surface, the
types of vehicle and the operations they are involved in. Particular restrictions may apply in
certain parts of the site, especially where pedestrians are close, such as in loading/unloading
bays. As enforcement is often difficult, speed restrictions such as chicanes or ‘sleeping
policemen’, accompanied by prominent warning notices, may be used to prevent vehicles being
driven at excessive speeds. The above measures may be used to avoid vehicles colliding on
site.
Identification of the hazards presented by vehicle operations needs to take account of the
following factors:
• The required patterns and volume of vehicle movement in and around the workplace,
including access to and egress from it to the public roads.
• The types of vehicle on the premises.
• The types of operations undertaken by vehicles in the workplace and the types of load
being moved, e.g. tracked vehicles, excavators and the movements involved in their
operations.
• The need to segregate vehicles and pedestrians.
• The impact of different weather conditions.
• The local environment – conditions of the roads, lighting and sight lines.
The way in which such vehicles move around a site should be carefully controlled, and be
appropriate for the types of vehicle operating on the site, for example, tracked or vehicle
mounted. This needs to be carefully thought out and can have wide implications – for
example, the circulation of vehicles collecting rubbish from skips and bins, and their need to
park during operations, may affect the siting of the rubbish containers or require special
vehicular access routes to them. Another example is the operation of an excavator, which
could result in possible collisions with people, structures, plant and equipment. Adequate
precautions should be used to alleviate this, for example, segregation of vehicles and barriers.
If the hazard cannot be eliminated, then measures could be used, such as safe systems of
work, using speed limits, instruction, training, changing the site layout and using safety devices
on vehicles.
Any situation that involves crossing a vehicle traffic route is a hazard, particularly where
visibility is restricted and it is not possible to see the approach of vehicles clearly. Emerging
from doors can present a problem where the exit leads straight on to a vehicle path, or if
vehicles are obscured by building debris, stacks of scaffolding, etc.
Other hazardous situations include:
Working in proximity to moving vehicles, such as in loading bays or carrying out road
repairs.
Where vehicles cross or move around areas that are normally reserved for pedestrians.
Where reversing or refuelling is necessary.
Assuming that the driver is competent, hazards are also posed by the possibility of collisions
with other vehicles or fixed objects. These are generally caused by adverse local conditions,
such as:
Poor weather, such as ice or rain causing skidding or longer braking distances, sunlight
blinding vision, rain or fog restricting visibility.
Poor lighting, such as decreasing visibility or obscuring parts of the traffic route, including
obstructions.
Poor sight lines, such as causing blind spots and concealed junctions.
Poor ground surface, such as uneven muddy or slippery surfaces, or excessive slopes.
Congestion, that is, there simply being too many vehicles in one area.
Falling Loads
Such collisions may be the result of accidents themselves or the consequences of unprotected
moving parts being too close to pedestrian walkways and pathways.
Accidents involving moving objects may be where normally secured objects break loose
and hit people, such as a container sliding down a slope, or during transport of material
on site.
Flying objects are usually the result of an accident, such as parts being ejected from a
machine or a broken drill bit coming off. They may be naturally occurring parts of work
activities, such as waste materials flying out from drilling or cutting operations, e.g. when
stone, concrete or rock are being broken up or entry of cement and other fumes, smoke,
dust into the eye. Roofing sheets and plywood could cause a hazard if not secured
properly, especially if stored at height.
Being hit by falling objects is one of the most common hazards associated with
construction site work. Any unsecured object near an edge or on a sloping surface may
be liable to fall given a vibration or a push (even from the wind) and injure someone
passing or working below. This can include materials on shelves or the tops of pallets,
badly stored bricks, unsupported roof trusses propped against a wall, loose materials on
scaffolding or working platforms, deteriorating brickwork or where edges are unprotected.
Unstable access equipment can collapse or overturn. Poor housekeeping and incorrect
methods of getting materials, equipment or tools from ground level to the working area or
vice versa can also constitute a hazard.
Striking Against Fixed or Stationary Objects
This may occur as a result of objects projecting out into areas where people walk or simply
being placed in a position where people may walk or run into them. For example:
Poor stacking may leave pipes, rods, projecting reinforcement bars or pieces of timber
sticking out from the main level of such materials.
The edges of scaffolding, or even the cross-poles themselves, may be at a level where
people might walk into them.
Bricks, boxes and containers of materials may be left outside buildings, etc. awaiting
removal or use.
Any of these situations may be made more dangerous where visibility for the pedestrian is
restricted.
Electricity
People suffer fatalities, electric shock, burns and injuries from falls, as a result of working with
electricity. Such injuries may occur, for example:
When they use unsafe equipment.
When they make contact with overhead power lines and buried cables.
Due to the lack of maintenance or abuse of equipment.
When services are not isolated correctly, e.g. during demolition, excavation or other site
activities.
Such work takes place outdoors and in all types of weather. This could involve working in wet
or damp rainy conditions, which would inevitably increase the potential to receive an electric
shock. Other problems that may be encountered are the constantly changing work
environment as the various stages of construction proceed, with the possible inducement to
improvise supply systems temporarily. Clearly there is a risk of damage to both temporary and
fixed electrical installations in such cases. For example, cable damage that could be caused by
the movement of any heavy plant or materials that may be exacerbated by heavy congestion
on site at busy times. Similarly, the temporary site distribution must be controlled by a safe
system of work, for example, a permit-to-work to ensure which parts of the systems are either
live or dead. The systems themselves might be used be used by various contractors of varying
competence, and might make use of equipment which is either not correctly authorised for use
or which may be faulty.
Generally electricity supplies above 33,000 volts are routed overhead. Below this voltage they
may be overhead or underground.
Overhead lines are normally un-insulated and can be lethal if contact or near-contact is made.
Electric arcs may jump a considerable distance. Care should be taken when erecting
structures, dumping, tipping waste, regrading, landscaping, or in unplanned storage areas, etc.
not to reduce minimum clearances.
Contact with overhead electric lines is a regular cause of death and injury. Any work near
electric distribution cables or railway power lines must be carefully planned to avoid accidental
contact.
The most common operations leading to contact with overhead lines are:
Handling long scaffold tubes.
Handling long metal roof sheets.
Moving long ladders and tower scaffolds.
Operating cranes and other lifting plant.
Raising the body or inclined container of tipper lorries.
The use of mobile elevating work platforms (MEWPs).
Erecting marquees or large tents at exhibitions or certain venues.
Work On, Near, Or Over Water
Certain workplaces over, on or near water present a risk of people slipping, tripping, falling or
being knocked into water. Similarly, loss of balance or failure of ropes or lines or failure or
absence of barriers may cause problems. In addition, strong currents, waves and a rapidly
rising tide or even passing swell from water traffic may cause a person to be swept off their
feet.
The immediate danger to personnel is that of drowning, but other factors which might need to
be thought of are:
The shock of sudden immersion in cold water (cold shock).
The weight of waterlogged clothing.
Incapacity following injury, e.g. by striking an object during the fall or in the water.
Fatigue or hypothermia where rescue is not immediate.
The risk of catching Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) caused mainly from the urine of infected
rats which can enter the body through unprotected cuts and scratches and can be fatal if
not treated. This occurs mainly in still and slow moving waterways.
Minimising the consequences through training and instruction, for example on the use of
ladders, step-ladders and stilts.
Safe Working Platforms
Scaffold
Simple Independent Scaffolds
Before we discuss particular types of scaffold, it is important to understand some of the
terminology used.
• Standard
A standard is a vertical tube used as a support for transferring a load to the ground or to a
base plate.
• Ledger
A ledger is a horizontal tube tying a scaffold structure longitudinally; it may also be used
as a support for transoms or putlogs.
• Transoms
A transom is a tube spanning across ledgers to tie a scaffold transversely; it may also be
used to support a working platform.
• Brace
A brace is a tube fixed diagonally across a scaffold to prevent lateral movement and to
improve stability of the structure.
• Raker
A raker is an inclined load-bearing tube attached to a scaffold, which may bear on the
ground or on an adjacent structure.
• Tie
A tie is a tube used to connect a scaffold structure to a reveal tie, through tie or rigid
anchorage. Its purpose is to ensure complete stability of the structure.
• Coupler
A coupler is a scaffold fitting which, by a friction grip applied to the external surface of
two tubes, holds them together. There are around six types in common use.
• Base Plate
A base plate is a flat square steel plate with a locating pin that must be inserted into the
bottom of a standard to provide a bearing surface for load distribution.
• Sole Plate
A sole plate is a strong timber plank wider than a base plate and long enough to be
positioned under at least two base plates. They provide extra load distribution capacity
for the scaffold base. They must be used where the load-bearing conditions of the
ground are poor, but it is good safety practice to use them for all scaffolding structures
irrespective of ground conditions. If the standard is resting on concrete or pavement, a
‘plastic’ sole plate can be used which fits under individual base plates.
An independent tied scaffold is designed to carry its own mass and the full load of all
materials and workers used on the scaffold. The total load is supported by the ground on
which the scaffold has been erected. The scaffold is not totally independent and must be tied
to the building where it is sited, to give the stability that prevents any possible movement of
the scaffolding away from or towards the building.
As the total mass of the structure when in use is supported by the ground, it is very important
that the ground structure be suitable to cope with the load. The use of base plates and sole
plates becomes a vital safety consideration in spreading the load. The following figure
illustrates a typical independent tied scaffold.
Three boards are used for footing, i.e. for people to work without materials deposited or
as a gangway.
Four boards for footing and storing materials.
Five boards for general work.
Six boards for masons and their materials.
Seven boards for masons using trestles.
Where materials are deposited, a clearway of 0.43 metres is required; when passage of
materials is needed, 0.64 metres must be maintained.
A guard-rail must be fitted which should be at least 950mm above any edge from which a
person can fall. Any gaps between guard-rails and the top of toe board must be fitted with an
intermediate guard rail and any gap must not exceed 470mm.
The toe board must be suitable and sufficient to prevent falls of persons or materials.
Mobile Tower Scaffold
Mobile tower scaffolds are commonly used for painting and simple maintenance jobs on
buildings. They have one working platform accessible by a ladder that must be fitted internally
and are light-duty scaffolds only. They can be constructed using normal scaffold tubes, but
are more often proprietary made structures. The structure is mounted on four wheels so the
unit can be moved about with relative ease.
The height of a mobile tower scaffold is generally limited to 12 metres except for special
purposes. For internal use, the height should not exceed three and a half times the
shortest base dimension. When used externally the factor is reduced to three. When
used above 9.8 metres, some form of guy rope, ballast or anchoring device must be used to
give added stability. Outriggers are used to spread the base dimensions and increase
stability.
paid to the particular risks that are present, and can be foreseen, for that specific job. The
safe system should specify:
Rescue arrangements.
Selection of correct equipment.
Selection of people with the necessary level of competence.
Arrangements for control and communication.
Types of Rope Access
Working in Suspension (Descent and Ascent)
This type of rope access covers most situations, such as building exteriors. It falls into the
following categories:
• Straightforward
In this case, the rope follows a simple, straight path from the anchor point to the ground.
Workers can use relatively simple techniques for descent and ascent, as well as rescue.
• With Deviation
In this method, the rope is pulled a small distance away from the vertical during descent.
This is slightly more hazardous than the previous example, and requires slightly more
advanced technique.
• With ‘Re-Belays’
In this case, intermediate anchor points are required between the top and bottom of the
descent. A single descent to the ground is not possible, and a major improvement in
technique over previous examples is needed. The hazards will increase further in the case
of use of this method to perform a rescue.
• Without Clear Egress at Bottom
This method is potentially hazardous. It will therefore require a significant further
increase in technique, including competence in long ascents and special rescue methods.
In any of these cases, the situation may be complicated by other factors, such as:
Difficulty in reaching the point of descent.
Lack of convenient anchorages.
Presence of sharp edges.
Complex structure.
Busy worksite.
Proximity of roads or other public thoroughfares.
Other objective dangers.
Aid Climbing and Traversing
This type of rope access is used in situations where a special method, making use of special
techniques, is needed. The work situation in which a worker carries out the task may be
particularly hazardous due, for example, to conditions such as: heat (glass atria), possibility of
falling, and difficulty of rescue. A risk assessment must be carried out, and appropriate access,
rescue plans and equipment must be provided. Only qualified and trained workers should
make use of this method.
Safety Features
The use of rope access can be made less hazardous by following certain safety features:
A competent person must supervise the erection of all equipment, which must be pre-
checked prior to use.
A competent, trained person only must make use of rope access.
A single suspension point should not be used. Both the main and safety ropes should be
attached to separate suspension points, where possible, to increase the safety of the
descent.
Equipment must be checked before use and maintained during use to a high standard.
Tools should be attached to the operator by means of ropes or chains to prevent the risk
of objects being dropped.
Where a risk of dropped tools exists, the area below should be fenced off or protected in
some way, for example, with covered walkways.
Safety Nets/Airbags
Safety Nets
Safety nets can be used to great effect during installation work. When combined with a
complete perimeter edge protection, they are the most effective means of securing the fall
hazard. They can also offer protection to those who work or pass below.
They are collective, in that they protect all who have to work where they are in use, and they
are passive, in that no action is required to experience protection. While they do not prevent
falls, they do minimise the consequences of a fall. A rescue method for a person who does fall
into the safety net is required as that person may be injured.
Safety nets should always be installed as close as possible to the working platform, and should
extend the required ‘catching width’ ahead of any leading edge. Changes in safety net
technology have significantly reduced the sag between supports, and improved the energy
absorption of the net systems. The result is safety netting with half the weight of the
traditional material, that is constructed in square mesh, and that should not sag by more than
10% of the span.
With primary steel spans typically less than nine metres, even with the safety net connected to
the bottom of the portal frame, the distance from the working platform to the surface of the
net is comfortably less than two metres. In this position, nets can be considered as a guard to
the hazard, rather than a fall-arrest system.
A debris mesh overlay can be placed upon the safety net to catch small tools and material
fragments. This allows work to continue below the leading edge of the roof, which can be a
great advantage on critical programmes and in re-roofing applications.
Safety nets should comply with the relevant performance standards, and should equally be
erected to the current standards and codes of practice. This work should either be carried out
by specialists or after adequate training, and particular attention must be given to the
positioning and strength of the safety net supports.
Safety nets require regular inspection and maintenance, as their performance deteriorates over
time. It is extremely important that the inspection and test regime is followed and this
requirement, combined with the opportunity to match the net size with the need, makes the
hire of safety netting an attractive proposition.
The provision of safety netting should be considered beneficial in most areas of roofwork. It
should be erected as soon as possible in the construction programme, to provide maximum
protection, and should be left in place for as long as a leading edge or fall-through hazard
exists. Selection should be the result of a complete risk assessment and an overall hazard
management programme, and it should form part of a total package of site safety measures.
When planning the use of safety nets, the above technical aspects should be taken into
consideration. It is feasible to pre-position safety net attachment points (welded lugs) onto
primary steelwork, for use when erecting the building. They would then be available to
support safety nets when building maintenance is required, e.g. replacement of roof lights and
also for eventual demolition.
Safety nets can be connected by designed attachment points or by flexible tie ropes to primary
steelwork of suitable capacity, or to other selected anchorage points. Nets can be moved and
removed as the work progress demands.
Air Bags
Air bags are designed to reduce the number of injuries and deaths resulting from a fall from
height. The cushioned reusable air bags are usually 0.55m high and weigh less than 7kg each,
although there are varying standards. They are filled with a type of ‘memory’ foam that
enables them to retain their original shape. At the same time, the air bags provide a more
yielding surface on which to fall.
Air bags can be used in the construction industry, for instance, to reduce the working height
for construction workers to less than 2 m. For example, most two-storey houses will mean
construction workers operating at a height of between 2.3 and 2.5 m. This is particularly
useful where it would be difficult to provide secure fencing to protect workers. Instead, the
height is reduced and the bags themselves will protect the workers should a fall occur.
It is extremely important to ensure that the bags are positioned correctly before work
commences. The bags should be clipped together to ensure that they do not separate should
anyone fall onto the junction between two bags. The bags should also be checked when re-
positioned or after a fall has occurred to ensure that they have not been damaged in any way.
It is also important to ensure that other control measures are in place to prevent a fall from
occurring in the first place. This bag system is really a last resort and should not be relied on
as the one and only control measure. It is important to remember that a fall even onto a ‘safe’
place could be very stressful and traumatic for an individual.
Fall Arrest Equipment
Belts
Some aspects of steel erection may also permit the use of belts, as may maintenance work of
short duration and window cleaning.
Although workers are often tempted to wear belts rather than harnesses, harnesses give a
falling person a far greater chance of avoiding serious injury.
Even after a fall of one or two metres, tremendous force is exerted on a body that is suddenly
restrained by a safety rope or wire. However, the problem can be largely overcome by the use
of a harness, which spreads the load more widely, or by using shock absorbing lanyards or fall
arrest blocks.
Excavations
Excavation collapses may be prevented if:
Workers are trained in the safe installation of basic systems of safety.
The basic safety equipment is provided on site, and used.
Adequate and competent supervision is provided to ensure that correct safety precautions
are observed, and assessments are made of changes in conditions that might necessitate
changes in levels of safety.
It is important when plant is being used that adequate stops or wheel chocks are put in p
place
to prevent vehicles from running into the excavation.
Safe control of material being dug from an excavation is in general covered by checking that
any stock piles are set well back from the edge of the excavation. This will cover two possible
problems:
Materials falling back into the excavation.
The weight of excavated material undermining the edges of the excavation.
Basic Excavation Support Systems
The main function of excavation supports is to prevent falls of material into the excavation and
to allow
low work to proceed safely and without interruption. The type of support structure will
vary in design depending upon the soil conditions and the type of excavation, e.g. trenches or
pits.
Battered Sides
This technique will allow almost any excavation to be carried out safely without the need for
a support system. The technique relies upon the property of particulate materials to form a
stable sloping pile when allowed to form naturally into heaps. The sloping surfaces of the
heap form an angle with the horizontal called the angle of repose. Each material has its own
particular angle of repose,, which will differ with the moisture content.
Double-Sided Support
In this system, the soil on each sidside
e of the excavation is supported by a structure that is held
in position by forces transmitted through waling and struts from opposite faces. Provided the
supportort system is strong enough, equilibrium is set up which keeps the structure secure. This
is illustrated
lustrated in the following figure.
The technique is widely used not only in trenches with two faces, but in pits or shafts with four
faces. It has the disadvantage that the struts tend to impede the working space. As the
structure relies heavily upon secure
secure strutting, it is very important they are securely fixed to
prevent ‘accidental’ removal (deliberate or otherwise).
Double sided support can be timber, as shown in the illustration, but it can also be achieved
using trench sheets or sheet piles. These would
would be supported by hydraulic struts, D frames or
acro-props.
similar rigid sides like a drag box but has hydraulic struts and is lifted into position rather than
being dragged. An illustration of a drag box follows.
Drag Box
Benching
Benching is a process of stepping off the earthen walls of an excavation and is used as a
method of protecting employees from cave-ins
cave ins by excavating the sides of an excavation to
form one or more horizontal steps, usually with vertical or near
near-vertical
vertical surfaces between
levels. Benching can
n be single or multiple as indicated in the diagrams that follow.
Stepping
Ventilation in Excavations
It is important that the air in the working place in an excavation is kept satisfactory for safe
working. Possible hazards that may arise are:
Toxic or explosive gases seeping into the workings from defective pipelines or sewers.
Toxic or anoxic gases from internal combustion engines or leaking LPG cylinders.
Where excavations are carried out in urban or industrial areas, it would be prudent in deep
excavation to arrange for hygiene testing of the working environment.
Improved ventilation is commonly achieved by blowing sufficient large volumes of clean air into
the excavation. The clean air will not only disperse any gas present, but will also provide a
suitable atmosphere to work in. Any devices used to provide such ventilation should be fitted
with a warning system that is either audible or visual, in the event of its failure.
Oxygen depletion can occur when toxic or flammable gases are present:
During a particular work activity, such as welding.
From nearby internal combustion engines.
From a chemical/biological reaction such as rusting, oxidation or bacterial growth.
From a reaction between chalk or limestone and groundwater, which can produce carbon
dioxide and displace any oxygen present.
Similarly, care is required to ensure that any gases discharged from plant or equipment
exhausts do not enter the excavation and deplete the oxygen.
Explosive atmospheres can also arise from propane and butane through defective pipelines and
sewers. This can occur, for example, when methane and hydrogen sulphide are present in
nearby installations, or from any processes involving battery charging, which can give rise to
hydrogen. Propane and butane are potentially very dangerous as, due to their density, they
may find the lowest point in the excavation and form an explosive atmosphere.
Access and Preventing Falls of People
A safe means of access and egress must be provided for all excavations.
Ladders provide the main method for access and egress and care should be taken to see they
are in good condition. They must be suitably secured to prevent undue movement and extend
above the excavation to give the necessary height required for a safe handhold. To allow for
adequate means of escape in an emergency, it is considered that one ladder every 15 metres
is an average to work to, but more may be required depending upon the number of workers
and the potential risk, e.g. where there might be a possibility of flooding from a rising water
table.
Handrails must be provided around every accessible part where a person is liable to fall.
Gangways across excavations should have guardrails and toe boards.
If excavations are not completed during a day’s work and need to be left open, consideration
has to be given to lighting to give warning of the potential hazards and for illuminating working
areas.
For illumination of the actual place where work is taking place, lighting towers will normally be
used. Consideration must be given to lighting inside the excavation to prevent slips, trips and
falls. The conditions encountered will affect the choice of system which could be 110V, low
voltage or battery. Smaller, battery operated personal lights for individual workers may also be
considered.
Buildings and Machinery
It is vitally important to ensure, before excavations are carried out, that the stability of
buildings adjacent to the work area will not be adversely affected by the excavation.
Consideration may have to be given to constructing temporary supports for buildings while
work is being carried out.
Machinery in the area of excavation should be set well back from where digging is taking place
to prevent:
The possibility of its falling into the excavation.
Vibration from machinery undermining the sides of the excavation.
Flooding
The flooding of excavations by water, for example, melting snow, heavy rain, tidal waters,
ground water accumulation or from surface and underground streams, is a common accident
situation and may occur naturally or as a result of an unexpected encounter with a large
water pipe or drain. Dealing with a burst pipe is generally fairly straightforward, after a
suitable valve has been located and closed. Dealing with the problem of natural water may not
be so easy as water can flow into the excavation, depending on the permeability of the
ground, and the level of the water table (ground water).
There are various means of controlling flooding, including sloping of excavations to sumps at
low points where drainage pumps can be used. Increased exit points, permit systems and
baffles can help to improve the safety for those who do need to enter excavations where
flooding is possible. The disposal of such water should be discussed with the appropriate
environmental agencies, as run off from agricultural land or nearby contaminated land may
cause environmental damage. Great care must be exercised if flooding occurs near buildings
as this may undermine foundations.
Electricity
The Area Electricity Company should be consulted before any work commences and a safe
system of work devised and implemented. There must be direct supervision of this by a
competent person.
The most practical step that can be taken to prevent danger from any live electrical cable or
apparatus if it cannot be re-routed is the placing of adequate and suitable barriers.
If access is possible only from one side then a barrier on this side only will suffice but if the
overhead line crosses the site then barriers will be required on both sides of it. If there is
danger to men carrying metal scaffold poles, ladders or other conducting objects, then the
barrier should exclude both men and mobile plant (see the figure that follows).
Advance
warning Note: If any work takes place after dark
sign notices and cross bar should be illuminated
Between
3-6 m
Height to be specified by
Electricity Board
Where such a system of work is rigorously followed, an accident is unlikely to occur. Many
accidents do, however, happen when work is attempted on what is intended to be a de-
energised system but, due to some oversight, is still live. Invariably these arise due to a
failure to follow strictly all the above-mentioned requirements for a safe system of work.
There is a need for management to formulate a clear policy concerning work on electrical
systems for which they have responsibility.
A permit can only be issued by a person who is competent at knowing what dangers can arise,
what work has to be done, what is required to make the work area safe, and knows the
competence of the person who will carry out the work. He or she will also know whether that
person needs to be accompanied in the interests of safety.
The permit-to-work, as seen in the next figure, should be clearly written to avoid confusion
and should contain the following information:
The identity of the person supervising the work and to whom the permit is issued.
Sufficient detail to accurately identify the equipment made dead and its location; a
diagram will usually ensure that these points are precisely described.
The location of the points of isolation.
The location of temporary earth connections.
The location of warning notices and safety locks.
A detailed description of the work to be carried out.
An account of other hazards that might be encountered together with any detail necessary
to identify them.
Further precautions to be taken during the course of the work.
Once the permit has been accepted and signed by the work supervisor, he or she takes full
responsibility for his or her own safety and the safety of those under their control. The work
supervisor should retain the document until the work is completed.
Upon completion, he or she must ensure that the entire workforce is withdrawn, together with
their tools and equipment, and instructed not to return. Any temporary earth connections
must also be removed.
The equipment should not be re-energised until the permit is returned to the person who
issued it for cancellation. If it is necessary to alter the work schedule, the existing permit must
be cancelled and a new one issued.
Avoiding Danger from Underground Services
Underground cables are particularly hazardous because they are concealed, frequently close to
the surface, sometimes occur in unexpected locations, and are often poorly protected.
Damage to cables usually occurs during excavation work and is caused by the crushing or
penetrating effects of hand or machine tools such as pneumatic drills and mechanical
excavators. A tool may penetrate the sheath of a cable and the cable insulation or crush the
cable and cause contact between the conductors or between the sheathing and one of the
conductors. Damage to live cables often results in arcing currents with associated explosive
effects, fire and flames that usually cause severe, potentially fatal burns to the hands, face and
torso. Direct electric shock is rare.
Machinery/ Vehicles
Minimise Reversing
A high number of fatal accidents are due to reversing vehicles. It is essential to minimise
reversing wherever possible.
One-Way Systems
One method by which the need to reverse can be minimised is by the use of one-way systems
which are clearly marked.
Training
It should never be assumed that people will automatically be aware of the hazards around
them and understand the necessary preventative and protective measures in place. It is
important, therefore, that all persons are given appropriate information to enable them to
move around the workplace in safety. Instruction should be given as to general conduct, such
as not running or playing games, as well as in respect of particular hazards.
Part of this will be in the form of signs, markings and notices, but additional information may
also be necessary, for example, about keeping to designated walkways, being aware of
particular hazards, such as temporary work going on overhead, etc. Visitors to premises may
need special instruction prior to entry.
In certain circumstances, people need to be specifically trained in how they should move
around in certain circumstances, even if just by being shown. This could include, for example,
correct procedures for climbing ladders, walking through certain types of door where they use
one-way systems, moving around while carrying loads, wearing appropriate clothing, etc.
Collapse of Structures
Survey
Prior to demolition taking place, a safe system of work must be established. The system will
be determined by a pre-demolition survey – including perusal of the original building plans, if
they are still in existence – undertaken by a competent person. The use of a demolition
hazard checklist is recommended. This survey should identify:
The nature and method of construction of the building. It is important to determine the
structural condition, as deterioration may impose restrictions on the demolition
method. There may be seriously weakened structural members or connections due to
corrosive atmospheres, arising from the process used on the premises, or the structure
may be dilapidated through exposure to the elements or vandalism.
The arrangement of buildings adjacent to that for demolition, and the condition of this
adjoining property and any need to make adjacent premises weather-tight.
The location of underground services, e.g. water mains, electricity cables, gas pipes,
drains, sewers, telephone cables, and details of their removal or making safe.
The previous use of premises, e.g. for the storage of flammable substances, and details
of methods for dealing with hazardous substances which may have been retained or
deposited as residue in process machinery, pipework or storage. This will also include the
presence of storage tanks below and above ground, and the nature of their contents.
Details of methods to establish the presence of substances that may be hazardous to
health, the methods to be used for their disposal and any necessary protective equipment.
The need for any temporary works or shoring, either to adjacent premises or within
the property to be demolished, to allow the design, fabrication and installation of the
necessary temporary work in sufficient time.
The presence of dangerous substances such as asbestos lagging.
The method of bonding of the main load-bearing walls.
The presence of cantilevered structures, their form of construction and the nature of the
danger.
The presence of basements, cellars, vaults or other spaces affecting the structure of
adjoining properties.
The potentially dangerous effects of removing superstructure stabilising loads from an old
basement or vault retaining walls.
The sequence and method of demolition or dismantling of the building or structure,
with details of personnel access, working platforms and machinery requirement.
Specific details of any pre-weakening on structures that are to be pulled down or
demolished with explosives.
Arrangements for the protection of personnel and the public and the exclusion of
unauthorised persons.
Details of temporary services available or required for the contractor’s use.
Arrangements for the control of site transport used for the removal of demolition
debris.
Method Statements
The proposals relating to the pre-demolition survey and preferred method of working can be
incorporated into a demolition method statement. This sets out the sequence of work and the
methods to be employed for each type of work.
A method statement is necessary for all demolition work. The method statement is derived
from a risk assessment made by the contractor.
The method statement should:
Be drawn up before work starts.
Be communicated to all involved.
Identify the work procedure, associated problems and their solutions.
Be easy to understand.
Be agreed by all and known to all (of whatever level).
Form a reference for site supervision.
The demolition method statement should include:
Name and address of demolition contractor and site.
Sequence and method of demolition.
Details of personnel access, working platforms and machinery requirements.
Details of any pre-weakening of structures which are to be pulled down or demolished
using explosives, and temporary propping required.
Arrangements for the protection of personnel and the public, and the exclusion of
unauthorised people from the work area.
Site security including the provision of, for example, suitable fencing and/or barriers;
controlling of spectators and/or site visitors; use of exclusion zones; and containment of
demolition materials.
Details of the removal or isolation of electrical, gas and other services.
Details of temporary services required and welfare services provided.
The planned collapse may only partially take place and a very insecure and hazardous
structure remain.
Considerable amounts of debris may be projected over a wider area than expected, with
the possibility of hitting unprotected persons.
The collapsed structure may leave a difficult and dangerous pile of debris to be removed.
Another method of creating a deliberate collapse is by attaching a wire to the structure and
pulling away the main supports using a heavy tracked vehicle or a winch to provide the motive
power. Apart from the problems noted above, other problems arising are:
Overstressing of the wire rope.
Breaking of the wire rope and the resulting whiplash.
Overturning of the winch or tracked vehicle.
Inadequate power to complete the operation once it has begun.
Where deliberate collapses are engineered it is recommended that no one should be nearer to
the building than twice the height of its highest part.
Falling Objects
Exclusion Zones
A considerable amount of demolition is carried out by undermining a structure and causing
collapse of material. The amount of material will vary but irrespective of the quantities
involved, one general principle that emerges is the need to isolate the demolition area so
that potential hazards may be confined. This precaution will also help to exclude from the site
persons not directly involved in the work.
The methods used will vary depending on the nature of the demolition. Ideally some form of
high fencing or board about 2.5 metres high should be erected around the site where the
public could be at risk. In areas restricted from the public, rope and spigot barriers decked
overall with plastic strips are satisfactory. Warning notices must be set up around the barriers
being used.
Where space is limited, scaffolding will have to be erected around the site, and protective
screens and fans constructed to reduce the possibility of debris falling onto pedestrians.
Broken glass from windows can be a hazard to workers, but if window panes can be removed
without indiscriminate breakage, this hazard can be reduced. Window and door frames should
be left in a structure until the last possible moment as they can be used to advantage by
providing structural support for a building while demolition is taking place. Boarding over open
windows and doorways will help to make the building more secure against intruders. Warning
notices should be erected at doorways, especially if floors have been removed.
Crash Decks, Nets, Fans, Sheeting
People should be kept away from where demolition is being undertaken by the effective
application of exclusion zones to all demolition operations, to include deliberate dropping, the
potential for dropping of materials, or inadvertent falls of dislodged material. Before and
during demolition operations, site managers should ensure that all site personnel have a safe
place of work and a safe access to their place of work including access by roads, gangways,
passageways, passenger hoists, staircases, ladders. Scaffolds, permanent access stairs or
catwalks used by demolition personnel should be maintained in a safe condition, for as long as
possible.
The planning, provision and maintenance of access routes and working places should include
the following:
Freedom from obstructions, including tripping hazards such as debris, materials and tools.
Projecting nails from timbers (which should be removed or hammered flat).
Walkways and working platforms that are not overloaded.
Pedestrian routes that are segregated from routes used by vehicles and plant.
Erection of adequate barriers or other edge protection, to prevent falls from the open
edges of roofs, buildings, gangways, staircases and lift shafts.
Holes and openings that are securely fenced off or provided with adequate, fixed, clearly
marked and properly secured covers.
Adequate artificial lighting should be provided when work is carried out in the absence of
sufficient natural light.
When the risk assessment shows that the only reasonable method is to work at an open edge,
such as when not using remote machine methods, a safe, independent working platform or an
anchored fall restraint or fall arrest equipment should be used.
Adequate protection of workers, contractors and members of the public from any falling
material is necessary, e.g. walkways adequately lit and made of fully sheeted scaffold with
either monoflex debris netting or reinforced plastic sheeting, or other temporary structures.
Such structures should be designed to take account of the loads, including wind loads,
imposed when sheeting and/or netting material are used.
Fire exit routes should not be obstructed and possibly use fire-retardant sheeting and netting.
Where appropriate, windows should be boarded up to prevent materials falling or being
ejected from the apertures.
Protective gantries, fans, crash decks and/or coverings should be erected to protect areas of
public access where falling loads or equipment are possible.
Provision of the correct hard hats, boots, clothing, goggles, etc. is required to maintain a safe
person strategy during the demolition process.
Lifting loads over areas of public access should be avoided where possible. Where it cannot be
avoided, temporary closure of the highway and the provision of safe alternative pedestrian
routes is required. It may be necessary to restrict or prohibit access beneath the demolition
work at times when safety cannot be guaranteed. Occupants should not remain in a building
undergoing major demolition work. If demolition work is carried out to a building a part of
which is to remain occupied, a risk assessment should be carried out as a basis for a safe
system of work. The assessment should include provision for the occupied part requiring
evacuation and for effecting such an evacuation safely. Any risk assessment should include the
possibility of materials acting as a projectile.
Before demolition begins, it is necessary to determine where temporary support will be needed
and this should be clearly stated in the method statement for demolition. No part of the
structure should be so overloaded that any part of it becomes unstable during demolition work.
Protective fans, crash decks and gantries are temporary structures that should be of adequate
strength to safely support unplanned falls of material, including accidental falls of tools and
materials. If necessary, they should be waterproofed to protect persons below from drips and
should not be used for storage or for access. Access ways and working places should not be
used as catchment areas.
Fan Protection
Falling objects are a general problem on construction sites. This may involve such materials
and objects falling into excavations from scaffolding, hoists, hoist towers, lifting appliances, or
MEWPS, roofs, and between floors in buildings. Objects falling from a height are clearly
capable of causing considerable damage to both people and other materials that they hit. The
objects themselves may be: loose structural material such as tiles, bricks and timbers; waste
materials such as stone chippings or off cuts of wood; or equipment or tools which are
dropped.
Circumstances that contribute to the likelihood of falling materials include the following:
Deterioration of structures causing crumbling brickwork or loose tiles.
Bad storage of materials, for example, at the edges of scaffold platforms, or in unstable
stacks.
Poor housekeeping leading to accumulations of waste and loose materials.
Gaps in platform surfaces or between access platforms and walls.
Open, unprotected edges.
Incorrect methods of getting materials, equipment or tools from ground level to the
working area.
Incorrect methods of getting materials down to ground level, for example, being thrown
off instead of being lowered in a bucket or down an ‘elephant’s trunk’ to a skip.
The first objective as regards falling objects must be to prevent materials from falling in the
first place, from whatever source, including roofs, scaffolds, MEWPs, etc. Possible control
measures for falling objects may include:
Not stacking materials near edges, and particularly unprotected edges.
Close boarding of working platforms to minimise the gaps between scaffold boards, or
placing sheeting over the boards so that material cannot fall through.
Using hoists to convey materials up to a height, rather than carrying them.
Providing safe means of lowering materials, such as hoists or chutes, rather than having
them carried down or, worse, thrown down.
Where these actions are impractical or will not necessarily eliminate the risk, measures to
protect people underneath from being hit by falling materials must be introduced. These could
include the construction of covered walkways, for instance, ‘tunnels’ formed by closely boarded
scaffold planks, or sheeting through which pedestrians can walk.
damage or wear must be repaired at the earliest opportunity, and there should be procedures
in place to ensure that such conditions are reported in good time.
Floor surfaces, roadways and temporary access routes must be adequately drained, and
effective drainage should be provided where a surface is liable to get wet. Floors that are
likely to get wet or be subject to spillages should be of a type that does not become unduly
slippery. A slip-resistant coating should be applied when necessary. Floors near to machinery,
which could cause injury if anyone were to fall against it, should be slip resistant and kept free
from slippery substances or loose materials. Any spillages or rubbish left lying around should
be cleaned up immediately.
Arrangements should be made to minimise risk from mud, snow and ice on walkways. This
may involve maintaining them in a good condition, gritting, snow clearing and closure of some
routes, particularly in respect of outside stairs, ladders and walkways on roofs.
There should be sufficient traffic routes on site, of sufficient width and headroom, to allow
people to circulate safely and without difficulty. Any slopes or gradients should be no steeper
than are necessary. All routes should be kept clear of obstructions that may present a hazard
or impede access.
Secure handrails must be provided for moderate or steep slopes, and on ramps used by people
with disabilities. There should be handrails on at least one side of every staircase, and where
the width of the staircase exceeds one metre, a handrail is required on both sides.
In areas where pedestrians have to pass possible hazards, such as machinery, stacks of
materials and overhead workings, their movement should be confined to designated walkways.
These are areas which are specially protected from hazards, for example, by nets, or covered
to protect from falling objects, and within which pedestrians should be reasonably safe from
harm. They should be clearly designated by signs, notices and markings indicating routes,
hazards and warnings and speed limits. These would define the limits of the safe area. Safe
crossing places that are clearly marked should be used. Possible blind spots should be fitted
with mirrors to improve visibility. Increased lighting should be installed, allied to an
appropriate speed limit. Physical barriers of sufficient strength and stability in the form of
fencing and other types of guards and cones should provide protection from hazards to the
sides, and from above and below. Handrails should be provided as necessary. Special rules
ensuring that designated walkways are kept clear of any obstacles, debris and litter must be in
place, and walkways should be checked to ensure compliance.
Temporary barriers, cones and warning tape may also need to be erected to prevent access to
certain areas. This includes: broken floor surfaces, wet or slippery floors during cleaning and
around temporary obstacles and welfare facilities, etc.
Fencing should be provided on any open walkways where there is a risk of falling. This
includes routes over excavations, suspended walkways and bridges. Perimeter fences should
normally be two metres high.
Clearly visible, conspicuous and easily understood signs, markings and notices must be
provided to ensure that pedestrians are aware of any hazards and what they should do to
avoid them.
Hazard warning markings, yellow diagonal stripes on a black background, should be used on
any object likely to present an unforeseen hazard. This can be by means of tape, paint or by
the use of covers. Examples of hazards include: the edges of steps, overhead obstructions
and trailing cables or pipes temporarily laid across a floor. Cordless tools might be considered
to remove hazards associated with trailing cables. In addition, hazard markings on floors
should indicate areas to avoid, such as traffic routes used by vehicles, and should demarcate
the edges of safe walkways. The positioning of such signs is important and they should be
conspicuous at junctions, crossings and along pedestrian routes. Such signs should be
maintained to a high standard, especially in conditions of inclement weather, and inspected on
a regular basis.
It may be necessary for employees, contractors and visitors in a particular area to have the
same or similar PPE as people working in that area. Examples include:
• Non-slip footwear where chemicals are used.
• Hard hats, Wellingtons or suitable boots with toe caps and sole plates on a construction
site.
Safety signs will indicate where such requirements are mandatory and they will apply to all
people entering such areas, even if they are just visiting or passing through.
Hard hats are to be worn by anybody who might be struck by falling materials or where people
might hit their heads. Examples include material falling from a scaffolding platform and
material falling from a crane and goods hoist. Similarly, appropriate footwear should have
steel toecaps and sole plates to prevent puncture wounds and injuries by sharp objects.
People working on site or visiting will not automatically be aware of the hazards around them
or understand the necessary preventative and protective measures in place. It is important,
therefore, that all persons on site are given appropriate information to enable them to move
around the workplace in safety. Instruction should be given as to general conduct, such as not
running or playing games, as well as in respect of particular hazards.
Part of this will be in the form of signs, markings and notices, but additional information may
also be necessary. For example, attention may have to be drawn to the need to keep to
designated walkways and to be aware of particular hazards, such as temporary work going on
overhead. Visitors to premises may need special instruction prior to entry.
Manual Handling
Control measures for risks from manual handling activities include:
Avoiding the hazard, which will remove the risk completely.
Re-designing the task to include, for example, sequencing of tasks, changing the work
routine or using teams.
Modifying the load, by taking into account matters the weight and size, and other practical
issues that would make the load easier to handle.
Reorganising the work environment, by considering things like workstation design and
floor conditions.
Personal considerations, such as making allowance for employees with temporary or
permanent health problems.
C O N T E N T S
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
1.B.12.1 Describe the main hazards associated with working at height and explain how
they may cause harm
1.B.12.2 Determine, implement, evaluate and maintain measures for controlling risks from
working at height
Unit 9:
Often though, work at the leading edge is unavoidable due to the nature of the work
(removing and replacing roofing sheets) and the position of the structure, making the use of a
working platform impractical. Where this is the case, the work requires carefully planned safe
systems of work including measures to mitigate the distance and consequences of a fall.
Failure of Equipment
Many accidents involving falls could have been prevented if the right equipment had been
provided and properly used. Equipment fails when it has been selected for a job which it is not
intended. The result may cause the equipment to collapse, fall over or not support the worker
or materials adequately posing a risk to workers and third parties. The installation of particular
types of work equipment such as scaffold must be constructed by a competent person to
ensure that there are no risks to safety. Equipment that is stored incorrectly may show rapid
signs of deterioration which without regular maintenance could be the cause of an accident. All
equipment must be used by trained persons.
Safety nets are an energy absorbing system, which should only be installed by trained and
competent people. Before gaining access to height you should decide whether nets can be
installed at ground level. Nets should be positioned as close as possible to the working level to
minimise the height of a fall.
As a last resort safety harnesses may be used as a fall arrest system. One of the main
problems associated with this type of system is that it only protects the wearer (as with all
PPE) if it is worn correctly and if the lanyard is correctly secured to a suitable anchor point.
The use of this type of system requires a high degree of training, competence and supervision.
The free fall distance must be kept to a minimum as there is a high risk of injury from the
impact loading on the body or from the ‘pendulum effect’ – striking the structure as they are
left to swing. To reduce the risk of injury, a fall arrest system should always contain energy
absorption.
Consideration must also be given to how to rescue anyone who does fall. It is not appropriate
to rely on the emergency services as they might not arrive in time or might not have the
necessary equipment to carry out a rescue.
When planning for working at height that is unavoidable, the first choice will be to use any
existing safe place of work that allows safe access and provides a safe working place. Where it
is not reasonably practicable to work safely from the existing place of work, an alternative
means of access will be needed. This will involve the use of work equipment. The following
section provides specific details about the various type of work equipment which are employed
with activities involving work at height.
Organisational Arrangements
Every employer must ensure that all work at height is:
Properly planned,
Appropriately supervised, and
Carried out in as safe a way as is reasonably practicable.
Weather conditions and work equipment must be taken into consideration and must not
jeopardise the health and safety of persons involved in the work. Emergency and rescue plans
must also be in place.
Competence
Employers must ensure that everyone involved in the work is competent by means of training
and supervision. This also includes any involvement in organisation, planning, supervision and
maintenance of equipment. Persons engaged in training must be supervised by a competent
person.
Avoidance of risks from working at height
Employers must conduct risk assessments to identify the risks involved with working at height.
Based on the findings of the risk assessment, the employer must ensure that no work at height
is carried out where it may be reasonably practicable to avoid. However where work at height
cannot be avoided employers must take suitable and sufficient measures to prevent any
person falling any distance liable to cause personal injury. This will include ensuring the work is
carried out:
From an existing place of work, so far as is reasonably practicable; or if not
Nothing must be tipped or thrown from a height where it is liable to cause injury and materials
and objects must be stored in such a way that its collapse, overturning or unintended
movement is not likely to injure anyone.
Danger Areas
Where the workplace contains an area in which there is a risk of someone falling or being
struck by a falling object, the employer should introduce devices to prevent unauthorised
persons from entering the area. The area must clearly indicate that it is a dangerous area and
that unauthorised access is prohibited.
Inspections
Employers must ensure that, where the safety of work equipment depends on how it is
installed or assembled, it is not used after installation unless it has been inspected in that
position.
It must also be inspected at suitable intervals where the equipment may be exposed to
conditions causing deterioration, and following the occurrence of any exceptional
circumstances which are liable to result in dangerous situations.
All inspections, tests and maintenance of work equipment must be done by a competent
person by means of a visual or more thorough inspection and records must be kept until the
next inspection is carried out.
C O N T E N T S
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
1.B.13.2 Describe the main hazards associated with working in confined spaces and
explain how they may cause harm
1.B.13.4 Determine, implement, evaluate and maintain measures for controlling risks from
working in confined spaces
Unit 10:
is undetectable to our senses (and it has the same density as air and so becomes rapidly
and evenly dispersed).
Both gases are combustion products and carbon dioxide is also produced by the microbial
decay of natural materials (including fermentation) as well as respiration. Toxic effects
can be expected in any situation where the decay of natural materials or combustion
processes occur (e.g. motor vehicle exhaust fumes).
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) (bad egg gas) gives warning of its presence at low
concentrations by its characteristic odour. It is, however, extremely toxic and also
saturates the olfactory membrane so that the sense of smell rapidly becomes paralysed.
Sudden exposure to high levels may not be detectable. Again, it may occur where natural
materials decay - but in the absence of oxygen - hence in rotten eggs.
Oxygen Deficient Atmospheres
Depletion of oxygen can occur:
Through displacement where the addition of a gas or vapour to the space displaces the
oxygen in that atmosphere, e.g. purge gas or pipe freezing, or gas leaking from
elsewhere.
Through consumption where the oxygen in the atmosphere is depleted by a chemical
reaction or biological process occurring in the space, for example, oxidation (rusting) and
bacterial growth.
Through welding operations or by people working, or any process of combustion.
Where there is a reaction between some soils and the oxygen in the atmosphere.
Following the action of groundwater on chalk and limestone, which can produce carbon
dioxide and displace normal air.
Through production of carbon dioxide from fermentation processes or naturally from the
rocks or soil, or from combustion processes
Flammable/ Explosive Substances and Oxygen Enrichment
Certain gases and vapours in small concentrations can pose a hazard and produce either a fire
or an explosive atmosphere, for example, LPG, acetylene, propane, butane, oxygen, methane,
hydrogen sulphide, acetone, toluene, alcohol, white spirit, thinners, solvents, hydrogen
depending on their explosive range in the atmosphere.
Specific examples of flammable situations include:
Methane (CH4) occurs naturally as a microbial degradation product under anoxic
conditions and is capable of migrating through water, unlike all other hydrocarbons. Such
a mechanism created the explosive atmosphere in an underground water treatment works
that tragically killed a number of visiting parish councillors in the UK. It is odourless but
should be suspected if the air smells marshy.
Natural gas (mains gas) is methane but is odourised by addition of small amounts of
mercaptans, and is thus readily discernible in the event of a leak. Propane and butane
(liquefied petroleum gases) are dense and will accumulate in confined spaces in the event
of a leak that could typically occur from welding equipment.
Acetylene is another welding gas that readily forms explosive atmospheres. In very high
concentrations, these gases also act as asphyxiants by diluting the oxygen.
Petroleum vapours can be formed if petrol is spilled into the ground, and may migrate
over distances. The Mexico City sewer explosions were due to petrol spilled into the
system and this is but one example of many accidents of this type.
Certain (combustible) dusts in high concentrations can also present an explosion risk.
Another related cause of fire is oxygen enrichment. Generally, this only occurs when oxygen is
artificially introduced into a space (such as a leak from an oxygen cylinder introduced as part
of a welding kit) or where the chemical contents of the space release oxygen as they degrade.
Any organic material, for example, oil and grease, will become highly combustible and paper,
material or clothing will burn fiercely. If an oxygen-enriched atmosphere is present, the space
should be ventilated until normal oxygen levels are obtained.
Electricity
Any electrical equipment used in a confined space will inevitably create some risk. All of the
normal risks associated with electricity will be present, often in an exaggerated form because
of the nature of the space and the work being undertaken.
The risk of electric shock may be increased if the confined space is of metal construction –
because of the low-resistance conducting nature of the structure. The internal environment
may be wet, and humidity levels in the atmosphere may be high, again lowering electrical
resistance and increasing risks.
Very significantly, a flammable gas or vapour may be present, and electrical equipment might
provide the ignition source that leads to fire or explosion.
Mechanical Hazards
By its very nature, work in a confined space may be restricted, bringing workers into close
contact with other hazards, such as moving machinery or electricity. In confined space work,
the hazards presented could include:
Electrical equipment, if not correctly selected and maintained, presents the risk of electric
shock. In addition electrical equipment, including such things as torches, must be
intrinsically safe if there is any risk of a flammable atmosphere. If the environment is
hostile in any other way – it could, for example, be wet – further restrictions on the use of
electricity should be considered.
A portable grinder may produce dust and provision may need to be made for dust
extraction.
Gas, vapour or fumes may arise from welding.
The confined space may contain baffles or internal structures that the worker can strike
against, increasing the risks of bumps, bruises, lacerations and even broken bones.
Some spaces will contain mechanical moving parts, such as agitators, scrapers and
augers. These moving parts can give rise to very significant risks of injury and, in many
instances, death by crushing, drawing or entanglement, if not correctly isolated.
Psychological Factors
Claustrophobia is usually described as a fear of enclosed spaces. A more accurate description
might be ‘a fear of not having an easy escape route’ because for anyone who experiences this
phobia, this is the predominant fear.
Claustrophobia is an issue in the context of confined spaces for very obvious reasons. The
worker who suffers from claustrophobia may be severely traumatised by their work experience
– this is an immediate psychological hazard. The worker may panic and, if severely
claustrophobic, will be incapable of rational thought and unable to control their actions as the
innate desire to escape overwhelms controlled thought. In these instances, it is possible that
the worker may, through their panicked actions, injure themselves and/or their colleagues.
If the worker does not act to affect their escape, they may be so consumed by their fear that
they become incapable of moving. In these circumstances, some sort of rescue will need to be
carried out.
It is worth considering that workers may not be aware of their claustrophobia, may not be
willing to reveal it (due to fear of peer-group ridicule or workplace discrimination) or may not
actually experience fear except in exceptional circumstances. For example, consider working in
a 1.8 m high tank, 3 m long and 2 m wide, as opposed to walking down a 1.8 m high sewer
tunnel that is 1.5 km long. A claustrophobic would dislike both locations. A non-
claustrophobic but experienced worker would probably cope comfortably with the tank, but
might become increasingly unsettled in the sewer tunnel. An experienced sewer worker would
feel at ease in the tunnel.
In general, indications through signage will be required to show that the area is a confined
space, entry is prohibited and restricted to authorised persons only, and that PPE and other
specific controls are mandatory.
Barriers
In addition to signage, physical barriers are required to prevent unauthorised entry to the
confined space. It is necessary to ensure that no one enters a confined space unless:
They are trained and authorised to do so.
They are wearing approved breathing apparatus if dangerous fumes are present or in an
oxygen-deficient atmosphere.
They have been authorised to enter by a responsible person.
Where practicable, they are wearing a belt or harness with a rope securely attached.
A person holding the free end of the rope is keeping watch outside and capable of pulling
the person out.
Air Quality Testing
Hazardous atmospheres must not be present at any time during an entry operation and it is
necessary to check that the atmosphere is free from both toxic and flammable vapours and
that it is fit to breathe. Testing should be carried out by a competent person using a suitable
gas detector that is correctly calibrated. Great care needs to be exercised in gas testing as
flammable, explosive or toxic gases can exist alongside oxygen and their presence in small
quantities can cause a serious hazard. Breathing apparatus is required if entry into the
confined space in order to test the air is necessary. Gas testing involves testing the
atmosphere at all locations, drain points, instrument bridles, orifices and at a high and low
level, as some gases due to their density tend to lie in low positions, e g. hydrogen sulphide.
An individual’s sense of smell should not be relied upon as an accurate measure of atmospheric
conditions, as some gases (e.g. hydrogen sulphide) tend to paralyse the sense of smell at low
concentrations and it varies between individuals, while other gases (e.g. carbon monoxide)
have no smell. Where the risk assessment indicates that conditions may change, or as a
further precaution, continuous monitoring of the air may be necessary.
Atmospheric testing includes the following:
A flammable gas, vapour, or mist in excess of 10% of its Lower Explosive Limit (LEL).
An atmospheric oxygen concentration below 19.5% or above 22%.
An atmospheric concentration of any substance which could result in employee exposure
in excess of the permissible limits.
An airborne combustible dust at a concentration that obscures vision at a distance of 5
feet (1.52 m) or less.
Any atmospheric condition recognised as immediately dangerous to life or health.
Personal Protection
The risk assessment carried out on the confined space, referred to above, will indicate what
specific hazards are present and therefore what personal protective equipment will be
required.
Breathing apparatus will be required if dangerous fumes are present or if the atmosphere is
oxygen-deficient. Other typical activities carried out in the confined space might include, for
example, welding, cleaning, equipment repair and maintenance. Consequently, personal
protective equipment for UV, hot surfaces, chemical exposure, rough work and head protection
might be required. This should be specified as a component of the safe system of work that is
devised from the risk assessment.
Means of Access and Egress
A safe method of access or egress should be provided to allow ready access to, and egress
from, the confined space itself. You should bear the following in mind:
Experience has shown that the size of a manhole to allow access for an SCBA (Self-
Contained Breathing Apparatus) wearer is 575 mm. Smaller openings than this are,
however, common, for example, road tankers. The smaller openings may therefore limit
the type of BA to more compact types, such as those using an airline.
Dependent on the activities involved, a number of access and egress points may be
required.
Entry should be authorised by a responsible person, i.e. by means of a permit-to-work
system.
Where practicable, he or she should wear a belt or harness with a rope securely attached.
A person keeping watch outside, and capable of pulling him or her out, must hold the free
end of the rope.
Alternatively, a person may enter or work in a confined space without breathing apparatus,
provided that:
Effective steps have been taken to avoid ingress of dangerous fumes.
Sludge or other deposits liable to give off dangerous fumes have been removed or
cleaned.
The space contains no other material liable to give off such fumes.
The space has been adequately ventilated and tested for toxic, flammable and explosive
gases or fumes.
There is a supply of air adequate for respiration.
The space has been certified by a responsible person as being safe for entry for a
specified period without breathing apparatus.
Emergency Arrangements
No person shall work in a confined space unless suitable and sufficient arrangements for their
rescue in an emergency have been made.
Effective arrangements for raising the alarm and carrying out rescue operations in an
emergency are essential. Emergency plans will depend on the nature of the confined space,
the risks identified and consequently the likely nature of an emergency rescue. Staff and
equipment should be readily available for emergencies and suitably trained in the operation of
all equipment used (including first- aid). There need to be properly trained people, sufficiently
fit to carry out their task, ready at hand, and capable of using any equipment provided for
rescue, e.g. breathing apparatus, lifelines and fire-fighting equipment. Rescuers also need to
be protected against the cause of the emergency.
Equipment should consist of:
Breathing apparatus sets.
Rescue and resuscitation equipment (such as an oxygen therapy unit and perhaps an
automatic defibrillator), harnesses, lifting tripods, winches, stretchers, first-aid equipment.
Means of communication (such as 2-way radios, which are suitable for explosive
atmospheres if applicable) and summoning help.
Lifelines.
Rescue teams must not enter without breathing apparatus. They must be thoroughly trained
in rescue techniques, first-aid and use of resuscitators.
An essential part of such a rescue plan might include shutting down adjacent plant before
attempting emergency rescue and communication with local emergency services (e.g. the fire
brigade), remembering to pass on information about the particular dangers in the confined
space.
The Emergency Team
It is considered best practice to provide the same team structure for rescue as would be for
normal entry operations. That means, therefore, that an entry supervisor, an attendant and an
entrant, at least, would be required to perform a non-hazardous confined spaces rescue. The
number of people required to perform an effective rescue will obviously depend on the
complexity of the incident.
Personnel must receive training prior to performing rescues. Rescuers should also be
sufficiently fit to carry out rescues, as well as being capable using any equipment needed for
rescue.
Emergency Team Training
The training needs for each individual member of the rescue will vary according to their
designated role. It is important that refresher training is organised and available on a regular
basis, for example annually. Training should include the following, as is appropriate:
Likely causes of an emergency.
Use of rescue equipment, such as: breathing apparatus, lifelines.
The ‘check procedures’ to be followed when putting on and using apparatus.
Checking of correct functioning and/or testing of emergency equipment.
Identifying defects, and dealing with malfunctions and failures of equipment during use.
Works, site or other local emergency procedures, including the initiation of an emergency
response.
Instruction on how to shut down relevant process plant, as appropriate.
Resuscitation procedures and, where appropriate, the correct use of relevant ancillary
equipment and any resuscitation equipment provided.
Emergency first-aid and the use of the first-aid equipment provided.
C O N T E N T S
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
1.B.14.3 Determine, implement, evaluate and maintain measures for controlling risks from
lone working
Unit 11:
Location
Lone workers will often work in locations not under the control of their employer, or in difficult
to reach locations, such as plant rooms. Consideration will need to be given to whether the
particular workplace presents a special risk to someone working alone. Is there safe egress
and exit to and from the workplace? Is the location itself hazardous due to its geographical
isolation, remoteness or client make-up, the nature of the activities or hazards at the premises,
or is it hazardous due to poor standards of health and safety?
Where a location is geographically isolated or remote, emergency assistance can be
problematic. In addition, where travelling to remote locations is part of the work activity,
consideration should be given to the possibility of vehicle breakdown in rural or isolated areas,
and account should be taken of any lack of mobile phone service availability where mobile
phones are relied upon as a means of contact and communication. The lone worker may also
be working in relative isolation, but within the usual workplace. For example, working in plant
or machine rooms and laboratories. Consideration should be given to the extent of isolation,
the visibility of the worker to others, and the ability to summon immediate assistance should it
be required.
The likelihood of incidents of violence and aggression depends on a number of factors,
including the location to be visited and the likelihood of contact or interaction with members of
the public. Certainly, working alone in remote locations may leave the worker more vulnerable,
depending upon the circumstances. In contrast, many workers may be visiting geographical
areas that are highly populated, but are considered to have a high potential for violence. Any
risk assessment should consider whether it is possible to achieve safe lone working in such
circumstances.
The location of the worker will also determine the availability of rest, hygiene and welfare
facilities. The mobile worker is likely to be dependent upon public facilities whereas many
others may be reliant on client facilities. The adequacy of available facilities should be
considered, and whether their use increases the vulnerability of the worker, for example, where
they are shared with members of the public.
Home workers can be particularly at risks from hazards, and the lack of support and
procedures to deal with them. Consideration needs to be given to the suitability of premises,
particularly in terms of the opportunity for emergencies, such as fires, to occur. The need for
regular servicing, maintenance and testing of equipment, and systems for reporting problems
or gaining emergency assistance, will need to be assessed. In many cases, domestic premises
will not be as well-equipped or well-maintained in terms of safety, as a business premises.
As we identified earlier, lone workers are exposed to the same hazards as other employees
but, when working away from the home base, risks are less easy to control and standards of
control may vary. The employer would need to assess the risks posed by the premises, and
work with the occupier to ensure the health safety and welfare of employees. The lone worker
may be entering premises where hazardous substances or mechanical handling equipment are
used, but not be familiar with the risks. It is not always practical to assess each and every
premises to be visited, for example, in the case of health care visitors, who visit members of
the public in their homes. In such cases, it may be appropriate to complete a generic
assessment of the activity. The availability of emergency assistance, either from the occupier
of the premises, external sources, or the employer of the lone worker, would need to be
considered.
Type of Work
The type of work carried out by lone workers is highly variable. Account would need to be
taken of any extra demand on the lone worker’s physical and mental stamina, as well as any
individual characteristics, such as ill-health, that would preclude the individual being exposed
to the specific work.
Examples of high-risk activities would include:
Confined space working.
Working with hazardous substances, high-pressure systems or dangerous machinery.
Moving equipment or machinery.
Service industries where cash handling is involved.
Working in extreme weather conditions.
Laboratory functions.
There would be a need to consider whether all the equipment, substances and machinery can
be safely handled, used and transported by one person. Are weather conditions such that heat
stroke or hypothermia could result? Is the worker more vulnerable to incidents of violence and
aggression due to the handling of cash? Is there an increased likelihood of injury occurring
and, therefore, a critical need for immediate assistance in an emergency? Is the injury of a
type that will potentially reduce or remove the lone worker’s ability to summon assistance?
Consider two specific work activities: a taxi driver and a long distance lorry driver. Both are
likely to be lone workers, but the taxi driver will be carrying cash and interacting with members
of the public as part of the work activity. Late night taxi drivers may be dealing with
customers who have been consuming alcohol, leading to an increased tendency for violent and
aggressive behaviour. As such, the taxi driver is far more vulnerable to incidents of unplanned
violence and aggression. Having said that, the long distance lorry driver, whilst not in constant
contact with the public, may be carrying a valuable load, resulting in an increased vulnerability
to more organised instances of violence and aggression. In both cases, summoning immediate
emergency assistance will be a problem.
The type of work, and the hazards that the lone worker is exposed to, will determine the level
of risk associated with a lack of immediate emergency response and the potential for violent
incidents.
Consideration should also be given to the need for the worker to make immediate and difficult
decisions. Without the benefit of discussion and supervisory support, psychosocial problems
such as stress and a feeling of isolation can result.
Eliminate the need for handling cash, or use additional support and assistance at times
when cash is handled.
Ensure premises to be visited are assessed to determine the hazards and existing controls.
Allow the effective reporting of problems and incidents, with procedures for addressing
any issues or concerns raised.
should not then prevent quick exit by the lone worker or emergency access, should it be
required. Where visibility through a door is not available, an intercom will allow the lone
worker to determine whether or not to give access to other persons. Procedures for signing in
and out should also be in place.
Lone workers should be aware of prohibited areas in the workplace, and should not be able to
gain access to areas where they are not required to enter to carry out their work, particularly
where hazardous areas are present.
Competency
Depending on the work activity, selection criteria may be applied to ensure individuals are
suitable in terms of physical and mental stamina, and medical fitness. In most lone working
situations, the employee should be an experienced individual. Employees new to the job may
need to be accompanied at first, as part of their training programme.
Lone workers cannot easily ask more experienced colleagues for help with dangerous tasks or
equipment, so extra training and information may be required. It is particularly important that
they have the information and training they need to avoid panic reactions in unusual
situations. They should clearly understand the risks of their work, the precautions that are
needed and what they should do in an emergency.
Lone workers should have a level of competence that will allow them to determine when it is
unsafe to continue work and when they should feel able to stop working if necessary.
Where employees are exposed to potentially violent or aggressive situations, training in
interpersonal skills, assertiveness and handling of difficult situations is likely to be needed. It
may additionally be appropriate to ensure members of staff are aware of, and can implement,
‘break away’ techniques.
Where driving forms a significant part of the worker’s activities, training in advanced driving
techniques may well be appropriate.
Sufficient information and instruction on procedures should be readily available to ensure they
are aware, for example, of when and how to request additional assistance, and how to report
incidents.
Training and information requirements should be regularly reviewed for appropriateness and
effectiveness.
Communication Strategies
Means of communication may involve the use of two-way radios, pagers or mobile phones.
Any means of communication should be regularly tested for correct operation, and records
kept of the tests.
Maintaining regular contact may be an appropriate control in some situations, with the contact
intervals being determined by the level of risk. Specifying times for contact will enable the
alarm to be raised where no contact is made. Lone workers should leave details of their
itinerary, and report back to base at regular intervals. Expected arrival and departure times
should be known by colleagues or clients, with procedures in place to respond should there be
any deviation from the agreed times. For non-mobile workers periodic visits at regular
intervals by a ‘buddy’ or supervisor may be appropriate.
In more high-risk situations, constant or intermittent mechanical or electrical surveillance, with
central monitoring, should be considered. Automatic warning systems can be used, sending an
automatic warning to a pre-determined person if the lone worker fails to check in.
Whatever the method of monitoring, the person designated to check the worker must be
knowledgeable of the work activities of the lone worker, and have the capability of
implementing emergency procedures should they be required. Staff should be confident that
immediate action will be taken if their return from a lone working visit is overdue.
Emergency Procedures
A safe means of entry and exit to the workplace should be available, including in an
emergency and, where possible, a named, competent person should be identified as a point of
contact at the lone worker’s place of work.
It may be appropriate to train the lone worker in first-aid where no other immediate
alternatives will be available. Adequate first-aid facilities should be available either at the
premises or carried by mobile workers. Contact procedures should be in place so that the
alarm can be raised, and prompt medical attention provided, if there is an accident or sudden
illness.
Personal attack alarms may be used to draw attention in the event of an emergency, but these
will only be effective if there are people within the audible range, and with the knowledge to
respond. Panic alarms connected to a central point of control can be used to summon
assistance quickly. Such alarms should be readily accessible to the employee, possibly carried
by the employee, and connect to a control point that can activate a suitable emergency
response. It may be appropriate to use silent alarms connected to a central control point that
will draw attention to the need for assistance, without escalating a potentially violent situation.
Steps should be taken to ensure control measures are used and remain appropriate. Regular
checks should be made to ensure the required response is activated within the required time
frame.
C O N T E N T S
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
1.B.15.2 Determine, implement, evaluate and maintain measures for controlling the risk of
violence against employees
Unit 12:
Sectors of Employment
The likelihood of workplace violence can also be related to sectors of employment.
Health service.
Public transport:
− Buses/Tramways.
− Overground trains/Railways.
− Underground trains/Subway.
Licensed premises.
Retail trades.
Government/local:
− Unemployment benefit offices.
− Housing offices.
Traffic warden departments.
From this analysis, it is clear that there are many jobs within the above sectors of employment
where employees are required to deal directly with members of the public and may therefore
be at risk from workplace violence.
Work Activities
Outlined below are examples of key activities, and the associated staff, which may be at risk
from workplace violence:
Handling money or valuables:
− Cashiers.
− Delivery staff.
− Transport workers.
− Bank and post office staff.
− Commissionaires.
− Security staff.
− Shop assistants.
Providing care, advice or training:
− Doctors.
− Nurses.
− Ambulance staff.
− Social workers.
− Housing office staff.
Providing education:
− Teachers.
− Library staff.
− Clerical staff.
− Caretakers.
Carrying out inspection or enforcement duties:
− Traffic wardens.
− Ticket inspectors.
Working with potentially violent people:
− Prison officers.
− Security staff.
− Public house landlords.
− Mental health workers.
Working alone:
− Home visitors.
− Taxi drivers.
Data Collection
Once it has been established that a problem exists with violence at work, it is necessary to
introduce a formal reporting system. The existing accident reporting system may provide
some information but it is important that data collection provides adequate information to
enable preventative measures to be formulated. The following basic information will need to
be reported:
Characteristics of the assailant.
Information about the victim.
Details of the incident (before and during).
Details of the situation in which the incident took place.
Details of the outcome.
Classifying Incidents
It is important to develop a system of classification of incidents. Once this has been decided,
action can be taken, depending on the severity of the incident. Patterns of violence can also
be established and this will help employers to take steps to prevent reoccurrences. The
system of classification can be simple, such as: fatal or major incidents; less serious incidents
requiring first-aid and counselling; an employee feeling at risk.
Prediction
Employers should attempt to plan ahead for incidents of violence that might occur in future.
This could be done by considering other, similar organisations, and considering the jobs that
employers perform, as discussed earlier.
Working Practices
The way certain jobs are carried out can be designed and adjusted so that the risk of violence
is reduced. This could include, for example:
Using cheques or forms of credit to avoid staff needing to handle cash.
Avoiding situations where workers are left alone.
If working late is unavoidable, measures must be taken to ensure the worker’s safety,
such as arranging a security escort off the premises.
Checking the venues for meetings, as well as the people with whom the employee is
meeting, if they are not familiar.
A current UK initiative that London Transport is undertaking to control violence towards
London’s bus operatives is to gradually reduce the need for them to handle cash. Measures
introduced to reduce the number of people purchasing tickets on board buses include making
existing season tickets cheaper and thus more attractive, installing ticket machines at all bus
stops – all of which will eventually lead to ‘cash-less’ operatives and thus reduce in part
violence towards such operatives. Such schemes are already in full operation in some
European countries.
Access for Unauthorised People
Access for unauthorised people should be difficult, adequately hindered or visible from a main
thoroughfare. Where there is a significant risk from violence, control by swipe card or keypad
may be justified. Toughened glass, as used in banks, can also hinder access to, and protect,
staff. Access for unauthorised people can also be prevented by the use of security codes and
alarm systems.
Suitable Means of Escape
Where the possibility of a violent interaction has been identified, it may be necessary to ensure
an alternative means of escape to well lit or populated areas.
Property and Furniture
Layout and use of property and furniture can help prevent an attack or hinder the attacker’s
escape. Therefore, furniture and fittings that are fixed cannot be used as potential weapons,
and can also restrict access and egress to and from areas where a violent confrontation might
take place. It is also helpful to ensure that objects in the immediate vicinity cannot be used as
weapons.
Redesigning counters to increase width or height can give staff protection from physical
contact. Changing the layout of public waiting areas with better seating, lighting, décor and
more regular information about delays can help prevent tension building up in hospital waiting
rooms, housing departments and benefit offices, and thereby lessen the chance of
confrontation and resulting violence.
Contact Arrangements
The risk of violence can be reduced if systems are in place to ensure that any information that
is available on the potential for violent behaviour in clients or customers is communicated to
staff who have to deal with them. This is a valuable measure in health care situations where
client information may be readily available.
Where staff need to work or travel alone between a number of workplaces, it is important that
information on staff whereabouts and expected time of arrival is recorded and monitored. This
information should be communicated to the appropriate staff, so that any concerns about
personal safety can be quickly followed up.
Communication systems such as pagers, mobile phones and personal alarms can be utilised to
monitor the location of staff who might be at risk from personal violence and to enable
workers to gain assistance if an incident occurs.
If it is known or suspected that a person might be at risk from a particular person with a
history or record of violence, that person could be accompanied on that particular visit.
Alarms and Response Arrangements
Alarm and response arrangements should be made to enable workers who experience
difficulties to get assistance. These could include:
Panic buttons, personal alarms, mobile phones, etc. that can be used to enable rapid
contact for assistance.
Security measures such as cameras, protective screens and security-coded doors that can
be used to monitor staff and prevent unauthorised access.
Lighting to Deter Assailants
A common staff concern regarding the potential for violence at work is the existence of poorly
lit areas where assailants could hide. Ensuring that external areas, such as car parks and
walkways, are well illuminated will deter assailants and reassure staff. This also applies to
internal areas, such as storerooms and basements, which are less frequently occupied and
therefore are areas where assistance is less likely to be available if a violent incident occurs.
The use of Closed Circuit Television in connection with correct lighting could be a further
deterrent.
Training
Training in employee actions should include:
Training staff to understand and be confident about the causes of violence, to identify
early signs of violence, and how to avoid or handle it.
Training staff to use safe systems of work that minimise the risk of violence such as
avoiding handling cash in public areas, working alone or walking in high risk areas at night
or alone.
Training staff in how to use appropriate interpersonal skills in order to defuse aggression
in a potentially violent situation. Such interpersonal skills should include verbal and non-
verbal skills.
Victim Support
Many of the measures discussed above are aimed at preventing violent incidents from
happening in the first place. Experience has shown that preventive measures are unlikely to
be 100% effective all the time; this is why complementary mitigation or recovery measures are
also used. Employers must, therefore, prepare ahead to deal with the aftermath and effects of
violence, both physical and verbal. The response to occurrences must be fast to minimise the
effects on the employee involved and in particular to avoid long-term distress to employees.
Various steps can be taken to achieve this, including: debriefing, time off work, counselling
and legal help.
Debriefing would involve allowing the person affected to discuss their experience. This should
be done as soon as possible and, as well as helping the victim to cope, it may provide valuable
information for the employer to avoid such an occurrence in the future.
The victim may need time off work to recover from the incident, and although this may differ
from person to person, the victim should be encouraged to return to work sooner rather than
later as returning to work will become harder as time progresses. At this stage, counselling by
a suitable person may be appropriate to help the victim.
3– Take action.
This stage is involved with implementation of the selected control strategies.
4 – Check what you have done.
This stage requires regular checks of how well the arrangements are working including
consultation with employees and where necessary returning to stages 1-3 to ensure that
arrangements are adequate for all situations.
In addition to this structured action plan approach, there are additional issues that need to be
considered at the planning stage of the process to determine the suitability and sufficiency of
any control measures. As with any programme designed to manage an occupational health
and safety risk, it is important to check that control measures are working.
C O N T E N T S
Learning Outcomes
When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:
Unit 13:
Moral
The moral or humanitarian reasons for accident prevention are based on the principal that it is
'wrong' to cause injury or ill-health to another individual by allowing a dangerous environment
or activity to exist. This is further compounded by allowing them to work with these hazards
and associated risks, without control measures to reduce them to a satisfactory level. There
are a number of effects associated with individuals who suffer as a result of an accident, and a
list of some of them follows:
Mental strain.
Loss of earnings.
Pain and suffering.
Incapacity from work and impact upon their personal life.
Disability.
Effects on dependants or relatives.
Additional expenditure.
Possible life reduction or loss of life.
When an individual is hurt at work as a result of an accident or due to exposure to substances
that have caused ill-health, then the employer could be seen to have failed to ensure the
health, safety and welfare of that particular employee. Consequently, the injured party may
seek compensation for their 'loss' (their 'loss' could be any of the range of effects listed earlier,
as well as some not mentioned). This could also lead into the third area (Economic or Cost)
for preventing accidents. Additionally, if there has been a statutory breach of duty and a
prosecution follows, this can lead to the second purpose for reporting and investigating
accidents – the legal purpose.
Legal
The legal purpose for reporting and investigating accidents relates to the possibility of
prosecution as a result of a failure to comply with specific legislation in part or in full (although
this is dependant on the country’s legal system).
Employers in the UK have a legal duty to report certain injuries, diseases and dangerous
occurrences that are sustained in the workplace. There will also be similar legal requirements
in other countries around the world to report accidents, although it must be remembered that
health and safety legislation varies from country to country. There may also be legal
requirements to carry out investigations into the causes of the accidents and students should
make themselves aware of local legislation that applies.
Economic
The economic purpose for reporting and investigating accidents relates to the issue of 'cost'.
This is the financial consideration for the employer and can be in many forms. Costs can be
divided into two distinct categories:
Direct costs.
Indirect costs.
Some of the "direct" and "indirect" costs can be protected or insured against should anything
go wrong and a claim is placed to recoup financial losses. Other aspects of both of these costs
unfortunately are uninsurable and the organisation itself ultimately bears the cost.
Comparisons have been made between insured costs to uninsured costs. The ratio between
these costs can be represented by an iceberg, which shows the full cost of accidents including
those hidden below the waterline, or unseen in a business.
to reflect the employer's claim, or how the market overall has been affected in the last year or
so. This results in increased insurance premium.
Additional direct costs can affect an organisation. However, they are not insurable, and tend to
be in the form of sick pay, overtime payments, repair costs, loss or damage to products.
However, if an individual is successful in their claim for damages in a UK civil case, and is
awarded compensation for their 'loss', there is insurance that organisations can take out to
guard against payouts. This payment would be classed as a direct insured cost.
Indirect Costs
Indirect costs can be insured against or be uninsured simply as a result of the nature of the
'cost'.
Some examples of indirect insured costs would be the interruption of business activities and
product liability. If there was any 'loss' to an organisation following an accident and business
was interrupted or products were not saleable as a direct result of the accident, then a claim
could be made in light of this to recoup the money lost.
Indirect uninsured costs consist of: investigation costs, loss of goodwill (which can not be
measured until some time after the event), loss of corporate image or Company branding, and
the costs of hiring and training replacement staff.
There are a number of indirect costs (both insured and uninsured), which many organisations
do not account for. Consequently, organisations can either end up over budget or having
budgets depleted due to accounting that has not considered some costs associated with
accidents and their follow-ups.
These associated costs (insured and uninsured) could include the following:
• Working Time Lost
Following an accident, the injured person would initially be given first-aid, and may then
be taken to hospital either by ambulance accompanied by a colleague, or taken there
directly by a colleague. Both the time taken to treat them, and the initial paper work to
be completed, takes an individual away from their normal duties, as does accompanying
them or taking them directly to hospital.
Time lost from work through accident investigation can affect a number of people ranging
from the supervisor or manager of the person involved, to the health and safety
department as well as safety representatives of that area. Time will be spent identifying
root causes, meeting to discuss potential weak areas and proposing remedial actions or
new control measures.
The individual injured will be absent initially to recover, and may even have an extended
time away from work as a direct result of the nature of the injury or illness. Additional
time may be required to attend hospital, visit an occupational health therapist, their GP or
even physiotherapy, etc. for follow-ups whilst on the road to recovery.
• Consequential Loss
Consequential loss consists of replacement labour for an injured or ill person in the
interim, or even longer term, and which can be part or full time. There may well have
been interruptions to the work sequence or control which will mean down time in order to
rectify those areas affected, or may even mean new parts need ordering and installing.
Individuals at the place of work who become aware of the accident or ill-health often
enquire about their colleague's progress and when they might be returning to work. In
addition, time might be taken to show sympathy in the form of gifts, collections, etc.
These actions, although understandable and laudable, all detract from work and have a
cost associated with them through loss of working time.
Following an accident or ill-health, there is often a drop in the morale of the local
workforce which spreads to other workers who become aware of the accident. Some
individuals may be involved with aspects of the accident investigation and this can
subsequently lead to morale dropping during the investigation and also later, when the
root causes become apparent.
• Damage Repair and Replacement
Accident repairs can be to the building, plant or equipment affected, and the products
may require replacing. The current product being manufactured may have to be
scrapped, or a selection of them removed and disposed of. This all amounts to lost
revenue. The 'down time' of the area or equipment could ultimately mean the late
delivery of an order (perhaps resulting in a penalty) or even the loss of customer.
• Expenditure
During the individual's absence, some form of sick pay would normally be available.
As a direct result of being a person short and not having enough manpower, other
workers may be required to work additional hours and thus may be paid overtime. A
replacement may even be sought from an outside agency, or through a temporary
internal move within the company. All of these would constitute costs that had not been
accounted for.
Following the investigation and root cause analysis, new control measures or parts may be
required, which would need to be ordered and then fitted. Additional training as a result
of the new work processes or procedures could be required to accompany the new control
measures, or may be required regardless of any such measures.
• Legal Action
Depending upon the country, there may be costs associated with follow-up visits from
enforcement officers to the site, and also with carrying out further investigation where
discussions and meetings take individuals away from their current work. Prosecutions in
such countries require meetings with barristers/solicitors and other internal meetings, to
define the course of defence. Time spent gathering the relevant information for
presentation can be very time consuming.
When the case goes to court, individuals from the organisation will be required to attend.
They may even be required to give evidence where time will have been spent preparing
them for this.
Ultimately, if the organisation is found guilty of the statutory breach, then the courts will
fine them. In the UK, if a civil claim has been pursued, and the individual is successful,
damages will be awarded to them. Both of these costs come from the organisation's
revenue and are of an unknown quantity.
Dept: Name:
Date:
Witnesses
Corrective/Remedial action
Recommendations
Corrective/Remedial action
Signature Date
Supervisor's Name
Signature Date
Completed by Position
Signature Date
Initial treatment
Name of first-aider
Signature Date
Is further treatment required? Yes/No
Victim sent home/to hospital?
Will injury cause loss of time? Yes/No
NATURE OF INJURY SITE OF INJURY
WOUNDS: laceration Head
contusion Face
puncture Eyes
foreign body Nose
BURNS: wet heat (scald) Teeth
dry heat Chin
chemical Ear
friction Neck
(Continued)
Injury Report Form 2
FRACTURE Elbow
SPRAIN Wrist
STRAIN Hand
PAIN Fingers
POISON Thumb
OTHER (detail): Chest
Ribs
Back
Abdomen
Hip
Groin
Leg
Thigh
Knee
Shin
Ankle
Foot
Instep
Toe
Form Design
Any incident form should be designed to suit the work situation, and needs to include
information that is of use to the safety practitioner. Here are some ideas that are worth taking
into account:
The Health and Safety handbook of the Institute of Environmental Officers requires the
reporter to state if the cause of the accident is:
− Unsuitable working environment.
− Physical unsuitability.
− Lack of knowledge or skill.
− Improper attitude.
The American Standards Association requires six accident factors to be stated:
− The agency - the object or substance involved.
− The agency part.
− The unsafe mechanical or physical condition.
− The accident type.
− The unsafe act.
− The unsafe personal factor.
UK HSE booklets often identify causes found as a result of a detailed study. Deadly
Maintenance was a UK investigation into maintenance accidents, and listed the causes as:
Absence of a safe system of work 46%
Defective or inadequate equipment 18%
Human factors or errors 13%
Poor design 4%
Unauthorised activity 5%
Management failure 6%
Not known 8%
Taking some of the above ideas, any accident or injury report form should at least require the
person reporting an accident to say whether, in their opinion, the cause was:
An unsuitable working environment.
Lack of a safe system of work.
Unsafe or inadequate equipment.
Lack of effective instruction or supervision.
Unsafe personal factors.
Computer Records
The use of the personal computer has revolutionised the storage and manipulation of accident
data.
Programs Available
The programs that are of most interest are:
Databases.
Spreadsheets.
A database program can be used to store accident data in a set format, then retrieve and
analyse it. It can search through the whole of a year's company accident records within a few
seconds and give an answer to such questions as:
How many employees had an accident on a Friday?
How many accidents involved a broken arm?
Accident Investigation
Objectives of an Investigation
The objectives of any investigation are to:
Ultimately, prevent re-occurrence.
Enable the root causes of the accident or ill-health to be identified.
Produce clear understanding of the root causes that enables good control measures to be
identified in relation to the type of loss that has occurred.
Implement control measures and remedial actions, and thus minimise the opportunity for
reoccurrence of a similar accident or ill-health.
In order to achieve the objectives identified above, the first task is to gather information that
will aim to determine:
The chain of events leading up to the accident.
The real causes of the accident and any contributing factors that may have affected the
scale of the consequences.
Remedial actions required to prevent re-occurrence.
Risk classification.
Breaches of company procedures/policies or statutory requirements.
Whether there are any underlying identifiable trends.
Investigation Team
Investigations require a group of individuals who are competent to carry out the tasks required
to complete the investigation. Their skills should generally complement the group. The group
may typically consist of: a Health and Safety Practitioner, Employee Representative, Supervisor
or Manager, and any other individuals who may have specialist knowledge of that activity or
area.
The size and make up of the group will depend on the nature of the incident. The group
described in the previous paragraph would be suitable for a serious incident, such as a fatality.
If the incident was less serious, such as a near miss, a supervisor or safety advisor could
investigate independently, even though the objective is ultimately the same.
Health and Safety Practitioners or Staff
Health and Safety staff can provide assistance and guidance to those involved in the
investigation, and will have more experience in how the process should work to achieve the
end goal of implementing remedial actions. They would provide support during the
investigation process, and would guide individuals through the best methods for accessing
information, and where and what the investigating group should focus on. They would play
more of a monitoring role, and generally only assist directly when there are areas in which
others are less experienced, or should they be unhappy with the local investigation
conclusions.
Supervisors
As these individuals are often the person in direct operational control of the area, supervisors
should have the responsibility to carry out the initial investigation, as this will often be
sufficient to meet the requirements of the situation that has occurred.
They will have local knowledge of the workplace conditions, the people involved in the
activities, and area. They will have a breadth of information and knowledge that will be
important to utilise in the investigation.
Supervisors also have the authority to take appropriate action (immediately if necessary) for
remedial measures to be implemented. The supervisor should benefit from the outcomes of
the investigation through prevention of future accidents or ill-health, which link to direct and
indirect costs that affect departments and organisations alike, and cause work disruptions.
This should indirectly reduce costs by reducing downtime and damage, and it demonstrates
better overall control.
Managers
More often than not, managers will oversee an investigation and form part of the main group
to ensure that the investigation progresses according to plan and proposed timescales, and
that remedial actions are not only proposed but implemented. They may be more directly
involved due to the severity and nature of the accident or ill-health, or when the incident
exceeds the experience or authority of the supervisor dealing with the event.
Evidence Collection
Evidence collection covers three main aspects:
Witnesses and the scene.
Machinery, equipment, the environment and the people.
Documents and procedural controls.
Witnesses and the Scene
In order to gather suitable information from the scene, the first action should be 'getting the
bigger picture'. In order to do this, it is important to note exactly what is seen on first arrival.
Taking photos is a good way to capture this information, and they can be used as supporting
evidence should it be required at a later date, or simply to capture the scene accurately rather
than trying to imagine what a witness really 'saw' from their description of the scene. As much
information about the scene as possible should be gathered, and it may be necessary to make
sure that it remains untouched until such time that all the required information has been
gathered. If required, the area should be cordoned off. Only then should items be removed
for repair or replacement.
Witnesses should be interviewed separately, preferably on site. They should be allowed to go
through how they saw the sequence of events occurring. Notes must be taken as the
interview progresses, and they will provide key information. The emphasis should be on 'open'
questions that allow the witness to provide their version of events. Interviewers or
investigators should clarify what they have been told by feeding back what has been said to
ensure a clear understanding and representation of the facts has taken place. If appropriate,
use drawings or the photos that were taken, to clarify or aid explanation of the situation. At all
times, keep the lines of communication open and, when the interview has finished, ensure that
witnesses can contact interviewers or investigators should they remember anything additional.
Equipment, Plant, Machinery and the Work Area
The types of materials and substances that were originally chosen for use in the activity should
be identified. It would then be necessary to identify how they should have been used and,
finally, how they were actually used.
When collecting evidence concerning the equipment and machinery, it would be necessary to
consider whether the items were:
Suitable for the intended task or activity.
Correctly maintained.
When the evidence collected is analysed, it should be placed into the categories that will aid
the next stage of identifying causes. There are two types of causes –immediate and
underlying. Immediate causes according to Heinrich's theory are the unsafe act of
individuals and the existence of unsafe conditions. The latter tend to be caused by poor job
factors, such as substandard conditions leading to unsafe conditions, and poor personal
factors, such as substandard performance leading to unsafe acts.
Some examples of immediate causes of unsafe acts are:
Working without authority.
Removing safeguards.
Ignoring instructions and procedures.
Unauthorised servicing.
Horseplay.
Using defective equipment.
Some examples of immediate causes of unsafe conditions are:
Missing guards.
Excessive noise.
Too little or too much light.
Lack of ventilation.
Poor housekeeping.
Fire hazards.
Underlying causes of accidents are generally thought to be as a result of poor job factors or
poor personal factors that are ultimately caused by lack of management control.
Some examples of basic causes, such as job factors, are:
Poor supervision.
Wear and tear.
Inadequate maintenance.
Inadequate tools and equipment.
Inadequate engineering.
Some examples of underlying causes, such as personal factors, are:
Lack of knowledge or experience.
Improper motivation.
Inadequate physical/mental ability.
Physical/mental stress.
The accident process is often referred to as a series of dominoes and, as each one falls, it
impacts on another domino and causes that one to fall, and so on until there is the misfortune
of an accident or ill-health to occur. We discussed Heinrich's Accident Sequence and Domino
Sequence in detail in Study Unit 1A1. It would be useful to read that information again now in
conjunction with the present topic.
Drawing Conclusions
We may have several ideas of exactly what happened during the accident, and the possible
causes. At some point, these must be drawn together to conclude - that is, give a considered
opinion based on the facts - what we think is the most likely scenario. This means critically
weighing up the evidence. Once we have done this, it becomes clearer as to what precisely
can be done to prevent such an accident happening again.
Establishing Remedial Actions to Be Taken
When the immediate and basic causes have been identified and it is clear which pieces of
evidence fall into which category, and key causes have been established, it is possible to begin
to identify remedial actions and various solutions could be proposed. There may already be
some control measures in place and these will need to be compared to the new proposals. It
will be necessary to ensure that the correct level of control is ultimately in place. Remedial
controls should include: lowering the likelihood of occurrence and reducing the potential
severity of loss.
Remedial actions can be divided into two types:
Permanent/long term.
Temporary/short terms.
It is important that short or temporary remedial actions are taken immediately or very
promptly, and permanent or long-term remedial actions should be taken as soon as possible.
Some permanent actions may require equipment or parts to be purchased, and so may have a
delivery delay which must be accounted for when deciding the most appropriate action to take
and the order in which to take it.
All remedial actions taken, irrespective of their duration, must be recorded to show the course
of action taken and the timescales for them remaining in place, prior to a review or to being
replaced by long term solutions.
Remedial actions can range from physical methods, documentation updates and control,
through to maintenance programmes, and training and information being provided with
management support. Some examples of physical methods are: improved physical
safeguards; upgrading local exhaust ventilation to HEPA filtration; providing mechanical
handling aids; and personal protective equipment. Some examples of documentation updates
and control are: updated safe systems of work and work practices, procedures, updating
standards and policies, and introducing monitoring and auditing systems.
Implementation, analysis and review are the best methods to test how robust, effective, and
suitable and sufficient the proposed and implemented remedial measures really are.
A programme must be drawn up by identified, responsible individuals to ensure that all
elements of remedial actions are implemented. This process must be regularly followed up to
ensure that it does actually take place and that the remedial actions are implemented on time.
Follow-up actions should be identified and must take place to clarify whether the remedial
actions are appropriate in practice, and whether they are being utilised. This part is
particularly important to identify any new hazards that have arisen as a result of the new
controls being implemented.
The review process should not take place once all the remedial actions are in place, but should
be a continuing process, both through the course of implementation and for some time
afterwards to really establish the effectiveness of the new control measures. Reviewing the
performance frequently enables the organisation to ensure that the risks have been suitably
and sufficiently controlled.