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Amplifiers
• An electronic circuit which is capable of
increasing the signal magnitude or
amplitude without appreciably altering
Amplifiers the signal waveform characteristic.
• AMPLIFICATION is the process of
Fernando Victor V. de Vera
providing an increase in amplitude.
ECE, M.Tech

AMPLIFIER General Presentation Classifications

• Voltage Amplifier
• – Voltage-controlled voltage source
• Current Amplifier
• – Current-controlled current source
• Transconductance Amplifier
• – Voltage-controlled current source
• Transimpedance Amplifier
• – Current-controlled voltage source

Classifications of Amplifiers Voltage Amplifier

AMPs Classifications - Summary Amplifiers by Frequency Response

• Audio (AF) Amplifier

• Radio (RF) Amplifier
• Video Amplifier

RQS – No. 3

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Question
A tuned RF amplifier is
A. Narrowband
B. Wideband
C. Direct coupled
D. Impedance coupled
>>Bringing You Forward

POSSIBLE BOARD QUESTIONS

Question Question
Which of the following is a Which of the following is a current
transconductance amplifier? amplifier?
A. OP-AMP A. OP-AMP
B. BJT B. BJT
C. FET C. FET
D. Varactor D. Varactor

Amplifier Classes
• The class of operation of an amplifier is
determined by the amount of time – in
relation to the input signal – that current
flows in the circuit.
Class A
>>Bringing YOU Forward
Class B
AMPLIFIER CLASSES Class AB
Class C

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Class A Amplifiers Class A amplifier

• The amount of the
output signal flow
varies for full 360
degrees of the cycle.
• Class A amplifier has
a characteristic of
GOOD FIDELITY and
low EFFICIENCY.

Class A - Graphical

Class A Amplifier Class B Amplifier

• The amount of the
output signal flow is
180 degrees.
• Class B amplifiers is
twice as efficient as
Class A amplifiers.
• Class B amplifiers is
used in cases where
exactly 50% of the
input signal is
amplified.

Class B

Class B Amplifier Class B Amplifier

Class B - Graphical Class AB

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Class AB Amplifier Class AB Amplifier

• The output signal
flows for more than
180 degrees but less
than 360 degrees.
• Class AB amplifiers
have better
efficiency and poorer
fidelity than Class A
amplifiers.

Class AB - Graphical

Class AB Amplifier Class C Amplifier

• Class C amplifier
operates on less than
50% of the input
signal.
• Class C amplifier has
the BEST EFFICIENCY
but WORST FIDELITY.

Class C

Class C Amplifier Class C Amplifier

Class C - Graphical CLASSES of Amplifiers – Table of Comparison

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CLASSES of Amplifiers -
Comparison
Class A Class B Class AB Class C
Q-point Active region a little above
position
Cut-off region below cut-off
(linear portion) cut-off

Conduction Between
Angle
360O 180O less than 180O
180O – 359O

Distortion low high moderate very high >>Bringing You Forward

Maximum
25% & 50% for
Between
POSSIBLE BOARD QUESTIONS
Efficiency
transformer 78.5% more than 90%
Class B and A
coupled

RQS – No. 9

Question Question
A characteristic of an amplifier which Which class of amplifier has the highest
refers to how much of its supply power is linearity and least distortion?
delivered to the load. A. Class A
A. Output RMS power B. Class C
B. Output DC power C. Class AB
C. Efficiency D. Class B
D. Class A

Question Question
Which class of amplifier is distinguished Complementary push-pull transistor
by the presence of output throughout uses ___ transistors.
the entire signal cycle and the input A. PNP and NPN
never goes into cutoff region? B. Darlington and feedback pair
A. Class A C. Both NPN
B. Class C D. FET and BJT
C. Class B
D. Class D

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Question Question
Push-pull is almost always used with One advantage of a class B push-pull
A. Class A amplifier is
B. Class B A. Very small quiescent current drain
C. Class C B. Maximum efficiency of 78.5 percent
D. All of the above C. Greater efficiency than class A
D. All of the above

Other Amplifiers Circuit Other Amplifiers Circuit

Configurations Configurations
• CASCADED AMPLIFIER – the output of • DARLINGTON AMPLIFIER – two
the first stage provides the input of the transistors in which the collectors are
next stage (connected in a series fashion) tied together and the emitter of the first
transistor is directly coupled to the base
• CASCODE AMPLIFIER – a common- of the second transistor.
emitter on the first stage feeding a • Also called DARLINGTON PAIR, DOUBLE-
common-base stage. This provides high EMITTER FOLLOWER, or β MULTIPLIER.
input impedance and low noise.

Other Amplifiers - Circuit Configurations Other Amplifiers - Circuit Configurations

Other Amplifiers - Circuit

Configurations
• DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
– amplifies the difference between the two
input voltages.
– The input circuit of most low-noise power
amplifiers and operational amplifiers.
>>Bringing YOU Forward

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
(OP-AMPS)

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Operational Amplifiers Block Diagram of Op-Amps

• It is an amplifier which is designed to be
used with other components to perform
either computing functions or some type
of transfer operation such as filtering.

• Characteristics:
– Very High Gain
– Very High Input Impedance
– Very Low Output Impedance
– Very Wide Bandwidth

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

Slew Rate
• The maximum rate of change of the output
voltage in response to a step input voltage.
• The slew rate is dependent upon the high-
frequency response of the amplifier stage
within the op-amp.
(CMRR)
• The measure of an amplifier’s ability to
reject common-mode signals.
• It is the ratio of the open-loop gain of and
the common-mode gain of the Op-amp.

OP-AMP Circuit Configurations Inverting Configuration

• Inverting • The input signal is
connected to the
• Non-Inverting
inverting input of the
• Voltage Follower Op-Amp.
• Summing • The output signal is
• Subtractor inverted with respect
to the input.
• Integrator
• Differentiator

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INVERTING Amplifier Non-INVERTING Amplifier

Non-Inverting Amplifier VOLTAGE Follower

VOLTAGE FOLLOWER SUMMING Amplifier

Summing Amplifier SUBTRACTOR or DIFFERENCING Amplifier

SUBTRACTOR or Differencing
INTEGRATOR Circuit
Amp

INTEGRATOR DIFFERENTIATOR

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DIFFERENTIATOR Circuit OP-AMP as a COMPARATOR

Back to OP-AMP Electrical Characteristics CMRR

Question
An integrated IC OP-AMP normally has
___.
A. Two inputs and two output
B. Two inputs and one output
C. Single output and single input
>>Bringing You Forward
D. Eight pins
POSSIBLE BOARD QUESTIONS

Question Question
Which of the following characteristics An application of an operational amplifier
does not apply to an op-amp? in which the output signal is determined
A. High gain
by the sum of the input signals
multiplied by the gain; Eout =
B. High input impedance
Gain(E1+E2+…)
C. Low power A. magnetic amplifier
D. Low input impedance B. summing amplifier
C. difference amplifier
D. scaling amplifier

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Question
What is the ideal value of CMRR?
A. Zero
B. Negative Oscillators
C. Infinite
D. One Fernando Victor V. de Vera
ECE, Master of Technology (MT)
fvictordevera@yahoo.com
fvictor.devera@gmail.com

OSCILLATORS Classification of Oscillators

• Oscillator is a circuit that produces a • Sinusoidal
periodic waveform on its output with
only the dc supply voltage as an input. • Non-Sinusoidal
VDC

Oscillator

Conditions of Oscillation:
Conditions for Oscillation
The BARKHAUSEN CRITERION
• The phase shift around the feedback • To start oscillation,
loop must be effectively 0 or 360 Loop Gain >1
degrees.
• The voltage gain around the closed loop • To sustain
oscillation, Loop
feedback loop (loop gain) must equal to
Gain = 1
1 (unity).

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Conditions of Oscillation:
The BARKHAUSEN CRITERION
• Damping –
LoopGain<1
• Clipping –
LoopGain>1
• Steady Oscillation –
LoopGain=1
Components of Oscillator
• Amplification
• Frequency Determining Device
• Regenerative Feedback
Probable Board Question No.1:
• Which condition must exist for a circuit
to oscillate?
– A. It must have a negative feedback
sufficient to cancel the input
– B. It must have a gain of less than 1
– C. It must have a positive feedback
sufficient to overcome losses
– D. It must be realized
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Factors Affecting Stability
• Amplifiers should be stable both in
AMPLITUDE and FREQUENCY
1. Short-Term Stability
– Load
– Bias
2. Long-Term Stability
– Component Characteristic (component
aging, changes in temperature and
humidity)
PROBABLE BOARD
QUESTIONS…
Probable Board Question No.2:
• Which of the following is not an essential
part of an oscillator?
– A. source of energy that supply the losses in
tank circuit.
– B. a resistor IC combination circuit
– C. resonant circuit consists of inductance
and capacitance
– D. regenerative feedback circuit
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Sinusoidal Oscillators
• A sinusoidal oscillator is a device that
produces a sine-wave output signal.

• The output of a sinusoidal oscillator

should be constant in amplitude and
frequency.
SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

39 Filters and Oscillators 42 Filters and Oscillators

The attenuation of the What should be the closed

feedback circuit is 0.2. What loop voltage gain of an
should be the gain of the oscillator to start up?
amplifier?
a.1
a. 200
b.>1
b.20
c. <1
c. 50
d.5 d.0

45 Filters and Oscillators

Types of Sinusoidal Oscillator
The voltage that starts an 1. RC Oscillators
oscillator is caused by
a. Ripple from the power supply 2. LC Oscillators

b.Noise voltage in resistors 3. Crystal-Controlled Oscillator

c. The input signal from a
generator
d.Positive feedback

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RC Oscillators
1. Wein-Bridge Oscillator

2. Phase Shift Oscillator

3. Twin-T Oscillator
RC OSCILLATORS

Wein-Bridge Oscillator Wien-Bridge Oscillator

• A Wein-Bridge
Oscillator is a lead-
lag circuit.
• Lead-Lag circuit
attenuation = 1/3

46 47
What is the circuit used in The attenuation of a lead-
the feedback of a Wien- lag circuit used in a wien
bridge oscillator? bridge oscillator.
a.Lead-lag a.3
b.LC b.1/3
c. RL c. 1
d.RC d.0

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Phase-Shift Method Phase-Shift Method

• Has three RC circuits in the feedback
loop.
• Oscillation occurs at the frequency
where the total phase shift through the
RC circuits is 180 degrees.
• Feedback circuit attenuation = 1/29

Phase Shift Oscillator 56 Filters and Oscillators

• R1=R2=R3=R Oscillation occurs in a phase-

• C1=C2=C3=C shift oscillator when the
phase shift through the
feedback path is ___.
a. 90 degrees
b.180 degrees
c. 270 degrees
d.360 degrees

Twin-T Oscillator Twin T Oscillator

• One of the twin-T filters has a low-pass
response and the other has a high-pass
response.
• The combined parallel filters produce a
bandstop or notch response with a
center frequency equal to the desired
frequency of oscillation.

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49
A lag circuit has a phase
angle that is
a. Between 0 and +90 degrees
b.Greater than 90 degrees
c. Between 0 and -90 degrees LC OSCILLATORS
d.The same as the input
voltage

Types of Feedback for LC

LC Oscillator
Oscillators
• A type of oscillator that has a
combination of inductor and capacitor.
• LC feedback elements are normally used
in oscillator that require higher
frequencies of oscillation (f>1MHz).

Types of LC Oscillator Armstrong Oscillator

1. Armstrong Oscillator • It uses an LC circuit to establish the
2. Hartley Oscillator frequency of oscillation.
3. Colpitts Oscillator • It uses Class C amplifier with self-bias.
4. Clapp Oscillator • Its frequency is fairly stable, and
amplitude relatively constant in the RF
range.

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Armstrong Oscillator Hartley Oscillator

• Hartley Oscillator is an improvement of
Armstrong Oscillator.

• Hartley Oscillator can generate a wide

range of frequencies and very easy to
tune.

Hartley Oscillator Colpitts Oscillator

• Colpitts Oscillator is similar to Hartley
Oscillator except that two capacitors are
used in the tank circuit instead of a
tapped coil.
• Colpitts Oscillator has fairly good
frequency stability, easy to tune and can
have a wide range of frequencies.

Colpitts Oscillator Clapp Oscillator

• Clapp Oscillator is a variation of Colpitts
Oscillator.

• The basic difference is an additional

capacitor Cs in series with the inductor in
the resonant feedback circuit.

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Clapp Oscillator 65 Filters and Oscillators

For frequencies greater

than 1MHz, what types of
oscillators are used?
a.LC
b.RC
c. Phase-shift
d.Wien-bridge

67 Filters and Oscillators 68 Filters and Oscillators

Colpitts oscillator contains a In a Colpitts oscillator, as the

tank circuit in its feedback Q of the coil increases, what
circuit with how many happens to the resonant
capacitors and inductors? frequency?
a. 2, 1 a. Remains constant
b.1, 2 b.Increase
c. 1, 1 c. Decrease
d.2, 2 d.Stabilize

69 Filters and Oscillators 71 Filters and Oscillators

What do you call the A self-excited oscillator in

oscillator circuit that uses which the tank circuit is divided
into input and feedback
tapped coil in the tuned portions by an inductive voltage
circuit? divider.
a. Clapp a. Clapp
b.Armstrong b. Armstrong
c. Collpits
c. Collpits
d. Hartley
d.Hartley

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72 Filters and Oscillators 73 Filters and Oscillators

A variation of the collpits Armstrong oscillator uses

oscillator that makes use of what coil?
series resonance rather than
parallel. a.Tapped coil
a. Clapp b.AF transformer coil
b.Armstrong c. Tickler Coil
c. Modified Collpits d.Magnetic coil
d.Hartley

Piezoelectric Effect Common Crystals

• Crystal vibrates at a constant rate when 1. ROCHELLE SALT
it is exposed to an electric field. – has the best piezoelectric properties but is very
fragile.
• The physical dimensions of the crystal 2. TOURMALINE
determine the frequency of vibration. – very tough, but its vibration rate is not as
stable.
3. QUARTZ CRYSTALS
– fall between the two extremes and are the
most commonly used. Quartz crystals are made
from silicon dioxide (SiO2).

Crystal Controlled Oscillator Crystal-Controlled Oscillator

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Frequency Response of Crystal

Controlled Oscillator

PROBABLE BOARD
QUESTIONS…

81 Filters and Oscillators 82 Filters and Oscillators

The material with the Crystals have a very

piezoelectric effect is a.Low Q
a.Quartz b.High Q
b.Rochelle salts c. Small inductance
c. Tourmaline d.Large resistance
d.All the above

END of Session

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